2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (SI)

Chapter 22
(PIPE DESIGN)

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 INTROUDUCTION:

THIS CHAPTER discusses pipe systems, materials, design, installation, supports, stress calculations,
pipe expansion and flexibility, bends and loops, and application of pipe systems commonly used for
heating, air conditioning, refrigeration, and service water.

• When selecting and applying components; applicable local codes, state or provincial codes, and
voluntary industry standards (Some of which have been adopted by code jurisdictions) must be
followed.

The following organizations in the United States issue codes and standards for piping systems and components:

• ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

• ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials.
• NFPA National Fire Protection Association.
• ICC International Code Council.
• MSS Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.
• AWWA American Water Works Association.

Chapter IV of ASME Standard B31.9 lists applicable U.S. codes and standards for HVAC piping. In
addition, it gives requirements for safe design and construction of piping systems for building heating and
air conditioning.

ASME Standard B31.5 gives similar requirements for refrigerant piping.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:
Pipes are conduits in which fluids [compressible (e.g., air, steam) and non-compressible (e.g., water)] flow
in a system, in response to a pressure differential.

Piping system designers should assess the following aspects:

• Code requirements.
• Load: the amount of energy or fluid to be moved through the pipe to where it is needed;
determination of load is not covered in this chapter (see Chapters 16 to 18 for information on load
calculations).
• Working fluid and fluid properties in the pipe.
• Pressure and temperature of the fluid.
• External environment of the pipe such as:
1- Outdoor installations deal with temperature extremes, environmental contaminants, and
ultraviolet radiation.
2- Other environments could contain caustic chemicals.
3- Soil can contain elements that can be corrosive to underground pipe systems.
• Installation cost.
• Pipe’s resistance to chemical attack from the fluid.

When designing a fluid flow system, we are following:

• Sizing the pipe.
• Determining the flow and pressure relationship.
• Determine the pump head, if applicable, required to achieve the desired flow.

NOTE: The Darcy-Weisbach equation, with the Moody chart or Colebrook equation, can be used as
an alternative to pressure drop charts or tables.

GENERAL PIPE SYSTEMS:

1- Metallic Pipe Systems.
2- Nonmetallic (Plastic) Pipe Systems and Special Systems.

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 Metallic Pipe Systems:

• Each HVAC system and, under some conditions, portions of a system require a study of the
conditions of operation to determine suitable materials.

• For example, because the static pressure of water in a high-rise building is higher in the lower
levels than in the upper levels, a heavier pipe or different materials may be required for
different vertical zones.

• Table 1 lists some typical systems and materials used for heating and air-conditioning metallic
piping. The list is not all inclusive, because piping systems are constantly being
developed. The pressure and temperature rating of each component selected must be
considered; the lowest rating establishes the operating limits of the system.

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 Nonmetallic (Plastic) Pipe Systems:
• Nonmetallic pipe is used in HVAC and plumbing. Plastic is light, generally inexpensive, and corrosion
resistant. Plastic also has a low “C” factor (i.e., its surface is very smooth), resulting in lower pumping power
requirements and smaller pipe sizes.
• Plastic pipe’s disadvantages include rapid loss of strength at temperatures above ambient and a high
coefficient of linear expansion.
• The modulus of elasticity of plastics is low, resulting in a short support span.
• Some jurisdictions do not allow certain plastics in buildings because of toxic products emitted during fires.
• Table 2 lists nonmetallic materials used for service water and heating and air-conditioning piping. The
pressure and temperature rating of each component selected must be considered; the lowest rating
establishes the operating limits of the system.

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 Special Systems:
Some piping systems are governed by separate codes or standards. Generally, any failure of the piping in these
systems is dangerous to the public, so some local areas have adopted laws enforcing the codes, such as the following:

• Boiler piping: ASME Standard B31.1 and the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (Section I) specify piping
inside code-required stop valves on boilers that operate above 15 psig with steam, or above 160 psig or
250°F with water. These codes require fabricators and contractors to be certified for such work. The field
or shop work must also be inspected while it is in progress, by inspectors commissioned by the National
Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
• Refrigeration piping: ASHRAE Standard 15 and ASME Standard B31.5.
• Plumbing systems: Local codes.
• Sprinkler systems: NFPA Standard 13.
• Fuel gas: NFPA Standard 54/ANSI Standard Z223.1.

DESIGN EQUATIONS:

Darcy-Weisbach Equation:
Pressure drop caused by fluid friction in fully flow, fluids is described by the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

Hazen-Williams Equation:

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 Valve and Fitting Losses:
Valves and fittings cause pressure losses greater than those caused by the pipe alone. One formulation expresses
losses as:

where K = geometry- and size-dependent loss coefficient (Tables 3 to 6).

The loss coefficient for valves appears in another form as Cv, a dimensional coefficient expressing the flow through
a valve at a specified pressure drop.

See the section on Control Valve Sizing in Chapter 47 of the 2020 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and
Equipment for more information on valve coefficients.

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 • Equation (7) and data in Tables 3 and 4 are based on the assumption that separated flow in the fitting
causes the K factors to be independent of Reynolds number.
• Shown in Tables 6 and 7 has 2 in threaded and 4, 12, 16, 20, and 24 in. welded steel fittings demonstrate
the variation.
• PVC piping systems found the data in Tables 8 and 9 giving K factors for Schedule 80 PVC 2, 4, 6, and 8 in.
ells, reducers, expansions, and tees.

Calculating Pressure Losses:

• The most common engineering design flow loss calculation selects a pipe size for the desired total flow rate
and available or allowable pressure drop.
• Because either formulation of fitting losses requires a known diameter, pipe size must be selected before
calculating the detailed influence of fiFngs.
• After a pipe diameter has been selected on this basis, the influence of each fitting can be evaluated.

Stress Calculations:
Although stress calculations are seldom required, the factors involved should be understood. The main areas of
concern are (1) internal pressure stress, (2) longitudinal stress caused by pressure and weight, and (3) stress from
expansion and contraction. Stress calculation for metallic pipe & nonmetallic pipe (plastic).

Stress calculation for metallic pipe:

1- Internal Pressure Stress:
• Hoop stress caused by internal pressure is the major stress on pipes.
• ASME Standard B31.9 specifies a joint efficiency factor E, multiplied by the basic allowable stress to
establish a maximum allowable stress value in tension SE. Table A-1 in ASME Standard B31.9 lists values
of SE for commonly used pipe materials.)
• Equation (9) determines the minimum wall thickness for a given pressure. Equation (10) determines the
maximum pressure allowed for a given wall thickness.

• Both equations incorporate an allowance factor A to compensate for manufacturing tolerances, material
removed in threading or grooving, and corrosion.
• For the seamless, butt-welded, and electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe most commonly used in HVAC
work, the standards apply a manufacturing tolerance of 12.5%.
• Working pressure for steel pipe (see Table 16) has been calculated using a manufacturing tolerance of
12.5%, standard allowance for depth of thread (where applicable), and a corrosion allowance of 0.065 in.
for pipes 2 1/2 in. and larger and 0.025 in. for pipes 2 in. and smaller.
• Where corrosion is known to be greater or smaller, pressure rating can be recalculated using Equation (10).
• Higher pressure ratings than shown in Table 16 can be obtained:
by using ERW or seamless pipe in instead of continuous-weld (CW) pipe 4 in. and less, and seamless pipe
in instead of ERW pipe 5 in. and greater (because of higher joint efficiency factors) or by using heavier
wall pipes.
2- Longitudinal Stress Caused by Pressure and Weight:
• Longitudinal stresses caused by pressure, weight, and other sustained forces are additive, and the sum of
all such stresses must not exceed the basic allowable stress S at the highest temperature at which the
system will operate.
• Longitudinal stress caused by pressure. equals approximately one-half the hoop stress caused by internal
pressure; thus, at least one-half the basic allowable stress is available for weight and other sustained forces.

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 • This factor is taken into account in Table 11.
3- Stress from Expansion & Contraction:
• Stresses caused by expansion and contraction are cyclical, and, because creep allows some stress relaxation,
the ASME Standard B31 series allows designing to an allowable stress range SA as calculated by Equation
(11).

• Table 15 lists allowable stress ranges for commonly used piping materials.

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 Stress Calculation for Nonmetallic Pipe (Plastic):
• Both thermoplastics and thermosets have an allowable stress derived from a hydrostatic design basis stress
(HDBS)
• The HDBS is determined by a statistical analysis of both static and cyclic stress rupture test data as set
forth in ASTM Standard D2837 for thermoplastics and ASTM Standard D2992 for glass-fiber-reinforced
thermosetting resins.
• The allowable stress, called the hydrostatic design stress (HDS), is obtained by multiplying the HDBS by a
service factor.
• HDS values recommended by some manufacturers and those allowed by ASME Standard B31 are listed in
Table 18 or Table 1-2 in ASME B31.9-2020.

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 • There are many formulations of the polymers used for piping materials, and different joining methods for
each, so manufacturers’ recommendations should be followed. Most catalogs give pressure ratings for pipe
and fittings at various temperatures up to the maximum the material will withstand.
•

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 PIPE-SUPPORTING ELEMENTS:
• Pipe-supporting elements consist of (1) hangers, which support from above; (2) supports, which bear load
from below; and (3) restraints, such as anchors and guides.
• Pipe-supporting elements must withstand all static and dynamic conditions, including the following:
1- Weight of pipe, valves, fittings, insulation, and fluid contents, including test fluid if using heavier-than-
normal media.
2- Occasional loads such as ice, wind, and seismic forces or testing loads (e.g., hydrostatic loads on a steam
pipe).
3- Forces imposed by thermal expansion and contraction of pipe bends and loops.
4- Frictional, spring, and pressure thrust forces imposed by expansion joints in the system.
5- Frictional forces of guides and supports.
6- Other loads (e.g., water hammer, vibration, reactive force of relief valves).
7- Test load and force.
• All loads on the structure should be communicated to and coordinated with the structural engineer.
• The ASME B31 standards establish criteria for the design of pipe-supporting elements, and the
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry (MSS) has established standards
for the design, fabrication, selection, and installation of pipe hangers and supports based on these codes.
• MSS Standard SP-69 and the catalogs of many manufacturers illustrate the various hangers and
components and provide information on the types to use with different pipe systems.
• Table 10 lists maximum safe loads for threaded steel rods, and Tables 11 and 12 show suggested pipe
support spacing for metal and PVC pipes, respectively.

Loads on most pipe-supporting elements are moderate and can be selected safely in accordance with manufacturers’
catalog data and the information presented in this section; however, some loads and forces can be very high,
especially in multistory buildings and for large-diameter pipe, particularly where expansion joints are used at a
high operating pressure. Consequently, a qualified engineer should design or review all anchors and pipe-supporting
elements, especially for the following:
• Steam systems operating above 15 psig.
• Hydronic systems operating above 160 psig or 250°F.
• Risers over 10 stories or 100 ft.
• Systems with expansion joints, especially for pipe diameters 3 in. and greater
• Pipe sizes over 12 in. diameter.
• Anchor loads greater than 10,000 lb (10 kips).
• Moments on pipe or structure more than 1000 ft·lb.

Hanger Spacing and Pipe Wall Thickness:

• Table 11 suggests minimum pipe hanger spacing for use unless exceeded by the local authority having
jurisdiction or engineering calculations.
• Support spacings for PVC and CPVC pipe systems are influenced by operating temperatures. Table 12
recommends horizontal spacing based on pipe size, schedule, material (PVC or industrial grade CPVC),
and operating temperature.
• Hangers and supports should not be clamped tightly because the axial movement of the pipe would be
restricted.
• They are not applicable where loads between supports are concentrated (e.g., for valves, flanges) or where
there is a change in direction.
• Hangers/supports should be located adjacent to joints, branch connections, and changes in direction.
• Risers should be installed independently of adjacent horizontal hangers/supports.
• For cast iron pipes, maximum spacing should be 12 ft, with at least one hanger/support for each pipe
section.

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 PIPE EXPANSION AND FLEXIBILITY:
• Temperature changes cause dimensional changes in all materials. Table 13 shows the coefficients of
expansion for metallic piping materials commonly used in HVAC.
• For systems operating at high temperatures, such as steam and hot water, the rate of expansion is high,
and significant movements can occur in short runs of piping.

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 • Even though rates of expansion may be low for systems operating in the range of 40 to 100°F, such as chilled
and condenser water, they can cause large movements in long runs of piping, which are common in
distribution systems and high-rise buildings.

Therefore, in addition to design requirements for pressure, weight, and other loads, piping systems must
accommodate thermal and other movements to prevent the following:
• Failure of pipe and supports from overstress and fatigue.
• Leakage of joints.
• Detrimental forces and stresses in connected equipment.

• An unrestrained pipe operates at the lowest overall stress level.

• Anchors and restraints are needed to support pipe weight and to protect equipment connections.
• Anchor forces and bowing of pipe anchored at both ends are generally too large to be acceptable, never
anchor a straight run of steel pipe at both ends.
• Piping must be allowed to expand or contract through thermal changes.
• Ample flexibility can be attained by designing pipe bends and loops or by including supplemental devices,
such as expansion joints.

PIPE BENDS AND LOOPS:

L Bends:
• The guided cantilever beam method of evaluating L bends can be used to design L bends, Z bends, pipe
loops, branch take-of f connections, and some more complicated piping configurations.
• The guided cantilever equation see Equation (17) is generally conservative because it assumes that the pipe
arrangement does not rotate.
• Equation (15) may be used to calculate the length of leg BC needed to accommodate thermal expansion or
contraction of leg AB for a guided cantilever beam (Figure 4).

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 • For the commonly used A53 Grade B seamless or ERW pipe, an allowable stress SA of 22,500 psi (see Table
15) can be used without overstressing the pipe. However, this can result in very high-end reactions and
anchor forces, especially with large-diameter pipes.

• Designing to a stress range SA of 15,000 psi and assuming E = 27.9 * 10^6 psi, Equation (15) reduces to
Equation (16), which provides reasonably low-end reactions without requiring too much extra pipe.
• In addition, Equation (16) may be used with A53 continuous (butt-) welded, seamless, and ERW pipe, and
B88 drawn copper tubing.

• The guided cantilever method of designing L bends assumes no restraints; therefore, care must be taken in
supporting the pipe.
• For horizontal L bends, it is usually necessary to place a support near point B (see Figure 4), and any
supports between points A and C must provide minimal resistance to piping movement; this is done by
using slide plates or hanger rods of ample length, with hanger components selected to allow for swing no
greater than 4°.
• For L bends containing both vertical and horizontal legs, any supports on the horizontal leg must be spring
hangers designed to support the full weight of pipe at normal operating temperature with a maximum load
variation of 25%.
• The force developed in an L bend that must be sustained by anchors or connected equipment is determined
by the following equation 17:

Z Bends:
• Z bends, as shown in Figure 5, are very effective for accommodating pipe movements. A simple and
conservative method of sizing Z bends is to design the offset leg to be 65% of the values used for an L bend
in Equation (18):

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 U Bends and Pipe Loops:
• Pipe loops or U bends are commonly used in long runs of piping.
• A simple method of designing pipe loops is to calculate the anchor to- anchor expansion and, using Equation
(15), determine the length L necessary to accommodate this movement.
• The pipe loop dimensions can then be determined using W = L/5 and H = 2W.
• Note that guides must be spaced no closer than twice the height of the loop, and piping between guides
must be supported, as described in the section on L Bends, when the length of pipe between guides
exceeds the maximum allowable hanger spacing for the size pipe.
• Table 14 lists pipe loop dimensions for pipe sizes 1 to 24 in. and anchor-to-anchor expansion (contraction)
of 2 to 12 in.

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 Expansion and Contraction Control of Other Materials:
To design expansion and contraction loops and bends for other materials, consult the Copper Development
Association (CDA 2010) for copper pipes, and Plastic Pipe and Fitting Association (PPFA 2009) for plastic pipes.

Cold Springing of Pipe:

• Cold springing or cold positioning of pipe consists of offsetting or springing the pipe in a direction opposite
the expected movement.
• Cold springing is not recommended for most HVAC piping.
• Furthermore, cold springing does not allow designing a pipe bend or loop for twice the calculated
movement. For example, if a particular L bend can accommodate 3 in. of movement from a neutral position,
cold springing does not allow the L bend to accommodate 6 in. of movement.

Analyzing Existing Piping Configurations:

• Piping is best analyzed using a computer stress analysis program, which can provide all pertinent data,
including stress, movements, and loads.
• Services can perform such analysis if programs are not available in-house. However, many situations do
not require such detailed analysis. A simple, satisfactory method for single and multiplane systems is to
divide the system with real or imaginary anchors into a number of single-plane units, as shown in Figure 6,
that can be evaluated as L and Z bends.

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 PIPE AND FITTING MATERIALS:
PIPE (Metallic):

Steel Pipe:
• Seamless pipe (Type S), made by piercing or extruding.
• Continuous-weld (Type F CW) furnace butt-welding (BW, i.e., welding pipe in a single plane) process forces
and joins the edges together at high temperature and Type F steel pipe is not allowed for ASME Standard
B31.5 refrigerant piping.
• Electric current welds the seam in electric-resistance-welded (Type E ERW) pipe.
• ASTM standards such as A53 and A106 specify steel pipe A and B grades. The A grade has a lower tensile
strength and is not widely used.
• The ASME pressure piping codes require that a longitudinal joint efficiency factor E (Table 15) be applied to
each type of seam when calculating the allowable stress.
• ASME Standard B36.10M specifies the dimensional standard for wrought steel pipe.
• Steel pipe is manufactured with wall thicknesses identified by schedule or weight class. Although schedule
numbers and weight class designations are related, they are not constant for all pipe sizes.
• Standard weight (STD) and Schedule 40 pipe have the same wall thickness through NPS 10. For 12 in. and
larger standard weight pipe, the wall thickness remains constant at 0.375 in., whereas Schedule 40 wall
thickness increases with each size. A similar equality exists between Extra Strong (XS) and Schedule 80
pipe through 8 in.; above 8 in., XS pipe has a 0.500 in. wall, whereas Schedule 80 increases in wall thickness.
Table 16 lists properties of representative steel pipe.
• Joints in steel pipe are made by welding or by using threaded, flanged, or grooved fittings or socket welding.
• Unreinforced welded-in branch connections weaken the main pipeline, and added reinforcement or sleeves
is necessary, unless the excess wall thickness of both mains and branches is sufficient to sustain the pressure.
• The ASME Standard B31 series gives formulas and guidelines for determining whether reinforcement is
required.
• Such calculations are seldom needed in HVAC applications because (1) the fitting is designed in accordance
with a standard listed in the applicable ASME B31 table and used within the pressure and temperature
limits of that standard, and (2) fittings such as tees, and reinforced outlet fittings provide integral
reinforcement.

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 Copper Tube:

• Because of their inherent resistance to corrosion and ease of installation, copper and copper alloys are
often used in heating, air conditioning, refrigeration, and water supply installations.
• The two main standards for copper tube are:
1- ASTM Standard B88, which includes Types K, L, M, and DWV for drain-waste-vent service.
2- ASTM Standard B280, which specifies air-conditioning and refrigeration (ACR) tube for refrigeration service.
• Types K, L, M, and DWV designate descending wall thicknesses for copper tube.
• All types have the same outside diameter (OD) for corresponding sizes.
• Table 17 lists properties of ASTM B88 copper tube.
• In the plumbing industry, tubes of nominal size approximate the inside diameter.
• The heating and refrigeration trades specify copper tube by the outside diameter.
• ACR (air-conditioning and refrigeration) tubing has a different set of wall thicknesses.
• Types K, L, and M tube may be hard drawn or annealed (soft) temper.
• Copper tubing is joined with soldered or brazed, wrought or cast copper capillary socket-end fittings. See
Table 20 for lists pressure/ temperature ratings of soldered and brazed joints.
• Small copper tubes are also joined by flare or compression fittings.
• Hard-drawn tubing has a higher allowable stress than annealed tubing, but if hard tubing is joined by
soldering or brazing, the annealed allowable stress should be used.
• Brass pipe and copper pipe are also made in steel pipe thickness for threading. High cost has eliminated
these materials from the market, except for special applications.
• The heating and air-conditioning industry generally uses Types L and M tubing, which have higher internal
working pressure ratings than the solder joints used at fittings.
• Type M should be used with care when exposed to potential external damage.
• Type K may be used with brazed joints for higher pressure-temperature requirements or for direct burial.
• Copper and brass should not be used in ammonia refrigerating systems, or in acidic drains from condensing
boilers.

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 •
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 Ductile Iron and Cast Iron:
• Cast-iron soil pipe comes in XH or service weight. It is not used under pressure because the pipe is not
suitable, and the joints are not restrained.
• Cast-iron pipe and fittings typically have bell and spigot ends for lead and oakum joints or elastomer push-
on joints.
• Castiron pipe and fittings are also furnished with no-hub ends for joining with no-hub clamps. Local
plumbing codes specify permitted materials and joints.

Ductile Iron:
• Ductile iron has now replaced cast iron for pressure pipe. Ductile iron is stronger, less brittle, and like cast
iron in corrosion resistance. It is commonly used for buried pressure water mains or in other locations
where internal or external corrosion is a problem.
• Joints are made with flanged fittings, mechanical joint (MJ) fittings, or elastomer gaskets for bell and spigot
ends.
• Bell and spigot and MJ joints are not self-restrained, though restrained MJ systems are available.
• Ductile-iron pipe is made in seven thickness classes for different service conditions.
• AWWA Standard C150/A21.50 covers the proper selection of pipe classes.

PIPE (Metallic):
• Selecting a plastic for a specific purpose requires attention to the temperatures, pressures, chemicals, and
stresses the piping will be subjected to in the specific application.
• All are suitable for cold water.
• Plastic pipe should not be used for compressed gases or compressed air if the pipe’s material is subject
to brittle failure.
• For other liquids and chemicals, refer to charts provided by plastic pipe manufacturers and distributors.
• Table 18 gives properties of the various plastics discussed in this section; the last column gives the relative
cost of small pipe in each category.
• Table 2 lists some applications pertinent to HVAC.
• Plastic piping materials fall into two main categories: thermoplastics and thermosets.
• Thermoplastics melt and are formed by extruding or molding. They are usually used without reinforcing
filaments.
• Thermosets are cured and cannot be reformed. They are normally used with glass fiber reinforcing
filaments.

Thermoplastic piping is made of the following materials:

1- PVC:
• Because polyvinyl chloride has the best overall range of properties at the lowest cost, it is the most
widely used plastic.
• It is joined by solvent cementing, threading, or flanging.
• Gasketed push on joints are also used for larger sizes.
• ASTM Standards D1784, D1785, and D2665 cover PVC pipe.
2- CPVC:
• Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride has the same properties as PVC and can withstand a higher
temperature before losing strength.
• It is joined by the same methods as PVC.
• Standards D1784 and 1785 discuss CPVC.
3- PE:
• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a flexible, lightweight tub with good low-temperature
properties.
• It is used in the food and beverage industry and for instrument tubing.
• Joins are mechanical, such as compression fittings or push-on connectors and clamps.
• See ASTM Standard D2239 for details.
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 4- HDPE:
• High-density polyethylene is a tough, weather-resistant material used for large pipelines in the
gas industry.
• Fabricated fittings are available.
• It is joined by heat fusion for large sizes; flare, compression, or insert fittings can be used on small
sizes.
• ASTM Standard D3350 discusses HDPE.
5- PP:
• Polypropylene is a lightweight plastic used for pressure applications and for chemical waste lines,
because it is inert to a wide range of chemicals.
• A broad variety of drainage fittings are available.
• For pressure uses, regular fittings are made.
• It is joined by heat fusion.
• See ASTM Standards F2830 and F2389 for details.
6- ABS:
• Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is a high-strength, impact, and weather-resistant material.
• Some formulations can be used for beverage industry.
• A wide range of fittings is available.
• It is joined by solvent cement, threading, or flanging.
• ASTM Standards D2661 and D3965 cover ABS.

7- PVDF:
• Polyvinylidene fluoride is widely used for ultrapure water systems and in the pharmaceutical
industry and has a wide temperature range.
• This material is over 20 times more expensive than PVC.
• It is joined by heat fusion, and fittings are made for this purpose.
• For smaller sizes, mechanical joints can be used.
• See ASTM Standard D2122 for information on PVDF.

Thermosetting piping:
• Used in HVAC is called (1) reinforced thermosetting resin (RTR) and (2) fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP).
• RTR and FRP are interchangeable and refer to pipe and fittings commonly made of (1) fiberglass-reinforced
epoxy resin, (2) fiberglass reinforced vinyl ester, and (3) fiberglass-reinforced polyester.
• Pipe and fittings made from epoxy resin are generally stronger and operate at a higher temperature than
those made from polyester or vinyl ester resins, so they are more likely to be used in HVAC.

PEX:
• Cross-linked polyethylene is made from high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and contains cross-linked bonds
in the polymer structure. This changes the thermoplastic to a thermoset.
• It can be used up to 300°F.
• PEX is used in building services pipework systems, hydronic radiant heating and cooling systems, and
domestic water piping.
• PEX comes in two types: barrier and non-barrier. The barrier, a thin sheet of aluminum between layers of
PEX material or a layer of polymer film, prevents oxygen dissolved in water from diffusing through the pipe
and corroding metal components. Non barrier PEX is acceptable for plumbing systems.
• PEX can be ordered as A, B, or C (these designations refer to the manufacturing process and not the pipe’s
structural or chemical properties).
• All PEX tubing (A, B, C) comply with the same standards: refer to ASTM Standards F876, F877, and F2023;
CSA Standard B137.5; and NSF/ANSI Standards 14 and 61 for further information.

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

+966535473011 l [Link]@[Link] l MEP Engineering l LinkedIn l ©
ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate
+966535473011 l [Link]@[Link] l MEP Engineering l LinkedIn l ©
 FITTINGS:
Table 19 lists standards that give dimensions and pressure ratings for fittings, flanges, and flanged fittings. This data
is also available from manufacturers’ catalogs.

ENG. HUSSAIN SHARAHILI I LEED® Green Associate

+966535473011 l [Link]@[Link] l MEP Engineering l LinkedIn l ©