SEMANTICS
UNIT 1:
Semantics = study of meaning, changes in meaning, and the principles that govern
the relationship between sentences or words and their meanings.
Theories of meaning
- Referential (denotational) theory (Meaning in Use theory)
- Ideational or mentalistic theory
6 types of meaning
- Conceptual or Denotative meaning
+ Eg: child: + human, - mature, +- male, + innocent
aunt: + human, +- mature, + female, + father’s/mother’s sister (-in laws)
tip toe: +motion, +walk, + on toes, + silently
- Social meaning: how language reflects and expresses values, perspectives, social
classes, and other cultural factors.
- Stylistic meaning
- Affective or Emotive meaning: personal feeling or attitude towards
- Collocative meaning: the meaning which a word acquires in the company of
certain words.
- Thematic meaning
1/ Conceptual or Denotative meaning
Rose: + flower, + red, + woody stem, + fragrance
Apple: + fruit, + colorful, + tasty
Teacher: + academic, +-male, +student
House: + habitation, + shelter,
Water: + transparent, + colorless, +liquid
2/ Social meaning
3/ Stylistic meaning
4/ Affective or Emotive meaning
5/ Collocative meaning
6/ Thematic meaning
UNIT 3: REFERENCE AND SENSE
BVN:
1. The dashed line between Language (symbol) and SuS/Reality (referent) suggests
an indirect relationship. Unlike the solid lines, which indicate a direct mental
connection between Language and Conceptualization, and between
Conceptualization and Reality, the dashed line highlights that language does not
directly connect to the referent. Instead, it goes through the process of
conceptualization.
In simpler terms:
We understand the real-world referent (reality) not directly through words but
through the concepts or ideas those words evoke in our minds.
The dashed line reminds us that words are linked to meanings through mental
concepts, not directly to real-world objects or entities.
This model underscores that language relies on abstract concepts to represent
reality, rather than pointing directly to objects or experiences.
2. Yes, different expressions can have the same referent. This occurs when multiple
expressions refer to the same object, person, or concept in the world, even though
the expressions themselves are distinct.
Eg:
- “Mount Everest” and “the highest mountain in the world” both refer to the
same peak on the Nepal-Tibet border.
- “The King of Pop” and “Michael Jackson” both refer to the same person.
1. Yes, the same expression can have different referents depending on the context in
which it is used. This is common with words or phrases that have multiple
meanings or are used in various situations.
Eg:
- “Coach” the person in charge of a sports team
a type of bus used for long-distance travel
- "Apple" the fruit
the technology company
2. Examples:
Expression with an Invariable Referent:
- "The Pacific Ocean": This expression always refers to the same body of water
between Asia and the Americas.
Expression with No Referent:
- "The Fountain of Youth": This expression refers to a legendary source of water
that grants eternal youth.
3. This sentence is getting at a key distinction in semantics between “sense” and
“reference”:
Sense refers to the meaning or concept an expression conveys. It’s the way we
understand what the expression is describing, regardless of whether it corresponds
to anything real.
Reference is the actual entity in the real world that the expression points to.
The sentence is saying that every expression with meaning conveys a concept
(sense), but not all expressions correspond to something real.
4. A typical dictionary definition aims to capture the primary sense of a word by
describing its core meaning or function. However, it often doesn’t include all the
nuances, connotations, or contextual knowledge that a native speaker might
associate with the word. This is because dictionary definitions are designed to be
concise and focus on essential meaning, but they may leave out cultural,
situational, or secondary meanings that affect how the word is used in real life.
The Evening Star / The Morning Star:
o A dictionary would define both as "Venus when it appears in the evening or
morning sky." However, a native speaker might understand these terms
with additional associations, such as their historical use in navigation or
poetry. The dictionary definition captures the core reference (the planet
Venus) but may lack the sense of their poetic or historical significance.
The President of the United States / the Commander-in-Chief / the Leader of
the Republican Party:
o A dictionary might define President of the United States as "the head of
state and government of the United States," but this doesn’t convey the full
roles or powers involved, like being the Commander-in-Chief of the armed
forces. Leader of the Republican Party is context-dependent and would
only apply if the sitting president is a Republican. Each title has distinct
senses and connotations beyond what a typical definition would cover, and
only a native speaker would grasp how these titles overlap or differ in
specific contexts.
Visiting relatives can be boring:
o This phrase is ambiguous: it could mean that going to see relatives is
boring, or that relatives who come to visit can be boring. A dictionary
might not capture this dual meaning because it depends on sentence
structure and possible interpretations, not on the definition of any one word.
Native speakers understand both potential meanings based on context.
The planet Mars:
o A dictionary would define Mars as "the fourth planet from the Sun in our
solar system," which provides a clear reference. However, native speakers
might also think of Mars with additional associations, such as its red color,
myths about Martians, or its role in science fiction. The definition might
give the scientific sense but leave out cultural or imaginative associations.
Smoking grass can be dangerous:
o This phrase uses informal language, where grass refers to marijuana. A
dictionary might list grass as a slang term for marijuana, but it wouldn’t
capture the full social, cultural, or legal implications that native speakers
may associate with the phrase. Additionally, can be dangerous could refer
to health risks or legal consequences, which are understood contextually
rather than directly stated in a definition.
A truly complete dictionary entry would be very challenging to write because it
would need to include not only the core definition but also cultural, historical, and
situational nuances that vary widely.