CHAPTER 3

Section 3.3
1. (a)

v = (x2 − y 2 )i + 2xyj

1
(b)

u = (x − y)i + (x + y)j

2
(c)

v = −yi + xj + k

3
(d)

v = −xi + −yj − zk

4
2. (a)

f = xy

5
(b)

f = x2 + y 2 − z 2

6
 (c)

f = ex+y−z

3. If f = xy then ∇f is given by
∇f = yi + xj
If f = x2 + y 2 − z 2 then ∇f is given by
∇f = 2xi + 2yj − 2zk
If f = ex+y−z then ∇f is given by
∇f = ex+y−z i + ex+y−z j − ex+y−z k

7
 p
4. Let f = kM m/r, where r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 be the equation for the gravitational
potential. Then
!
kM m
∇f = ∇ p
x2 + y 2 + z 2
! ! !
∂ kM m ∂ kM m ∂ kM m
= p i+ p j+ p k
∂x x2 + y 2 + z 2 ∂y x2 + y 2 + z 2 ∂z x2 + y 2 + z 2
kM m x kM m y kM m z
=− 2 i− 2
j− k
r r r r r2 r
kM m r
=− 2
r r
is a vector equation for the gravitational field.

5. Let f be given by q
(x − 1)2 + y 2
f = ln q
(x + 1)2 + y 2
Then
q
∂f (x + 1)2 + y 2 ∂ h
1/2
−1/2 i
= q (x − 1)2 + y 2 (x + 1)2 + y 2
∂x ∂x
(x − 1)2 + y 2
x−1 x+1
= −
(x − 1) + y 2 (x + 1)2 + y 2
2

2 (x2 − y 2 − 1)
=
(x + 1)2 + y 2 (x − 1)2 + y 2
  
q
∂f (x + 1)2 + y 2 ∂ h
1/2
−1/2 i
= q (x − 1)2 + y 2 (x + 1)2 + y 2
∂y ∂y
(x − 1)2 + y 2
y y
= −
(x − 1) + y 2 (x + 1)2 + y 2
2

4xy
=
(x + 1) + y 2 (x − 1)2 + y 2
2
  

Hence,
1
 2 x2 − y 2 − 1 i + 4xyj


∇f =  2  2
2
(x + 1) + y (x − 1) + y 2

8
6.
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ (f + g) = i+ j + k (f + g)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (f + g) i + (f + g) j + (f + g) k
∂x ∂y ∂z
     
∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
= + i+ + j+ + k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
   
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂g ∂g ∂g
= i+ j+ k + i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∇f + ∇g

 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ (f g) = i+ j + k (f g)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (f g) i + (f g) j + (f g) k
∂x ∂y ∂z
     
∂g ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g ∂f
= f +g i+ f +g j+ f +g k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
   
∂g ∂g ∂g ∂f ∂f ∂f
= f i+f j+f k + g i+g j+g k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
= f ∇g + g∇f

7. Let f (x, y, z) be a composite function F (u), where u = g(x, y, z). Then

 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇f = ∇F = i+ j + k F (u) = F (u) i + F (u) j + F (u) k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂F ∂u ∂F ∂u ∂F ∂u
= i+ j+ k
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂z
 
∂F ∂u ∂u ∂u
= i+ j+ k
∂u ∂x ∂y ∂z
= F 0 (u) ∇g

9
8.
 
f ∂ ∂ ∂ f
∇ = i+ j+ k
g ∂x ∂y ∂z g
∂ f ∂ f ∂ f
= i+ j+ k
∂x g ∂y g ∂z g
gfx − f gx gfy − f gy gfz − f gz
= i + j + k
g2 g2 g2
    
1 ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂g ∂g ∂g
= g i+ j+ k −f i+ j+ k
g2 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
1
= (g∇f − f ∇g)
g2
9. (a) If f (x, y, z) = w = x3 y − y 3 z then H is given by
   
 2  wxx wxy wxz 6xy 3x2 0
∂ f
H= = wyx wyy wyz  =  3x2 −6yz −3y 2 
∂xi ∂xj
wzx wzy wzz 0 −3y 2 0
If f (x, y, z) = w = x21 + 2x1 x2 + 5x1 x3 + 2x2 x1 + 4x22 + x2 x3 + 5x3 x1 + x3 x2 + 2x23
then H is given by
   
 2  w x1 x1 w x1 x2 w x1 x3 2 4 10
∂ f
H= = wx2 x1 wx2 x2 wx2 x3  =  4 8 2 
∂xi ∂xj
w x3 x1 w x3 x2 w x3 x3 10 2 4
(b) As long as the function f (x1 , . . . , xn ) has continuous second partial derivatives
then ∂ 2 f /(∂xi ∂xj ) = ∂ 2 f /(∂xj ∂xi ), which implies that H will be symmetric.
(c) As discussed in Section 2.14, the directional derivative of a function f (x, y) in a
given direction can be written as
∂f ∂f
∇α f = cos α + sin α = ∇f · u
∂x ∂y
where u = cos αi + sin αj is a unit vector that makes an angle α with the positive
x-axis. Hence,
 
∂f ∂f
∇α ∇β f = ∇α cos β + sin β
∂x ∂y
   
∂ ∂f ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂f
= cos β + sin β cos α + cos β + sin β sin α
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
 2
∂ 2f
 2
∂ 2f
 
∂ f ∂ f
= cos β cos α + sin α + sin β cos α + 2 sin α
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
  
  fxx fxy cos α
= cos β sin β
fyx fyy sin α
   >
= cos β sin β H cos α sin α

10
Section 3.6
1.
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · (u + v) = i+ j + k · [(ux + vx ) i + (uy + vy ) j + (uz + vz ) k]
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (ux + vx ) + (uy + vy ) + (uz + vz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
   
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
= + + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
=∇·u+∇·v

 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · (f u) = i+ j + k · (f ux i + f uy j + f uz k)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (f ux ) + (f uy ) + (f uz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ux ∂f ∂uy ∂f ∂uz ∂f
=f + ux +f + uy +f + uz
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
   
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz ∂f ∂f ∂f
=f + + + ux + uy + uz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
= f (∇ · u) + (∇f · u)

2. Recognizing that v = ρu and using (3.22), then (3.17) can be written as

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
+∇·v = + ∇ · (ρu) = + (∇ρ · u) + ρ (∇ · u) = 0
∂t ∂t ∂t
According to Problem 12 of Section 2.8, the first two terms can be written as
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ dx ∂ρ dy ∂ρ dz dρ Dρ
+∇·u = + ux + uy + uz = + + + = =
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt dt Dt

Hence, (3.17) can be written as

∂ρ Dρ
+ (∇ρ · u) + ρ (∇ · u) = + ρ (∇ · u) = 0
∂t Dt
When ρ ≡ a, where a is some arbitrary constant, then Dρ/dt ≡ Da/dt = 0 and the
equation above reduces to
ρ (∇ · u) ≡ a (∇ · u) = 0
Since ρ ≡ a 6= 0, the only way for this equation to make sense is if ∇ · u = 0.

11
3.
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × (u + v) = (uz + vz ) − (uy + vy ) i + (ux + vx ) − (uz + vz ) j
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
 
∂ ∂
+ (uy + vy ) − (ux + vx ) k
∂x ∂y
      
∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux
= − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
      
∂vz ∂vy ∂vx ∂vz ∂vy ∂vx
+ − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= (∇ × u) + (∇ × v)
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × (f u) = (f uz ) − (f uy ) i + (f ux ) − (f uz ) j
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
 
∂ ∂
+ (f uy ) − (f ux ) k
∂x ∂y
     
∂uz ∂f ∂uy ∂f ∂ux ∂f ∂uz ∂f
= f + uz − f + uy i+ f + ux − f + uz j
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x
  
∂uy ∂f ∂ux ∂f
+ f + uy − f + ux k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
      
∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux
=f − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
      
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
+ uz − uy i + ux − uz j + uy − ux k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= (f ∇ × u) + (∇f × u)
4.
         
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
∇ × (∇f ) = − i+ − j
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z
    
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
+ − k
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
 2
∂ 2f
 2
∂ 2f
 2
∂ 2f
  
∂ f ∂ f ∂ f
= − i+ − j+ − k
∂z∂y ∂y∂z ∂x∂z ∂z∂x ∂y∂x ∂x∂y
=0
5. (a) If v = 2xyzi + x2 zj + x2 yk, then
     
∂vz ∂vy ∂vx ∂vz ∂vy ∂vx
∇×v = − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= x2 − x2 i + (2xy − 2xy) j + (2xz − 2xz) k

=0

12
 Let f = x2 yz + a, where a is an arbitrary constant. Then ∇f = v.
(b) If v = exy [(2y 2 + yz 2 )i + (2xy + xz 2 + 2)j + 2zk], then

∇ × v = (2xzexy − 2xzexy ) i + (2yzexy − 2yzexy ) j

+ yexy 2xy + xz 2 + 2 + exy 2y + z 2 − xexy 2y 2 + yz 2 − exy 4y + z 2 k






=0

Let f = exy (2y + z 2 ) + a, where a is an arbitrary constant. Then ∇f = v.

6.
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · (∇ × v) = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
      
∂vz ∂vy ∂vx ∂vz ∂vy ∂vx
· − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
     
∂ ∂vz ∂vy ∂ ∂vx ∂vz ∂ ∂vy ∂vx
= − + − + −
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
2 2 2 2 2 2
∂ vz ∂ vy ∂ vx ∂ vz ∂ vy ∂ vx
= − + − + −
∂y∂x ∂z∂x ∂z∂y ∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y∂z
=0

7. (a) If v = 2xi + yj − 3zk, then

∂vx ∂vy ∂vz

∇·v = + + =2+1−3=0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Since ∇ · v = 0, the vector v = ∇ × u for some vector u. Furthermore, since by
(3.32) ∇ × (∇f ) = 0, we can safely assume that u is of the form u = u0 + ∇f ,
where f is an arbitrary scalar function and u0 is any one vector whose curl is v,
as then ∇ × u = ∇ × (u0 + ∇f ) = (∇ × u0 ) + [∇ × (∇f )] = ∇ × u0 .
Next, assume u0 · k = 0, which implies u0z = 0. Equating the components of
∇ × u0 to those of v then gives
∂u0z ∂u0y ∂u0y ∂u0x ∂u0z ∂u0x ∂u0y ∂u0x
− =− = 2x, − = = y, − = −3z
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
from which we may deduce that u0 = yzi − 2xzj.
(b) If v = yi + zj + xk, then going through the exact same steps as for part (a) gives
u0 = (z 2 /2)i + [(x2 − 2yz)/2]j.

13
8.
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂f ∂f ∂f
div grad f = ∇ · (∇f ) = i+ j+ k · i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
     
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
= + +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
2 2 2
∂ f ∂ f ∂ f
= + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
2
=∇ f
= ∆f
p
Let f = 1/ x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Then

2x2 − y 2 − z 2 x2 − 2y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 − 2z 2
∇2 f = − − =0
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )5/2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )5/2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )5/2

9.
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ · (u × v) = i+ j + k · [(uy vz − uz vy ) i + (uz vx − ux vz ) j + (ux vy − uy vx ) k]
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (uy vz − uz vy ) + (uz vx − ux vz ) + (ux vy − uy vx )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vz ∂uy ∂vy ∂uz ∂vx ∂uz ∂vz ∂ux
= uy + vz − uz − vy + uz + vx − ux − vz
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂vy ∂ux ∂vx ∂uy
+ ux + vy − uy − vx
 ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z 
∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux
= vx − vx + vy − vy + vz − vz
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
 
∂vy ∂vz ∂vz ∂vx ∂vx ∂vy
+ ux − ux + uy − uy + uz − uz
∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x
      
∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux
= (vx i + vy j + vz k) · − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
      
∂vz ∂vy ∂vx ∂vz ∂vy ∂vx
− (ux i + uy j + uz k) · − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= v · (∇ × u) − u · (∇ × v)

14
10.
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × (∇ × u) = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
      
∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux
× − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
    
∂ ∂uy ∂ux ∂ ∂ux ∂uz
= − − − i
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
    
∂ ∂uz ∂uy ∂ ∂uy ∂ux
+ − − − j
∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
    
∂ ∂ux ∂uz ∂ ∂uz ∂uy
+ − − − k
∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
 2
∂ 2 ux ∂ 2 ux ∂ 2 uz
 2
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 ux
 
∂ uy ∂ uz
= − − + i+ − − + j
∂x∂y ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x∂z ∂y∂z ∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y∂x
 2
∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 uy

∂ ux
+ − − + k
∂z∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z∂y
 2
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 ux ∂ 2 ux ∂ 2 ux

∂ ux
= + + − − − i
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uy

∂ ux
+ + + − − − j
∂y∂x ∂y 2 ∂y∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 uz

∂ ux
+ + + − − − k
∂z∂x ∂z∂y ∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uz
 2
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uz
 
∂ ux ∂ ux
= + + i+ + + j
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y∂x ∂y 2 ∂y∂z
 2
∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uz
 
∂ ux
+ + + k
∂z∂x ∂z∂y ∂z 2
 2
∂ ux ∂ 2 ux ∂ 2 ux
 2
∂ uy ∂ 2 uy ∂ 2 uy
 
− + + i+ + + j
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ uz ∂ 2 uz ∂ 2 uz
 
+ + + k
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz
− ∇2 ux i + ∇2 uy j + ∇2 uz k


=∇ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
2
= ∇ (∇ · u) − ∇ u

15
11. (a)

∇ · [u × (v × w)] = ∇ · [(u · w) v − (u · v) w]
| {z }
(1.19)

= ∇ · [(u · w) v] − ∇ · [(u · v) w]
| {z }
(3.21)

= (u · w) (∇ · v) + [∇ (u · w)] · v − (u · v) (∇ · w) − [∇ (u · v)] · w
| {z }
(3.22)

= (u · w) (∇ · v) − (u · v) (∇ · w) + [∇ (u · w)] · v − [∇ (u · v)] · w

(b)

∇ · [(∇f ) × (f ∇g)] = (f ∇g) · [∇ × (∇f )] − (∇f ) · [∇ × (f ∇g)]

| {z }
(3.35)

= (f ∇g) · |{z}
0 − (∇f ) · [∇ × (f ∇g)]
(3.31)

= − (∇f ) · [∇ × (f ∇g)]
= − (∇f ) · [f (∇ × (∇g)) + (∇f ) × (∇g)]
| {z }
(3.28)
 

= − (∇f ) · f |{z}
0 + (∇f ) × (∇g)
(3.31)

= − (∇f ) · (∇f ) × (∇g)

= (∇f ) · (∇g) × (∇f )
= (∇g) · (∇f ) × (∇f )
| {z }
(1.34)

= (∇g) · |{z}
0
(1.19)

=0

(c)

∇ × [(∇ × v) + ∇f ] = ∇ × (∇ × v) + ∇ × (∇f ) = ∇ × (∇ × v) + |{z}

0
| {z }
(3.27) (3.31)

= ∇ × (∇ × v)

(d)

∇2 f = 0 + ∇2 f = ∇ × ∇ · v + ∇ · ∇f = ∇ · ∇ × v +∇ · ∇f = ∇ · [(∇ × v) + ∇f ]
| {z } | {z }
(1.34) (3.21)

16
12. (a) Let u be a unit vector, such that
ux uy uz
u= i+ j+ k = cos αi + cos βj + cos γk
|u| |u| |u|

That is, ux /|u|, uy |u|, uz /|u| are, by Section 1.2, simply the direction cosines of
u. Hence by (2.114),

ux ∂f uy ∂f uz ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
(u · ∇) f = + + = cos α + cos β + cos γ = ∇u f
|u| ∂x |u| ∂y |u| ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

(b)
 
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
[(i − j) · ∇] f = (i − j) · (∇f ) = (i − j) · i+ j+ k = −
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y

(c) Let v = x2 i − y 2 j + z 2 k. Then

∂v ∂v
[(xi − yj) · ∇] x2 i − y 2 j + z 2 k = x = 2 x2 i + y 2 j



−y
∂x ∂y

13.

∇ (u · v) = ∇ (ux vx + uy vy + uz vz )
= ∇ (ux vx ) + ∇ (uy vy ) + ∇ (uz vz )
= ux ∇vx + vx ∇ux + uy ∇vy + vy ∇uy + uz ∇vz + vz ∇uz
= (ux ∇vx + uy ∇vy + uz ∇vz ) + (vx ∇ux + vy ∇uy + vz ∇uz )

Let us for a moment focus on the first three terms ux ∇vx + uy ∇vy + uz ∇vz = a.

17
Expanding these gives
     
∂vx ∂vx ∂vx ∂vy ∂vy ∂vy ∂vz ∂vz ∂vz
a = ux i+ j+ k + uy i+ j+ k + uz i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
     
∂vx ∂vx ∂vx ∂vy ∂vy ∂vy ∂vz ∂vz ∂vz
= ux i+ j+ k + uy i+ j+ k + uz i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
   
∂vy ∂vy ∂vz ∂vz ∂vx ∂vx ∂vz ∂vz
+ ux j− j+ k− k + uy i− i+ k− k
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
 
∂vx ∂vx ∂vy ∂vy
+ uz i− i+ j− j
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
     
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
= ux i+ j+ k + uy i+ j+ k + uz i+ j+ k
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z
         
∂vy ∂vx ∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy ∂vy ∂vx
+ uy − − uz − i + uz − − ux − j
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y
    
∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy
+ ux − − uy − k
∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
       
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂vz ∂vy ∂vx ∂vz ∂vy ∂vx
= ux + uy + uz + u× − i+ − j+ − k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= (u · ∇) v + [u × (∇ × v)]

Then, clearly

vx ∇ux + vy ∇uy + vz ∇uz = (v · ∇) u + [v × (∇ × u)]

And so we may conclude that

∇ (u · v) = (u · ∇) v + [u × (∇ × v)] + (v · ∇) u + [v × (∇ × u)]

18
14.

∇ × (u × v) = ∇ × [(uy vz − uz vy ) i + (uz vx − ux vz ) j + (ux vy − uy vx ) k]

= [∇ × (uy vz i + uz vx j + ux vy k)] − [∇ × (uz vy i + ux vz j + uy vx k)]
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= (ux vy ) − (uz vx ) i + (uy vz ) − (ux vy ) j
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ (uz vx ) − (uy vz ) k − (uy vx ) − (ux vz ) i
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
− (uz vy ) − (uy vx ) j − (ux vz ) − (uz vy ) k
∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
 
∂vy ∂ux ∂vx ∂uz ∂vx ∂uy ∂vz ∂ux
= ux + vy − uz − vx − uy − vx + ux + vz i
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 
∂vz ∂uy ∂vy ∂ux ∂vy ∂uz ∂vx ∂uy
+ uy + vz − ux − vy − uz − vy + uy + vx j
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x
 
∂vx ∂uz ∂vz ∂uy ∂vz ∂ux ∂vy ∂uz
+ uz + vx − uy − vz − ux − vz + uz + vy k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
   
∂vy ∂vx ∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy ∂vy ∂vx
= ux − uz − uy + ux i + uy − ux − uz + uy j
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x
 
∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy
+ uz − uy − ux + uz k
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
   
∂ux ∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz ∂uy
+ vy − vx − vx + vz i + vz − vy − vy + vx j
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x
 
∂uz ∂uy ∂ux ∂uz
+ vx − vz − vz + vy k
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Let us for a moment focus on the first three terms

   
∂vy ∂vx ∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy ∂vy ∂vx
a = ux − uz − uy + ux i + uy − ux − uz + uy j
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x
 
∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy
+ uz − uy − ux + uz k
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

19
 These may be further manipulated to get
   
∂vy ∂vx ∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy ∂vy ∂vx
a = ux − uz − uy + ux i + uy − ux − uz + uy j
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x
     
∂vx ∂vz ∂vz ∂vy ∂vx ∂vx ∂vy ∂vy
+ uz − uy − ux + uz k + ux − ux i + uy − uy j
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
 
∂vz ∂vz
+ uz − uz k
∂z ∂z
     
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
= ux + + i + uy + + j + uz + + k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
     
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz ∂vx ∂vy ∂vz
− ux i+ j+ k − uy i+ j+ k − uz i+ j+ k
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z
 
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz ∂v ∂v ∂v
= (ux i + uy j + uz k) + + − uz − uy − uz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
= u (∇ · v) − [(u · ∇) v]

In a similar way it may be shown that the remaining three terms can be written as
−v(∇ · u) + [(v · ∇)u], and hence, we may conclude that

∇ × (u × v) = u (∇ · v) − v (∇ · u) + [(v · ∇) u] − [(u · ∇) v]

15. Let the sphere be given by F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9. The unit outer normal vector
to the sphere is then given by
∇F 1
n= =p (xi + yj + zk)
|∇F | x2 + y 2 + z 2

Next, let u = (x2 − z 2 )(i − j + 3k). Then, with the help of (2.117)
 
∂ ∂ 2 2

∂ 2 2

∂ 2 2


(∇ · u) = ∇ (∇ · u) · n = ∇ x −z − x −z +3 x −z ·n
∂n ∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∇ (2x − 6z) · n
1
= (2i − 6k) · p (xi + yj + zk)
x + y2 + z2
2

1
=p (2x − 6z)
x2 + y 2 + z 2

Evaluating the result at the point (2, 2, 1) then finally gives −2/3.

16. If a rigid body is rotating about the z-axis with angular velocity ω, then it is moving
in a circular motion in the xy-plane. Hence, a particle of the body essentially follows
a path equal to that of a point restricted to lie on a cylinder. Let r be the fixed radius

20
 of the circle the path is constrained to move on in the xy-plane and let α be the initial
angle of the particle in the xy-plane relative to the positive x-axis. Then, if ω is the
angular velocity, at time t the particle will have moved through angle ωt + α. Since
the particle is constrained to lie on the circle of radius r, its x-coordinate given by
r cos(ωt + α) and its y−coordinate by r sin(ωt + α). As the particle is free to move in
the z-plane, its z-coordinate is simply given by z. As such, a vector equation for the
particle is given by
−→
OP = r cos (ωt + α) i + r sin (ωt + α) j + zk

Next, let ω = ωk be the angular velocity vector. Now the regular velocity of the
particle is given by the vector v, which is both perpendicular to the angular velocity
vector (since by definition the angular velocity vector is perpendicular to the plane of
−→
rotation and hence, v) and the position vector OP . As such, it is given by

d −→
v= OP
dt
= −ωr sin (ωt + α) i + ωr cos (ωt + α) j
= (ωk) × [r cos (ωt + α) i + r sin (ωt + α) j + zk]
−→
= ω × OP

Knowing this, the divergence and curl of v are given by

 −→
∇ · v = ∇ · ω × OP = ∇ · [−ωr sin (ωt + α) i + ωr cos (ωt + α) j]
= ∇ · (−ωyi + ωxj)
∂ ∂
= (−ωy) + (ωx)
∂x ∂y
=0
 −→
∇ × v = ∇ × ω × OP = ∇ × [−ωr sin (ωt + α) i + ωr cos (ωt + α) j]
∂ ∂
= −ω r cos (ωt + α) i − ω r sin (ωt + α) j
 ∂z ∂z 
∂ ∂
+ ω r cos (ωt + α) + ω r sin (ωt + α) k
∂x ∂y
 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= −ω xi − ω yj + ω x + ω y k
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y
= 2ωk
= 2ω

17. Let a steady fluid in motion have the velocity vector u = yi = dr/dt. Since u has
no y or z components, the position of a point in the y and z directions does not

21
 change with time (i.e. is constant). Hence, the position of a point at time t is given
by r(t) = (c2 t + c1 )i + c2 j + c3 k, where c1 , c2 and c3 are some arbitrary constants.
As such, the path of motion for each point of the vector field is a straight line when
c2 6= 0. Furthermore, div u = ∇ · u = ∇ · (yi) = (∂/∂x)y = 0, and hence, the flow
is incompressible. The relative rate of growth of a volume occupied by the fluid is
roughly proportional to div u. To be exact; div u = lim∆t→0 ∆V /(V ∆t). Now since
div u = 0 implies that ∆V = 0, the volume occupied at time t = 1 will be the same as
that at time t = 0, which is simply V (t0 ) = V (t1 ) = 1 for t0 = 0 and t1 = 1.

18. Let a steady fluid in motion have the velocity vector u = xi = dr/dt. Since u has
no y or z components (i.e. dy/dt = 0, dz/dt = 0), the position of a point in the y
and z directions does not change with time. In other words, the position of a point
has coordinates y(t) = c2 , z(t) = c3 , where c2 and c3 are arbitrary constants. For the
x-coordinate however, we find that dx/dt = x, so that x(t) = c1 et , where c1 is the
initial value of x at time t = 0. Hence, we find r(t) = c1 et i + c2 j + c3 k. Furthermore,
div u = ∇ · u = ∇ · (xi) = (∂/∂x)x = 1, and as such, the flow is not incompressible.
Since
1 dV
div u = ∇ · u = 1 = =⇒ V (t) = V0 et
V dt
The volume at t = 0 is V (0) = V0 = 1. Hence, at time t = 1 the volume will be
V (1) = e.

Section 3.8
1. Let u = F (x, y, z), v = G(x, y, z), w = H(x, y, z). Then, using the result of Problem 5
following Section 2.12, we can write
∂F ∂F ∂F
∇F = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
= i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
1 ∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (x, y)
= i+ j+ k
J ∂ (v, w) ∂ (v, w) ∂ (v, w)
      
1 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
= − i+ − j+ − k
J ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂w
 
1 ∂r ∂r
= ×
J ∂v ∂w

22
 ∂G ∂G ∂G
∇G = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v
= i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
1 ∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (x, y)
= i+ j+ k
J ∂ (w, u) ∂ (w, u) ∂ (w, u)
      
1 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
= − i+ − j+ − k
J ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂u
 
1 ∂r ∂r
= ×
J ∂w ∂u

∂H ∂H ∂H
∇H = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
= i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
1 ∂ (y, z) ∂ (z, x) ∂ (x, y)
= i+ j+ k
J ∂ (u, v) ∂ (u, v) ∂ (u, v)
      
1 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
= − i+ − j+ − k
J ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
 
1 ∂r ∂r
= ×
J ∂u ∂v
2.
     
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
∇F · ∇G × ∇H = 3 × · × × ×
J ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂u ∂v
| {z }
(3.48)
      
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= × · · × − · ×
J3 ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂w
| {z }
(1.19)
   
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= × · · ×
J3 ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂u
  
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= 3 · × · ×
J ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂v
  
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r 1
= 3 · × · × =
J ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂w J
| {z }
(1.34)

where the last step follows from (3.44):

∂ (x, y, z) ∂r ∂r ∂r
J= = · ×
∂ (u, v, w) ∂u ∂v ∂w

23
 Hence, this proves that
1 1
J= =
∂ (u, v, w) ∇F · ∇G × ∇H
∂ (x, y, z)

3.
   
J ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
J (∇G × ∇H) = 2 × × ×
J ∂w ∂u ∂u ∂v
| {z }
(3.48)
    
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= · × − · ×
J ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂w
| {z }
(1.19)
 
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= · ×
J ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂u
1 ∂r ∂r
= (J) =
J |{z} ∂u ∂u
(3.44)

   
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
J (∇H × ∇F ) = × × ×
J ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w
    
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= · × − · ×
J ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂u
 
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= · × =
J ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂v

   
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
J (∇F × ∇G) = × × ×
J ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u
    
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= · × − · ×
J ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂v
 
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= · × =
J ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂w

4. If the vectors ∇F, ∇G, ∇H are mutually perpendicular in D, then

∇F · ∇G = 0 ∇F · ∇H = 0 ∇G · ∇H = 0

24
 Furthermore, note that if a, b, c, d are arbitrary vectors in D then
(a × b) · (c × d) = [(ay bz − az by ) i + (az bx − ax bz ) j + (ax by − ay bx ) k]
· [(cy dz − cz dy ) i + (cz dx − cx dz ) j + (cx dy − cy dx ) k]
= (ay bz − az by ) (cy dz − cz dy ) + (az bx − ax bz ) (cz dx − cx dz )
+ (ax by − ay bx ) (cx dy − cy dx ) + ax bx cx dx − ax bx cx dx + ay by cy dy
− ay by cy dy + az bz cz dz − az bz cz dz
= ax bx cx dx + ax by cx dy + ax bz cx dz + ay bx cy dx + ay by cy dy + ay bz cy dz
+ az bx cz dx + az by cz dy + az bz cz dz − ax bx cx dx − ax by cy dx − ax bz cz dx
− ay bx cx dy − ay by cy dy − ay bz cz dy − az bx cx dz − az by cy dz − az bz cz dz
= (ax cx + ay cy + az cz ) (bx dx + by dy + bz dz )
− (bx cx + by cy + bz cz ) (ax dx + ay dy + az dz )
= (a · c) (b · d) − (b · c) (a · d)
Using (3.48) and the vector identity above we can form the three equations
   
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
∇F · ∇G = 2 × · ×
J ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u
     
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r 1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= 2 · · − 2 · · =0
J ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u J ∂w ∂w ∂v ∂u
   
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
∇F · ∇H = 2 × · ×
J ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂v
     
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r 1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= 2 · · − 2 · · =0
J ∂v ∂u ∂w ∂v J ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂v
   
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
∇G · ∇H = 2 × · ×
J ∂w ∂u ∂u ∂v
     
1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r 1 ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= 2 · · − 2 · · =0
J ∂w ∂u ∂u ∂v J ∂u ∂u ∂w ∂v
For these equations to make sense it is sufficient to require that
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
· =0 · =0 · =0
∂v ∂u ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v
In other words, the tangent vectors ∂r/∂u, ∂r/∂v, ∂r/∂w form a triple of mutually
perpendicular vectors at each point of D and hence, the coordinates are orthogonal.
5. Using (3.56) we can write
     
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
p = (αpu ) + (βpv ) + (γpw )
α2 ∂u β 2 ∂v γ 2 ∂w

25
 The curl of p is the sum of the curls of the terms on the right-hand side. By (3.27),
(3.28) and (3.55) we can thus write
      
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
∇ × p = ∇ × (αpu ) + (βpv ) + (γpw )
α2 ∂u β 2 ∂v γ 2 ∂w
        
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
= ∇ × (αpu ) + ∇ × (βpv ) + ∇ × (γpw )
α2 ∂u β 2 ∂v γ 2 ∂w
     
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
= (αpu ) ∇ × 2 + (∇αpu ) × 2 + (βpv ) ∇ × 2
α ∂u α ∂u β ∂v
     
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
+ (∇βpv ) × 2 + (γpw ) ∇ × 2 + (∇γpw ) × 2
β ∂v γ ∂w γ ∂w
     
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
= (∇αpu ) × 2 + (∇βpv ) × 2 + (∇γpw ) × 2
α ∂u β ∂v γ ∂w
The u component of ∇ × p can be obtained by taking the scalar product of both sides
of the equation above with (1/α)(∂r/∂u), giving
1 ∂r
[∇ × p]u = ∇ × p ·
 α ∂u     
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
= (∇αpu ) × 2 · + (∇βpv ) × 2 · + (∇γpw ) × 2 ·
α ∂u α ∂u β ∂v α ∂u γ ∂w α ∂u
| {z }
0
   
1 ∂r 1 ∂r
= (∇βpv ) × 2 + (∇γpw ) × 2
β ∂v u γ ∂w u
       
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
= [∇βpv ]v 2 − [∇βpv ]w 2 + [∇γpw ]v 2 − [∇γpw ]w 2
β ∂v w β ∂v v γ ∂w w γ ∂w v
| {z }
(3.59)
     
β ∂pv 1 ∂r 1 ∂r β ∂pv 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
= · − ·
β ∂v β 2 ∂v γ ∂w γ ∂w β 2 ∂v β ∂v
| {z } | {z } | {z }
(3.60) 0 1/β
     
γ ∂pw 1 ∂r 1 ∂r γ ∂pw 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
+ · − ·
β ∂v γ 2 ∂w γ ∂w γ ∂w γ 2 ∂w β ∂v
| {z } | {z }
1/γ 0
 
1 ∂pw 1 ∂pv 1 ∂ ∂
= − = (γpw ) − (βpv )
β ∂v γ ∂w βγ ∂v ∂w
The remaining components can be found in exactly the same way.

6. (a) Cylindrical coordinates are given by the relations

x = f (r, θ, z) = r cos θ y = g (r, θ, z) = r sin θ z = h (r, θ, z) = z

26
 and
p y
r = F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 θ = G (x, y, z) = tan−1 z = H (x, y, z) = z
x
Now since
     
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
(α∇F ) · (β∇G) × (γ∇H) = · ×
α ∂r β ∂θ γ ∂z
| {z }
(3.52)
 
1
= (cos θi + sin θj) · (−r sin θi + r cos θj) × k = 1
r

where α = 1, β = r, γ = 1, the vectors α∇F, β∇G, γ∇H are mutually perpen-

dicular unit vectors. Hence, the surfaces F = r = const, G = θ = const, H =
z = const must meet at right angles and thus form a triply orthogonal family of
surfaces. Furthermore, by (3.51)

∂ (x, y, z)
J= =r
∂ (r, θ, z)

(b) By (3.54) we conclude

ds2 = α2 dr2 + β 2 dθ2 + γ 2 dz 2 = dr2 + r2 dθ2 + dz 2

(c) Using (3.57), we find

 
1 ∂r 1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
pr = p · = px + py + pz = px cos θ + py sin θ
α ∂r α ∂r ∂r ∂r
 
1 ∂r 1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
pθ = p · = px + py + pz = −px sin θ + py cos θ
β ∂θ β ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
 
1 ∂r 1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
pz = p · = px + py + pz = pz
γ ∂z γ ∂z ∂z ∂z

(d) By (3.60) we find

1 ∂U ∂U 1 ∂U 1 ∂U 1 ∂U ∂U
[∇U ]r = = [∇U ]θ = = [∇U ]z = =
α ∂r ∂r β ∂θ r ∂θ γ ∂z ∂z

(e) By (3.61) we find

   
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂pθ ∂pz
∇·p = (βγpr ) + (αγpθ ) + (αβpz ) = (rpr ) + +r
αβγ ∂r ∂θ ∂z r ∂r ∂θ ∂z

27
(f) By (3.62) we find
   
1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂pz ∂pθ
[∇ × p]r = (γpz ) − (βpθ ) = −r
βγ ∂θ ∂z r ∂θ ∂z
 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂pr ∂pz
[∇ × p]θ = (αpr ) − (γpz ) = −
αγ ∂z ∂r ∂z ∂r
   
1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂pr
[∇ × p]z = (βpθ ) − (αpr ) = (rpθ ) −
αβ ∂r ∂θ r ∂r ∂θ

(g) From (3.56) and (3.60) it follows that

1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r ∂U ∂r
∇U = [∇U ]r + [∇U ]θ + [∇U ]z = + 2 +
α ∂r β ∂θ γ ∂z ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂θ ∂z ∂z

Furthermore, from part (a) we known that

∂r 1 ∂r ∂r
= cos θi + sin θj = − sin θi + cos θj =k
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
And so

∇2 U = ∇ · (∇U )
   
∂ ∂r 1 ∂ ∂r ∂ ∂r ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r ∂U ∂r
= + + · + +
∂r ∂r r2 ∂θ ∂θ ∂z ∂z ∂r ∂r r2 ∂θ ∂θ ∂z ∂z
   
∂r ∂ ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r ∂U ∂r 1 ∂r ∂ ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r ∂U ∂r
= · + + + 2 · + +
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r r2 ∂θ ∂θ ∂z ∂z r ∂θ ∂θ ∂r ∂r r2 ∂θ ∂θ ∂z ∂z
 
∂r ∂ ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r ∂U ∂r
+ · + 2 +
∂z ∂z ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂θ ∂z ∂z
 
∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2 r 1 ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂ 2 U 1 ∂r
     
∂r  1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r 
= ·  + − + + 
∂r  ∂r2 ∂r ∂r2 r2 ∂θ r ∂θ
∂r |{z} r ∂θ∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ 
| {z }
0 0
 
∂r  ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2 r 
+ · +
∂r ∂z∂r ∂z ∂z 2
∂z |{z}

0

28
  

1 ∂r  ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2r 1 ∂ 2U

1 ∂r
  
1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r 
+ 2 · + + +
 
r ∂θ  ∂r∂θ ∂r ∂r |∂r∂θ r ∂θ2 r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂θ r ∂θ 

{z } | {z }
(1/r)(∂r/∂θ) −∂r/∂r
 
1 ∂r  ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2 r 
+ · +
r2 ∂θ ∂z∂θ ∂z ∂z |∂z∂θ

{z }
0
 
 ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2 r 1 ∂ 2 U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2 r 
 
∂r
+ · + + 2 + + 2 + 
2
∂z ∂r∂z ∂r ∂r |∂r∂z
{z } r ∂θ∂z ∂θ r ∂θ ∂z r ∂θ ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
|{z}
| {z }
0 0 0
 2   2
  2

∂r ∂ U ∂r 1 ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂ U 1 ∂r ∂ U ∂r
= · 2
− 2 + +
∂r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ r ∂θ∂r r ∂θ ∂z∂r ∂z
 2 2
∂ 2 U ∂r
    
1 ∂r ∂ U ∂r ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂ U 1 ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r
+ 2 · + + − +
r ∂θ ∂r∂θ ∂r ∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ2 r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂r ∂z∂θ ∂z
 2
1 ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂ 2 U ∂r

∂r ∂ U ∂r
+ · + +
∂z ∂r∂z ∂r r2 ∂θ∂z ∂θ ∂z 2 ∂z
∂ 2U 1 ∂U 1 ∂ 2U ∂ 2U
= + + +
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ2 ∂z 2
2 2 2
∂ 2U 2
    
1 2∂ U ∂U ∂ U 2∂ U 1 ∂ ∂U 2∂ U
= 2 r +r + +r = 2 r r + +r
r ∂r2 ∂r ∂θ2 ∂z 2 r ∂r ∂r ∂θ2 ∂z 2

7. (a) Spherical coordinates are given by the relations

x = f (ρ, φ, θ) = ρ sin φ cos θ y = g (ρ, φ, θ) = ρ sin φ sin θ z = h (ρ, φ, θ) = ρ cos φ

and
p z y
ρ = F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 φ = G (x, y, z) = cos−1 θ = H (x, y, z) = tan−1
ρ x
Now since
     
1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
(α∇F ) · (β∇G) × (γ∇H) = · ×
α ∂ρ β ∂φ γ ∂θ
| {z }
(3.52)

= (sin φ cos θi + sin φ sin θj + cos φk)

1
· (ρ cos φ cos θi + ρ cos φ sin θj − ρ sin φk)
ρ
1
× (−ρ sin φ sin θi + ρ sin φ cos θj) = 1
ρ sin φ

29
 where α = 1, β = ρ, γ = ρ sin φ, the vectors α∇F, β∇G, γ∇H are mutually per-
pendicular unit vectors. Hence, the surfaces F = ρ = const, G = φ = const, H =
θ = const must meet at right angles and thus form a triply orthogonal family of
surfaces. Furthermore, by (3.51)

∂ (x, y, z)
J= = ρ2 sin φ
∂ (ρ, φ, θ)

(b) By (3.54) we conclude

ds2 = α2 dρ2 + β 2 dφ2 + γ 2 dθ2 = dρ2 + ρ2 dφ2 + ρ2 sin2 φdθ2

(c) Using (3.57) we find

 
1 ∂r 1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
pρ = p · = px + py + pz = px sin φ cos θ + py sin φ sin θ + pz cos φ
α ∂ρ α ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
 
1 ∂r 1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
pφ = p · = px + py + pz = px cos φ cos θ + py cos φ sin θ − pz sin φ
β ∂φ β ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
 
1 ∂r 1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
pθ = p · = px + py + pz = −px sin θ + py cos θ
γ ∂θ γ ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ

(d) By (3.60) we find

1 ∂U ∂U 1 ∂U 1 ∂U 1 ∂U 1 ∂U
[∇U ]ρ = = [∇U ]φ = = [∇U ]θ = =
α ∂ρ ∂ρ β ∂φ ρ ∂φ γ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ

(e) By (3.61) we find

 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇·p= (βγpρ ) + (αγpφ ) + (αβpθ )
αβγ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂θ
 
1 ∂ 2

∂ ∂pθ
= 2 sin φ ρ pρ + ρ (pφ sin φ) + ρ
ρ sin φ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂θ

(f) By (3.62) we find

   
1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂pφ
[∇ × p]ρ = (γpθ ) − (βpφ ) = (pθ sin φ) −
βγ ∂φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂φ ∂θ
   
1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂pρ ∂
[∇ × p]φ = (αpρ ) − (γpθ ) = − sin φ (ρpθ )
αγ ∂θ ∂ρ ρ sin φ ∂θ ∂ρ
   
1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂pρ
[∇ × p]θ = (βpφ ) − (αpρ ) = (ρpφ ) −
αβ ∂ρ ∂φ ρ ∂ρ ∂φ
Note that there is a typo in the book for the second term of the first component,
i.e. ∂pφ /∂φ should be ∂pφ /∂θ.

30
(g) From (3.56) and (3.60) it follows that

1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r
∇U = [∇U ]ρ +[∇U ]φ +[∇U ]θ = + 2 + 2 2
α ∂ρ β ∂φ γ ∂θ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂φ ρ sin φ ∂θ ∂θ

Furthermore, from part (a) we know that

∂r 1 ∂r
= sin φ cos θi + sin φ sin θj + cos φk = cos φ cos θi + cos φ sin θj − sin φk
∂ρ ρ ∂φ
1 ∂r
= − sin θi + cos θj
ρ sin φ ∂θ
And so

∇2 U = ∇ · (∇U )
   
∂ ∂r 1 ∂ ∂r 1 ∂ ∂r ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r
= + + · + +
∂ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂φ ∂φ ρ2 sin2 φ ∂θ ∂θ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂φ ∂φ ρ2 sin2 φ ∂θ ∂θ
 
∂r ∂ ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r
= · + +
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂φ ∂φ ρ2 sin2 φ ∂θ ∂θ
 
1 ∂r ∂ ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r
+ 2 · + +
ρ ∂φ ∂φ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂φ ∂φ ρ2 sin2 φ ∂θ ∂θ
 
1 ∂r ∂ ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r
+ 2 2 · + +
ρ sin φ ∂θ ∂θ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂φ ∂φ ρ2 sin2 φ ∂θ ∂θ
 
∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2 r 1 ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂ 2 U 1 ∂r
     
∂r  1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r 
= ·  + − + + 
∂ρ  ∂ρ2 ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ2 ρ2 ∂φ ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ 
|{z} | {z }
0 0
1 ∂ 2U
    
∂r 1 ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
+ · − 2 +
∂ρ ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ∂ρ ρ sin φ ∂θ
 
 
∂r  1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r 
+ ·  
∂ρ  ρ sin φ ∂θ ∂ρ ρ sin φ ∂θ 
| {z }
0

31
  

1 ∂r  ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2r 1 ∂ 2U

1 ∂r
  
1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r 
+ 2 · + + +
 
ρ ∂φ  ∂ρ∂φ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ∂φ ρ ∂φ2 ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ ∂φ ρ ∂φ 

| {z } | {z }
(1/ρ)(∂r/∂φ) −∂r/∂ρ
2
    
1 ∂r cos φ ∂U 1 ∂r
1 ∂ U 1 ∂r
+ · − +
2
ρ ∂φ ρ sin2 φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ
ρ sin φ ∂θ∂φ ρ sin φ ∂θ
 
 
1 ∂r  1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r 
+ 2 ·  
ρ ∂φ  ρ sin φ ∂φ ∂φ ρ sin φ ∂θ 
| {z }
0
 

1 ∂r  ∂ 2 U ∂r ∂U ∂ 2r 1 ∂ 2U

1 ∂r
 
1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r
 
+ 2 2 · + + +
 
ρ sin φ ∂θ  ∂ρ∂θ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ∂θ ρ ∂φ∂θ ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ ∂θ ρ ∂φ


| {z } | {z }
(1/ρ)(∂r/∂θ) (cot(φ)/ρ)(∂r/∂θ)
2
    
1 ∂r 1 ∂ U 1 ∂r 1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r
+ 2 2 · +
ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ2 ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ
 2   2
   
∂r ∂ U ∂r 1 ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂ U 1 ∂r 1 ∂U 1 ∂r
= · − + − 2
∂ρ ∂ρ2 ∂ρ ρ2 ∂φ ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ
2
  
∂r 1 ∂ U 1 ∂r
+ ·
∂ρ ρ sin φ ∂θ∂ρ ρ sin φ ∂θ
 2
1 ∂ 2 U 1 ∂r
    
1 ∂r ∂ U ∂r ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂U ∂r
+ 2 · + + −
ρ ∂φ ∂ρ∂φ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ2 ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ ∂ρ
2
    
1 ∂r cos φ ∂U 1 ∂r 1 ∂ U 1 ∂r
+ 2 · − +
ρ ∂φ ρ sin2 φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ∂φ ρ sin φ ∂θ
 2
1 ∂ 2 U 1 ∂r
     
1 ∂r ∂ U ∂r ∂U 1 ∂r cos φ ∂U 1 ∂r
+ 2 2 · + + +
ρ sin φ ∂θ ∂ρ∂θ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂θ ρ ∂φ∂θ ρ ∂φ ρ ∂φ ρ sin φ ∂θ
2
    
1 ∂r 1 ∂ U 1 ∂r 1 ∂U ∂ 1 ∂r
+ 2 2 · +
ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ2 ρ sin φ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ ∂θ ρ sin φ ∂θ
2 2
∂ U 2 ∂U 1 ∂ U cot φ ∂U 1 ∂ 2U
= + + + +
∂ρ2 ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂φ2 ρ2 ∂φ ρ2 sin2 φ ∂θ2
2 2
∂ 2U
 
1 2 2 ∂ U 2 ∂U 2 ∂ U ∂U
= 2 2 ρ sin φ 2 + 2ρ sin φ + sin φ 2 + sin φ cos φ +
ρ sin φ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂φ ∂θ2
∂ 2U
     
1 ∂ ∂U ∂ ∂U
= 2 2 sin2 φ ρ2 + sin φ sin φ +
ρ sin φ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂φ ∂θ2

9. Assuming that for each surface of Problem 8 the functions f, g, h have continuous first

32
partial derivatives in D and that the Jacobian matrix
 >
fu gu hu
fv gv hv
has rank 2 in D, then we can apply the Implicit Function Theorem of Section 2.10,
as in Section 2.12 to show that the inverse functions u = φ(x, y), v = ψ(x, y) of
x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v) is well defined in a neighborhood D0 of a point (u0 , v0 ) in D,
under the condition that the Jacobian of the mapping ∂(f, g)/∂(u, v) 6= 0 at the point
(u0 , v0 ).

For the sphere: x = f (u, v) = sin u cos v, y = g(u, v) = sin u sin v, z = h(u, v) = cos u
we can define the implicit equations
F (x, y, u, v) = f (u, v) − x = 0 G (x, y, u, v) = g (u, v) − y = 0
Then by (2.61) we find
∂ (F, G) −1 fv ∂ (F, G) 0 fv
∂u ∂ (x, v) 0 gv cos v ∂u ∂ (y, v) −1 gv sin v
=− =− = =− =− =
∂x ∂ (F, G) fu fv cos u ∂y ∂ (F, G) fu fv cos u
∂ (u, v) gu gv ∂ (u, v) gu gv
∂ (F, G) fu −1 ∂ (F, G) fu 0
∂v ∂ (u, x) gu 0 sin v ∂v ∂ (u, y) gu −1 cos v
=− =− =− =− =− =
∂x ∂ (F, G) fu fv sin u ∂y ∂ (F, G) fu fv sin u
∂ (u, v) gu gv ∂ (u, v) gu gv
Hence, as long as u 6= nπ/2, where n = 0, ±1, ±2 . . . , the inverse mapping will be well
defined.

For the cylinder: x = cos u, y = sin u, z = v we find

∂ (F, H) −1 fv ∂ (F, H) 0 fv
∂u ∂ (x, v) 0 hv 1 ∂u ∂ (z, v) −1 hv
=− =− =− =− =− =0
∂x ∂ (F, H) fu fv sin u ∂z ∂ (F, H) fu fv
∂ (u, v) hu hv ∂ (u, v) hu hv
∂ (F, H) fu −1 ∂ (F, H) fu 0
∂v ∂ (u, x) hu 0 ∂v ∂ (u, z) hu −1
=− =− =0 =− =− =1
∂x ∂ (F, H) fu fv ∂z ∂ (F, H) fu fv
∂ (u, v) hu hv ∂ (u, v) hu hv
Hence, as long as u 6= nπ, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , the inverse mapping will be well
defined and is given by u = tan−1 y/x, v = z.

33
 For the cone: x = sinh u sin v, y = sinh u cos v, z = sinh u we find

∂ (F, G) −1 fv ∂ (F, G) 0 fv
∂u ∂ (x, v) 0 gv sin v ∂u ∂ (y, v) −1 gv cos v
=− =− = =− =− =
∂x ∂ (F, G) fu fv cosh u ∂y ∂ (F, G) fu fv cosh u
∂ (u, v) gu gv ∂ (u, v) gu gv
∂ (F, G) fu −1 ∂ (F, G) fu 0
∂v ∂ (u, x) gu 0 cos v ∂v ∂ (u, y) gu −1 sin v
=− =− = =− =− =−
∂x ∂ (F, G) fu fv sinh u ∂y ∂ (F, G) fu fv sinh u
∂ (u, v) gu gv ∂ (u, v) gu gv

Hence, as long as u 6= 0, the inverse mapping will be well defined.

10. (a) Let a surface S be given as in Problems 8 and 9 and let r = xi + yj + zk be the
position vector of a point (x, y, z). The equations x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v), z =
h(u, v) can then be interpreted as defining a vector function r = r(u, v). When
v = v0 = const, this is the vector representation r = r(u, v0 ) of one of a family
curves obtained by varying u for different values of v = v0 = const. The tangent
vector to this curve is defined as in Section 2.13 to be the derivative of r with
respect to the parameter u: ∂r/∂u. Similarly, fixing u = u0 = const while allowing
v to vary results in one of a family of curves obtained by varying v for different
values of u = u0 = const, and the tangent vector to this curve is ∂r/∂v.
(b) If the curves v = const, u = const intersect at right angles, then this implies that
the corresponding tangent vectors to these curves, ∂r/∂u and ∂r/∂v respectively,
are perpendicular at the point of intersection, i.e.:
  
∂r ∂r ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
· = i+ j+ k · i+ j+ k = + + =0
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v

(c) The element of arc on a curve u = u(t), v = v(t) on S is given by

ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
 2  2  2
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
= du + dv + du + dv + du + dv
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
"   2  2 # "   2  2 #
2 2
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
= + + du2 + + + dv 2
∂u ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
+2 dudv + 2 dudv + 2 dudv
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
2 2
∂r 2 ∂r ∂r ∂r
= du + dv 2 + 2 · dudv
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= Edu2 + Gdv 2 + 2F dudv

34
(d) For part (b) it was shown that the coordinates are orthogonal if and only if
(∂r/∂u) · (∂r/∂v) = 0. Hence, for the element of arc ds2 this implies
2 2 2 2
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
ds2 = du2 + dv 2 + 2 · dudv = du2 + dv 2
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
| {z } ∂u ∂v
0

(e) Let u = u(t), v = v(t) and u = U (τ ), v = V (τ ) be two curves on S meeting at a

point P0 of S for t = t0 , τ = τ0 , so that u(t0 ) = u0 = U (τ0 ), v(t0 ) = v0 = V (τ0 ).
Then, using (1.9), the angle θ between the corresponding velocity vectors ∂r/dt
at t0 and ∂r/dτ at τ0 (assumed both to be non-zero) is given by
dr dr
·
cos θ = dt dτ
dr dr
dt dτ
   
∂r du ∂r dv ∂r du ∂r dv
+ · +
∂u dt ∂v dt ∂u dτ ∂v dτ
=
∂r du ∂r dv ∂r du ∂r dv
+ +
∂u dt ∂v dt ∂u dτ ∂v dτ
   
∂r du ∂r dv ∂r du ∂r dv
+ · +
∂u dt ∂v dt ∂u dτ ∂v dτ
= " 2 # 1/2 "  2 #1/2
∂r du ∂r dv ∂r du ∂r dv
+ +
∂u dt ∂v dt ∂u dτ ∂v dτ
 
du du dv dv du dv dv du
E +G +F +
dt dτ dt dτ dt dτ dt dτ
= "   #1/2 "   #1/2
2   2 2  2
du dv du dv du dv du dv
E +G + 2F E +G + 2F
dt dt dt dt dτ dτ dτ dτ
Eu0 U 0 + Gv 0 V 0 + F (u0 V 0 + v 0 U 0 )
=
(Eu02 + gv 02 + 2F u0 v 0 )1/2 (EU 02 + GV 02 + 2F U 0 V 0 )1/2
where E, F, G are evaluated at (u0 , v0 ) and u0 = u0 (t0 ), v 0 = v 0 (t0 ), U 0 = U 0 (τ0 ), V 0 =
V 0 (τ0 ).
(f) If the paths of part (e) are the coordinate lines
u (t) = u0 + t − t0 v (t) = v0 U (τ ) = u0 V (τ ) = v0 + τ − τ0
such that
d dv0 du0 d
u0 = (u0 + t − t0 ) = 1 v 0 = = 0 U0 = =0 V0 = (v0 + τ − τ0 ) = 1
dt dt dτ dτ
then cos θ = F (EG)−1/2 at the point (u0 , v0 ).

35
(g) In order to apply the Implicit Function Theorem of Section 2.10, it is assumed
that at least one of ∂(g, h)/∂(u, v) 6= 0, ∂(f, h)/∂(u, v) 6= 0 or ∂(f, g)/∂(u, v) 6= 0,
or equivalently, that (∂r/∂u) × (∂r/∂v) > 0. Hence, the two vectors ∂r/∂u and
∂r/∂v are not parallel and thus linearly independent in D.
(h) To show that E > 0, G > 0 follows from the fact that since (∂r/∂u)×(∂r/∂v) > 0,
both (∂r/∂u) > 0 and (∂r/∂v) > 0, which in turn implies
2 2
∂r ∂r
E= >0 G= >0
∂u ∂v

Furthermore, recalling the identity

u·u u·v
|u × v|2 =
v·u v·v

from Problem 12 (a) following Section 1.5 we find that

2 2  2 2
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
− · = EG − F 2 = × >0
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v

where the last inequality again follows from (g).

(i) As stated in Section 2.21 a quadratic form is called positive definite if it is positive
for all non-zero values of its argument. As such, the expression for the element
of arc ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 is a positive definite quadratic form, since
ds2 ≥ 0. Furthermore, a quadratic form is positive definite if and only if all
eigenvalues of the n × n symmetric coefficient matrix A of the quadratic form are
positive. In the case of ds2 the coefficient matrix A is of the form
 
E F
A=
F G

Then the eigenvalues of A are the solutions of

E−λ F
= λ2 − (E + G) λ + EG − F 2 = 0
F G−λ

Hence,
q q
E + G ± (E + G)2 − 4 (EG − F 2 ) E + G ± (E − G)2 + 4F 2
λ= =
2 2
Now since we want both roots to be positive, it is sufficient to require that EG −
F 2 > 0 and E + G > 0. The last condition certainly is satisfied when E > 0, G >
0.

36
Section 3.11
1. In E 2 let (ξ 2 , ξ 2 ) be standard coordinates and let (x1 , x2 ) be new coordinates given by
x1 = 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 , x2 = 4ξ 1 + 3ξ 2 with inverses ξ 1 = 3x1 − 2x2 , ξ 2 = −4x1 + 3x2 .

(a) Let U1 = f1 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = ξ 1 ξ 2 , U2 = f1 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = ξ 1 − ξ 2 . Then using the rule

n
X ∂ξ j
ui = Uj
j=1
∂xi

we find

u1 = 3ξ 1 ξ 2 − 4 ξ 1 − ξ 2 = 3 3x1 − 2x2 −4x1 + 3x2 − 4 7x1 − 5x2

= −36x1 x1 + 51x1 x2 − 18x2 x2 − 28x1 + 20x2

u2 = −2ξ 1 ξ 2 + 3 ξ 1 − ξ 2 = −2 3x1 − 2x2 −4x1 + 3x2 + 3 7x1 − 5x2

= 24x1 x1 − 34x1 x2 + 12x2 x2 + 21x1 − 15x2

(b) Let V 1 = f1 (ξ 2 , ξ 2 ) = ξ 1 cos ξ 2 , V 2 = f2 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = ξ 1 sin ξ 2 . Then using the rule

n
i
X ∂xi
v = Vj
j=1
∂ξ j

we find

v 1 = 3ξ 1 cos ξ 2 + 2ξ 1 sin ξ 2 = 3x1 − 2x2 3 cos −4x1 + 3x2 + 2 sin −4x1 + 3x2





v 2 = 4ξ 1 cos ξ 2 + 3ξ 1 sin ξ 2 = 3x1 − 2x2 4 cos −4x1 + 3x2 + 3 sin −4x1 + 3x2





(c) Let W11 = f11 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = 0, W12 = f12 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = ξ 1 ξ 2 , W21 = f21 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = −ξ 1 ξ 2 , W22 =

f22 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = 0. Then using the rule
n X n
X ∂ξ k ∂ξ l
wij = Wkl
k=1 l=1
∂xi ∂xj

we find

w11 = (3) (3) (0) + (3) (−4) ξ 1 ξ 2 + (−4) (3) −ξ 1 ξ 2 + (−4) (−4) (0) = 0

w12 = (3) (−2) (0) + (3) (3) ξ 1 ξ 2 + (−4) (−2) −ξ 1 ξ 2 + (−4) (3) (0)

= ξ 1 ξ 2 = 3x1 − 2x2 −4x1 + 3x2 = −12x1 x1 + 17x1 x2 − 6x2 x2

w21 = (−2) (3) (0) + (−2) (−4) ξ 1 ξ 2 + (3) (3) −ξ 1 ξ 2 + (3) (−4) (0)

= −ξ 1 ξ 2 = −w12
w22 = (−2) (−2) (0) + (−2) (3) ξ 1 ξ 2 + (3) (−2) −ξ 1 ξ 2 + (3) (3) (0) = 0

37
 (d) Let Z11 = f11 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = ξ 1 + ξ 2 , Z21 = f12 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = Z12 = f21 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = 3ξ 1 +
2ξ 2 , Z22 = f22 (ξ 1 , ξ 2 ) = ξ 1 − ξ 2 . Then using the rule
n X n
X ∂xi ∂ξ l i
zji = Z
k=1 l=1
∂ξ k ∂xj j

we find

z11 = (3) (3) ξ 1 + ξ 2 + (3) (−4) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (2) (3) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (2) (−4) ξ1 − ξ2

= −17ξ 1 + 5ξ 2 = −17 3x1 − 2x2 + 5 −4x1 + 3x2 = −71x1 + 49x2

z21 = (3) (−2) ξ 1 + ξ 2 + (3) (3) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (2) (−2) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (2) (3) ξ1 − ξ2

= 15ξ 1 − 2ξ 2 = 15 3x1 − 2x2 − 2 −4x1 + 3x2 = 53x1 − 36x2

z12 = (4) (3) ξ 1 + ξ 2 + (4) (−4) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (3) (3) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (3) (−4) ξ1 − ξ2

= −21ξ 1 + 10ξ 2 = −21 3x1 − 2x2 + 10 −4x1 + 3x2 = −103x1 + 72x2

z22 = (4) (−2) ξ 1 + ξ 2 + (4) (3) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (3) (−2) 3ξ 1 + 2ξ 2 + (3) (3) ξ1 − ξ2

= 19ξ 1 − 5ξ 2 = 19 3x1 − 2x2 − 5 −4x1 + 3x2 = 77x1 − 53x2

2. (a) In standard coordinates, the fundamental metric tensor Gij reduces to δij (Kro-
necker delta), since in the (ξ i ) coordinates ds2 = dξ i dξ i = δij dξ i dξ j . Hence, we
can regard gij as the covariant tensor obtained from δij (constant functions) in
standard coordinates. In the (xi ) coordinates we find, using (3.84):

∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 2 ∂ξ 2
g11 = + = (3) (3) + (−4) (−4) = 25
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 2 ∂ξ 2
g12 = + = (3) (−2) + (−4) (3) = −18
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
g21 = g12 (since according to (3.84) gij is symmetric)
∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 2 ∂ξ 2
g22 = + = (−2) (−2) + (3) (3) = 13
∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2

(b) By setting Gij = δij in standard coordinates (ξ i ), we obtain a mixed second-order

tensor gji . In the (xi ) coordinates we obtain

∂xi ∂ξ l ∂xi ∂ξ k
gji = δ kl = = δij
∂ξ k ∂xj ∂ξ k ∂xj

since the matrices (∂xi /∂ξ k ) and (∂ξ k /∂xj ) are inverses of each other. Hence,
gji = gij = δij in all coordinates. Next, by setting Gij = δij in standard (ξ i )
coordinates we obtain a contravariant second-order tensor g ij :

∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj

g ij = δkl = = g ji
∂ξ k ∂ξ l ∂ξ k ∂ξ k

38
 Comparing this expression with (3.84) then suggests that (g ij ) is the inverse ma-
trix of (gij ), so that giα g αj = δij . Hence,
g 11 = g22 = 13 g 12 = g 21 = −g21 = 18
g 22 = g11 = 25

3. As the text states, we can raise or lower indices of a given tensor uij...
kl... by multiplying
by the metric tensor gpq or g pg to first increase the order by two, and then using
contraction, based on q and one selected index of uij...
kl... to lower the order by two.

(a) In order to find the contravariant vector ui associated with the covariant vector
ui from Problem 1 (a) in the (xi ) coordinates we compute ui = g ij uj , where g ij is
the metric tensor in (xi ) from Problem 2 (b):
u1 = g 11 u1 + g 12 u2 = 13u1 + 18u2 u2 = g 21 u1 + g 22 u2 = 18u1 + 25u2
where u1 and u2 are as in the answer to Problem 1 (a).
(b) In order to find the covariant vector vi associated with the contravariant vector
v i from Problem 1 (b) in the (xi ) coordinates we compute vi = gij uj , where gij is
the metric tensor in (xi ) from Problem 2 (a):
v1 = g11 v 1 + g12 v 2 = 25v 1 − 18v 2 v2 = g21 v 1 + g22 v 2 = −18v 1 + 13v 2
where v 1 and v 2 are as in the answer to Problem 1 (b).
(c) In order to find the second-order tensor wij contravariant in both indices associ-
ated with the tensor wij from Problem 1 (c) in the (xi ) coordinates we compute
wij = g ikjl wkl , where g ikjl = g ik g jl is the tensor product of two second-order
metric tensors in (xi ) identical to the second-order metric tensor contravariant in
both indices from Problem 2 (b):
w11 = g 1k11 wk1 + g 1k12 wk2
= g 1111 w11 + g 1112 w12 + g 1211 w21 + g 1212 w22
= g 1111 (0) + g 1112 w12 − g 1211 w12 + g 1212 (0) = 0
w12 = g 1k21 wk1 + g 1k22 wk2
= g 1121 w11 + g 1122 w12 + g 1221 w21 + g 1222 w22
= g 1121 (0) + g 1122 w12 − g 1221 w12 + g 1222 (0) = w12
w21 = g 2k11 wk1 + g 2k12 wk2
= g 2111 w11 + g 2112 w12 + g 2211 w21 + g 2212 w22
= g 2111 (0) + g 2112 w12 − g 2211 w12 + g 2212 (0) = −w12
w22 = g 2k21 wk1 + g 2k22 wk2
= g 2121 w11 + g 2122 w12 + g 2221 w21 + g 2222 w22
= g 2121 (0) + g 2122 w12 − g 2221 w12 + g 2222 (0) = 0
where w11 , w12 , w21 , w22 are as in the answer to Problem 1 (c).

39
4. (a) Let a tensor uij...
kl... be such that all of its components are equal to zero at a given
point in (x ) coordinates. Changing to (x̄i ) coordinates,
i

∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs

ūij...
kl... = . . . . . . upq...
rs...
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂x1 ∂x1 11... ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xn ∂xn
= . . . . . . u11... + · · · + . . . . . . unn...
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l |{z} ∂xn ∂xn ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l | nn...
{z }
0 0

then implies that the tensor ūij...

kl... will have all of its components equal to zero
i
in (x̄ ) coordinates as well, since we are summing over products of derivatives of
coordinates and the values of tensor components, all of which are equal to zero.
(b) Let two tensors uij... ij...
kl... and vkl... of the same type be such that their corresponding
components are equal in (xi ) coordinates, i.e. uij... ij... i
kl... = vkl... . Changing to (x̄ )
coordinates,
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs
ūij...
kl... = p q
. . . k l
. . . upq...
rs... = p q
. . . k l
pq...
. . . vrs... ij...
= v̄kl...
∂x ∂x ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂x ∂x ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
then indicates that corresponding components are equal in every allowed coordi-
nate system.
(c) Let a second-order tensor uij be such that uij = uji in (xi ) coordinates. Changing
to (x̄i ) coordinates,
∂xk ∂xl ∂xk ∂xl ∂xl ∂xk
ūij = u kl = ulk = ulk = ūji
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i
then indicates that ūij = ūji in every other coordinate system (x̄i ), and hence,
that the second-order tensor uij is symmetric.
(d) Let a second-order tensor uij be such that uij = −uji in (xi ) coordinates. Chang-
ing to (x̄i ) coordinates,
∂xk ∂xl ∂xk ∂xl ∂xl ∂xk
ūij = ukl = − ulk = − ulk = −ūji
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i
then indicates that ūij = −ūji in every other coordinate system (x̄i ), and hence,
that the second-order tensor uij is alternating.
5. Let us define the components Ui of a covariant vector field defined in (ξ i ) coordinates,
that is n functions U1 (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ), . . . , Un (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) in D. Then to each other coor-
dinate system, say (xi ), we can assign corresponding components ui by the equation
ui = (∂ξ j /∂xi )Uj . Next, let (x̄i ) be some other coordinate system such that we have
similarly ūi = (∂ξ j /∂ x̄i )Uj . Now since (∂ξ j /∂xi ) has the matrix (∂xj /∂ξ i ) as its in-
verse, we can solve the equation for ui in terms of Uj : Uj = (∂xk /∂ξ j )uk . If we
substitute for Uj in the equation for ūi we obtain
∂ξ j ∂ξ j ∂xk ∂xk
ūi = Uj = uk = uk
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄i ∂ξ j ∂ x̄i

40
 which is none other than (3.75). Accordingly, once we have assigned components in the
standard coordinates (ξ i ), we automatically obtain components in all other coordinate
systems, related by (3.75), and a covariant vector is obtained.
6. To show that (g ij ) is the inverse matrix of (gij ) we compute
∂ξ k ∂ξ k ∂xα ∂xj ∂ξ k ∂xj ∂ξ k ∂xα ∂ξ k ∂xj ∂ξ k ∂xj
giα g αj = i ∂xα ∂ξ l ∂ξ l
= i ∂ξ l ∂xα ∂ξ l
= δ
i ∂ξ l kl
= i ∂ξ k
= δij
∂x
| {z } | {z } ∂x ∂x ∂x
(3.84) (3.86)

7. To prove that g = det(gij ) is positive note that by (3.84) the matrix (gij ) is a product
of two matrices:
∂ξ r ∂ξ r
gij =
∂xi ∂xj
Then taking determinants of both sides of this equation gives
 r r  r  r
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
det (gij ) = det = det det >0
∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
| {z }
(1.60)

since the individual determinants will produce the same scalar result and hence, their
product will be positive.
8. (a) Let vji and wji be two tensors of the same type in (xi ) coordinates, given in the
neighborhood D of a point. Next, let vji + wji = uij define the sum of the two
tensors, producing another tensor of the same type. In order to check that this
indeed is the case, consider changing to (x̄i ) coordinates:
∂ x̄i ∂xl k ∂ x̄i ∂xl k ∂ x̄i ∂xl k
∂ x̄i ∂xl k
v̄ji + w̄ji = v + w = v + w k
l = u = ūkl
∂xk ∂ x̄j l ∂xk ∂ x̄j l ∂xk ∂ x̄j l ∂xk ∂ x̄j l
which shows that the sum of two tensors of the same type produces another tensor
of the same type under a coordinate transformation, and hence, that the addition
of two tensors of the same type is indeed defined by (3.90).
ij... ij...
(b) Let vkl... and wkl... be two tensors of the same, but arbitrary type in (xi ) coordi-
ij... ij...
nates, given in the neighborhood D of a point. Next, let vkl... + wkl... = uij...
kl... define
the sum of the two tensors, producing another tensor of the same type. As for
part (a), in order to check that this is indeed the case, consider changing to (x̄i )
coordinates:
ij... ij... ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs pq... ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs pq...
v̄kl... + w̄kl... = . . . . . . vrs... + . . . . . . wrs...
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l ∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs pq... pq...
= p q
. . . k l . . . (vrs... + wrs... )
∂x ∂x ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs ij...
= . . . . . . upq...
rs... = ūkl...
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l

41
 which shows that the sum of two tensors of the same, but arbitrary type produces
another tensor of the same type under a coordinate transformation, and hence,
that the addition of two tensors of the same, but arbitrary type is indeed defined
ij... ij...
by vkl... + wkl... = uij...
kl... .

9. Let uij be a tensor covariant in both indices and let f be an arbitrary scalar invariant.
We can then define multiplication of a tensor by an invariant as f uij = vij , producing
another tensor of the same type. In order to check that this is indeed the case, consider
changing to (x̄i ) coordinates:

∂xk ∂xl ∂xk ∂xl ∂xk ∂xl

f ūij = f u kl = f ukl = vkl = v̄ij
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j
which shows that the product of a tensor with a scalar invariant produces another
tensor of the same type under a coordinate transformation, and hence, that (3.91)
holds.

10. Let ui , vj , wk , z l , pmh be tensors. Then the given tensor products are a tensor since

(a)
∂xk ∂xl ∂xk ∂xl ∂xk ∂xl
 
ūi v̄j = uk vl = uk vl = skl = s̄ij
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j
(b)
∂xl ∂ x̄k j ∂xl ∂ x̄k ∂xl ∂ x̄k j
 
k j
ūi w̄ = ul w = ul w = t = t̄ki
∂ x̄i ∂xj ∂ x̄i ∂xj ∂ x̄i ∂xj l
(c)
∂ x̄k i ∂ x̄l j ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l i j ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l ij
 
k l
w̄ z̄ = w z = wz = q = q̄ kl
∂xi ∂x j i
∂x ∂x j i
∂x ∂x j

(d)

∂ x̄k l ∂xn ∂xi ∂ x̄k ∂xn ∂xi l ∂ x̄k ∂xn ∂xi l

 
k
w̄ p̄mh = w p ni = w p ni = d = d¯kmh
∂xl ∂ x̄m ∂ x̄h ∂xl ∂ x̄m ∂ x̄h ∂xl ∂ x̄m ∂ x̄h ni

when changing to (x̄i ) coordinates.

11. (a) Let uij i

kl be a tensor contravariant in two indices and covariant in two indices in (x )
coordinates. Then in order to prove that contracting the aforementioned tensor
will produce a second-order tensor, we will show that the same procedure can be
carried out while transforming from (xi ) to (x̄i ) coordinates:

∂ x̄j ∂xr q ∂ x̄j ∂xr lq ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂ x̄i ∂xm lq
w̄kj = w = u = lq
δlm urm = u
∂xq ∂ x̄k r ∂xq ∂ x̄k rl ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂xl ∂ x̄i rm
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xm lq
= u = ūij
∂xl ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄i rm ki

42
 where the matrices (∂ x̄i /∂xl ) and (∂xm /∂ x̄i ) are inverses of each other. Similarly,
let uij
kj be a tensor contravariant in two indices and covariant in two indices in
(x ) coordinates. Transforming to (x̄i ) then gives
i

∂ x̄i ∂xr q ∂ x̄i ∂xr ql ∂ x̄i ∂xr ∂ x̄i ∂xr ∂ x̄j ∂xm ql
v̄ki = v = u = δlm uql
= u
∂xq ∂ x̄k r ∂xq ∂ x̄k rl ∂xq ∂ x̄k rm
∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂xl ∂ x̄j rm
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xm ql
= u = ūij
∂xq ∂xl ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄j rm kj

(b) Let uij... i

kl... be a tensor of arbitrary type in (x ) coordinates. Then in order to prove
that contracting the aforementioned tensor will produce a tensor with an order of
two lower than the original tensor, we will show that the same procedure can be
carried out while transforming from (xi ) to (x̄i ) coordinates:
jk... ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k ∂xr ∂xs jk... ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k ∂xr ∂xs
w̄lm... = . . . . . . w lm... = . . . . . . utpq...
rs...t
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄l ∂ x̄m ∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄l ∂ x̄m
j k r s
∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂x ∂x
= p q
. . . l m
. . . upq...t
rs...t
∂x ∂x ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k ∂xr ∂xs
= . . . . . . δtu upq...t
rs...u
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄l ∂ x̄m
j k r s
∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂x ∂x ∂ x̄ ∂xu pq...t
i
= . . . l m . . . t i urs...u
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂x ∂ x̄
∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄i ∂xr ∂xs ∂xu
= . . . l m i . . . upq...t rs...u
∂xp ∂xq ∂xt ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
= ūjk...i ijk...
lm...i = ūlm...i

where the matrices (∂ x̄i /∂xt ) and (∂xu /∂ x̄i ) are inverses of each other.
12. To show that the Γijl can be expressed as in (3.94), firstly note that
∂ 2 ξ α ∂xi ∂ξ α ∂ξ α
Γijl gis =
∂xj ∂xl ∂ξ α ∂xi ∂xs
∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ α
=
∂xj ∂xl ∂xs
∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ α ∂ξ α ∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ α ∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ α ∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ α ∂ 2 ξ α

1
= 2 l j s+ j s l− j s l+ −
2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xl ∂xs ∂xj ∂xl ∂xs ∂xj
 α 2 α
∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ α ∂ξ α ∂ 2 ξ α ∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ α

1 ∂ξ ∂ ξ
= + + +
2 ∂xj ∂xs ∂xl ∂xl ∂xj ∂xs ∂xl ∂xs ∂xj ∂xl ∂xj ∂xs
 α 2 α
∂ξ α ∂ 2 ξ α

1 ∂ξ ∂ ξ
− +
2 ∂xj ∂xs ∂xl ∂xl ∂xs ∂xj
  α α  α α  α α 
1 ∂ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ξ
= l j s
+ j l s
− s
2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xj ∂xl
 
1 ∂gjs ∂gls ∂gjl
= + −
2 ∂xl ∂xj ∂xs

43
 Multiplying both sides by g st then gives
 
i st 1 ∂gjs ∂gls ∂gjl
Γjl gis g = + − g st
2 ∂xl ∂xj ∂x s
 
i 1 st ∂gjs ∂gls ∂gjl
Γjl δit = g + −
2 ∂xl ∂xj ∂xs
 
1 ∂gjs ∂gls ∂gjl
Γtjl = g st + −
2 ∂xl ∂xj ∂xs

where we can move the matrix (g st ) to before the brackets on the right hand side, since
it is real and symmetric.

13. From (3.101) and (3.92) it follows that

∂uα
div u = div ui = ∆α uα = + Γααl ul
∂xα
Next, setting i = j = α in (3.94) gives
   
α 1 αs ∂gαs ∂gls ∂gαl 1 αs ∂gαs αs ∂gls αs ∂gαl
Γαl = g + α− = g +g −g
2 ∂xl ∂x ∂xs 2 ∂xl ∂xα ∂xs
 
1 ∂gαs ∂gls ∂gsl
= g αs + −
2 ∂xl ∂xs ∂xs
 
1 αs ∂gαs ∂gls ∂gls 1 αs ∂gαs
= g + − = g
2 ∂xl ∂xs ∂xs 2 ∂xl

Furthermore, by (1.31) and (1.32), and more generally, using Laplace expansion, ex-
panding along the αth row of the matrix (gαs ), note that the determinant g = det(gαs )
can be written as
n
X
g = det (gαs ) = gα1 Aα1 + gα,2 Aα2 + · · · + gαn Aαn = gαs Aαs
s=1

where for the moment we do not use the summation convention (i.e. there is no sum
over α implied here) and where Aαs denotes the cofactor of the matrix (gα,s ) when
expanding along the αth row: Aαs = (−1)α+s Mαs . Here Mαs denotes the minor
of the entry in the αth row and sth column of (gαs ), i.e. Mαs is the determinant of
the sub-matrix formed by deleting the αth row and sth column of (gαs ). Now the
determinant of (gαs ) can be considered to be a function of the elements of (gαs ):
det(gαs ) = F (g11 , g12 , . . . , g21 , g22 , . . . , gnn ) so that by the general chain rule (2.43)
n n
∂ X X ∂F ∂gαs
det (gαs ) =
∂xl α=1 s=1
∂gαs ∂xl

44
 where the summation is performed over all n × n elements of the matrix (gαs ). To find
∂F/∂gαs , note that the index α can be chosen at will when expanding the determinant
according to Laplace’s formula. In particular, it can be chosen so as to coincide with
the first index of ∂/∂gαs . Hence,
n n n n
∂ ∂ X X ∂ X ∂gαk X ∂Aαk
det (gαs ) = gαk Aαk = (gαk Aαk ) = Aαk + gαk
∂gαs ∂gαs k=1 ∂gαs ∂gαs ∂g
k=1 k=1 k=1 | {zαs}
0
n
X ∂gαk
= Aαk
k=1
∂gαs
Xn
= δks Aαk = Aαs
k=1

The right-most term ∂Aαk /∂gαs is zero because if an element of the matrix (gαs ) and
the cofactor Aαk associated with the matrix element gαk lie on the same row, then the
cofactor will not be a function of (gαs ), since the cofactor of gαk is expressed in terms
of elements not in its own row. As such
n X n n n
∂ X ∂F ∂gαs X X ∂gαs ∂gαs
l
det (gαs ) = l
= Aαs l
= Aαs
∂x α=1 s=1
∂gαs ∂x α=1 s=1
∂x ∂xl

where in the last step the summation convention is assumed again. Now since gαs =
gsα (i.e. the matrix (gαs ) is symmetric) we have A> αs = adj(gαs ) = Aαs . Then by
Problem 7 (c) following Section 1.9 we find Aαs = gg αs , where by (3.87) the matrix
(g αs ) = (g sα ) is the inverse of the matrix (gαs ). Hence, we conclude that
∂ ∂gαs ∂gαs 1 ∂ 1 ∂g
l
det (gαs ) = gg αs =⇒ g αs = det (gαs ) =
∂x ∂xl ∂x l g ∂x l g ∂xl
and so Γααl = (2g)−1 (∂g/∂xl ), thus allowing us to write div u as
∂uα ∂uα 1 ∂g l
div u = div ui = ∆α uα = + Γ α l
αl u = + u
∂xα ∂xα 2g ∂xl
∂uα 1 ∂g α
= α
+ u (rename dummy index l)
∂x 2g ∂xα
1 ∂ √ αl

=√ gg ul
g ∂xα

14. By (3.108) and (3.95) we find

∂uj ∂ui ∂uj ∂ui
curl u = bij = ∆i uj − ∆j ui = i
− Γlji ul − j + Γlij ul = i
− Γlji ul − j + Γlji ul
|∂x {z } ∂x ∂x ∂x |{z}
(3.95) (3.93)

∂uj ∂ui
= −
∂xi ∂xj
45
15. Let the norm of a vector u be its norm or length in standard coordinates (ξ i ). Thus
for components U i or Ui we have |u| = (U i U i )1/2 = (Ui Ui )1/2 . Using the relations U i =
(∂ξ i /∂xj )uj and Ui = (∂xj /∂ξ i )Uj ), the fact that U i (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) = fi (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) =
Ui (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) and (3.84) and (3.86) we then find additionally
 i 1/2  i k 1/2
k k 1/2

k 1/2

∂x ∂ξ k j ∂x ∂ξ j j 1/2


|u| = U U = Uk U = ui u = u i u = δ ij u i u
∂ξ k ∂xj ∂ξ k ∂xj
1/2
= ui ui


 k 1/2  k k 1/2
k k 1/2 ∂ξ i ∂ξ k j ∂ξ ∂ξ i j
1/2
= gij ui uj


|u| = U U = i
u j
u = i j
uu
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
 i 1/2 1/2
∂x ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
 
1/2
1/2
|u| = (Uk Uk ) = k
ui k uj = k k
ui uj = g ij ui uj
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ

16. Let the inner product of two vectors u and v be defined as the invariant u = ui v i in
some arbitrary coordinate system (xi ). Hence, in standard coordinates (ξ i ) we find
∂xi ∂ξ k ∂xi ∂ξ k j
(u, v) = ui v i = δij ui v j = ui v j
= ui v = Uk V k = U k V k = Uk Vk
∂ξ k ∂xj ∂ξ k ∂xj
where the last two equalities hold since in standard coordinates (ξ i ) it is true that
U i (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) = fi (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) = Ui (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) and V i (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) = gi (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ) =
Vi (ξ 1 , . . . , ξ n ). Additionally, we then find
∂ξ k i ∂ξ k j ∂ξ k ∂ξ k i j
(u, v) = U k V k = u v = u v = gij ui v j
∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
(u, v) = Uk Vk = k ui k vj = k k ui vj = g ij ui vj
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
i k
∂x ∂ξ ∂xi ∂ξ k
(u, u) = Uk U k = k ui j uj = k j ui ui = δij ui ui = ui ui = |u|2
∂ξ ∂x ∂ξ ∂x

17. (a) Let ui and v j be two contravariant tensors in (xi ) coordinates and let the tensor
product bij ui v j be an invariant. In other words, the scalar quantity obtained from
the tensor product bij ui v j should be the same in every other coordinate system
(x̄i ), i.e. it should hold that bij ui v j = b̄ij ūi v̄ j . To this end, let us assume that bij
is a covariant tensor so that b̄ij = (∂xk /∂ x̄i )(∂xl /∂ x̄j )bkl . Then
∂xk ∂xl ∂ x̄i r ∂ x̄j s ∂xk ∂ x̄i ∂xl ∂ x̄j
b̄ij ūi v̄ j = bkl u u = bkl ur us = δkr δls bkl ur us
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs ∂ x̄i ∂xr ∂ x̄j ∂xs
= bkl δkr ur δls us
= bkl uk ul
which confirms that the tensor product bij ui v j indeed produces an invariant when
bij is a second-order covariant tensor.

46
 (b) Let ui , vj , . . . , wk , z l , . . . be covariant and contravariant vectors in (xi ) coordi-
nates and let the tensor product bij... k l
kl... ui vj . . . w z . . . be an invariant. In other
words, the scalar quantity obtained from the tensor product bij... k l
kl... ui vj . . . w z . . .
i
should be the same in every other coordinate system (x̄ ), i.e. it should hold that
bij... k l ij... k l
kl... ui vj . . . w z · · · = b̄kl... ūi v̄j . . . w̄ z̄ . . . . To this end, let us assume that bkl... is
ij...

a tensor of the type indicated so that

∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs

b̄ij...
kl... = p q
. . . k l
. . . bpq
rs
∂x ∂x ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
Then
∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xr ∂xs pq... ∂x
α
∂xβ ∂ x̄k κ ∂ x̄l λ
b̄ij... k l
kl... ūi v̄j . . . w̄ z̄ = . . . . . . brs... uα v β . . . w z ...
∂xp ∂xq ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄l ∂ x̄i ∂ x̄j ∂xκ ∂xλ
∂ x̄i ∂xα ∂ x̄j ∂xβ ∂xr ∂ x̄k ∂xs ∂ x̄l
= . . . . . . bpq... κ λ
rs... uα vβ . . . w z . . .
∂xp ∂ x̄i ∂xq ∂ x̄j ∂ x̄k ∂xκ ∂ x̄l ∂xλ
= δpα δqβ . . . δrκ δsλ . . . bpq... κ λ
rs... uα vβ . . . w z . . .
= bpq... κ λ pq... r s
rs... δpα δqβ uα vβ . . . δrκ δsλ w z · · · = brs... up vq . . . w z . . .

which confirms that the tensor product bij... k l

kl... ui vj . . . w z . . . indeed produces an
ij...
invariant when bkl... is a tensor of the type indicated.

18. (a) In order to obtain the contravariant tensor bij associated with the covariant tensor
bij we can simply multiply bij by the contravariant metric tensor g pq twice to raise
both indices of bij as is discussed in Section 3.9. Hence,
 
ij ik jl ik jl ∂ul ∂uk
b = g g bkl = g g −
∂xk ∂xl
| {z }
(3.109)

(b) By (3.83) and (3.84), and using the fact that the (xi ) coordinates are assumed to
be orthogonal, we find for n = 3: ds2 = g11 dx1 dx2 + g22 dx2 dx2 + g33 dx3 dx3 . That
is, the metric tensor (gij ) is diagonal, since for an arbitrary off-diagonal element
gkl , k 6= l we have1

∂ξ i ∂ξ i ∂Ξ ∂Ξ
gkl = k l
= · =0 for k 6= l
∂x ∂x ∂xk ∂xl
Comparing this result with (3.54) and recognizing that x1 = u, x2 = v, x3 = w
we thus conclude that g11 = α2 , g22 = β 2 , g33 = γ 2 , and by (3.87) we thus find
that g 11 = 1/α2 , g 22 = 1/β 2 , g 33 = 1/γ 2 . Now as (3.58’) shows, the components
pu , pv , pw of the vector p from Section 3.8 are neither contravariant nor covariant.
Instead these components are obtained geometrically by perpendicular projection.
1
Also see the discussion surrounding (3.53) and (3.54).

47
 From (3.58’) we see that αpu , βpv , γpw are covariant components of p. Hence,
substituting in the equation of part (a) to find the three non-zero components
b23 , b31 , b12 of the tensor bij gives

b23 = g 21 g 31 (. . . ) + g 22 g 32 (. . . ) + g 23 g 33 (. . . ) + g 22 g 31 (. . . ) + g 21 g 32 (. . . )
| {z } |{z} |{z} |{z} | {z }
0 0 0 0 0
 
23 31 21 33 23 32 22 33 ∂u 3 ∂u 2
+ g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . ) + g g −
| {z } |{z} | {z } ∂x2 ∂x3
0 0 0
 
1 ∂ ∂
= 2 2 (γpw ) − (βpv )
β γ ∂v ∂w
b31 = g 31 g 11 (. . . ) + g 32 g 12 (. . . ) + g 33 g 13 (. . . ) + g 32 g 11 (. . . ) + g 31 g 12 (. . . )
|{z} | {z } |{z} |{z} | {z }
0 0 0 0 0
 
∂u 1 ∂u 3
+ g 33 g 11 − + g 31 g 13 (. . . ) + g 33 g 12 (. . . ) + g 32 g 13 (. . . )
∂x3 ∂x1 | {z } |{z} | {z }
0 0 0
 
1 ∂ ∂
= 2 2 (αpu ) − (γpw )
γ α ∂w ∂u
 
12 11 21 12 22 13 23 12 21 11 22 ∂u2 ∂u1
b = g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . ) + g g −
|{z} |{z} | {z } | {z } ∂x1 ∂x2
0 0 0 0
13 21 11 23 13 22 12 23
+ g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . ) + g g (. . . )
| {z } |{z} |{z} | {z }
0 0 0 0
 
1 ∂ ∂
= 2 2 (βpv ) − (αpu )
α β ∂u ∂v

Comparing this result with (3.62), we see that each components differs by a factor
of 1/βγ, 1/γα, 1/αβ respectively. Again, this difference can be explained due
to the fact that the components given by (3.62) are neither contravariant nor
covariant. Let us focus on component b23 for now. Taking a hint from the solution
to Problem 5 following Section 3.8 and (3.46), we can obtain the first of (3.62) by
accounting for the extra scaling by βγ due to dotting ∇ × p with (1/α)(∂r/∂u) =
βγ (∇G × ∇H) in order to obtain the u component of curl p. In the same way
we can account for the difference in scaling between respectively the second and
third of (3.62) and the components b31 and b12 of the contravariant tensor bij .
(c) A covariant tensor is called alternating if interchanging two subscripts changes
the sign. Now since
 
∂uj ∂ui ∂ui ∂uj ∂ui ∂uj
bij = − j =− j + i =− − i = −bji
∂xi ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xj ∂x

the second-order covariant tensor bij is alternating.

48
19. For n = 3, let ui , vj be two covariant tensors and let their exterior (or wedge) product
be given by X
wij = ui ∧ vj = 2A (ui vj ) = ηij ui vj =
where the sum is over all permutations of i and j and ηij is +1 for an even permutation,
−1 for an odd permutation. Hence, we find
w23 = u2 v3 − u3 v2 = −w32 , w31 = u3 v1 − u1 v3 = −w13 , w12 = u1 v2 − u2 v1 = −w21
so that in standard coordinates x, y, z, with usual orientation and u1 = ux , . . . , v1 =
vx , . . . , the three components of the vector product (ux i + . . . ) × (vx i + . . . ) are none
other than the components w23 , w31 , w12 respectively.
20. Let ui1 ...ir be a covariant tensor in E n (r ≥ 2) and let it be alternating in some coor-
dinate system (xi ). Transforming to (x̄i ) coordinates and interchanging the first two
indices then gives
∂xj1 ∂xj2 ∂xjr ∂xj2 ∂xj1 ∂xjr
ūi1 i2 ...ir = . . . u j j ...j = . . . (−uj2 j1 ...jr )
∂ x̄i1 ∂ x̄i2 ∂ x̄ir 1 2 r ∂ x̄i2 ∂ x̄i1 ∂ x̄ir
∂xj2 ∂xj1 ∂xjr
= − i2 i1 . . . ir uj2 j1 ...jr = −ūi2 i1 ...ir
∂ x̄ ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
which shows that interchanging two indices does nothing more than reversing the sign
of the original alternating tensor after an odd number of interchanges or nothing after
an even number of interchanges and reordering the summation operations (which has
no effect on the end result). Hence, we may conclude that if a tensor ui1 ...ir is alternating
in one coordinate system (xi ) it is alternating in every other allowed coordinate system
(x̄i ).
21. Let ui , vi , wij be alternating covariant tensors in E 3 .
(a) Let the tensor product ui vj = pij be a second-order covariant tensor. Then pij is
alternating if pij = −pji (i = 1, . . . , n, j = 1, . . . , n), which in turn implies that
pij = 0 if i = j, and hence, p11 = u1 v1 = 0. As such, if p11 = u1 v1 6= 0, then
pij = ui vj fails to be an alternating second-order covariant tensor.
(b) Let the tensor product ui wjk = pijk be a third-order covariant tensor. Then pijk
is alternating if for 1 ≤ i, j, k ≤ n: pijk = −pjik = −pikj = −pkji , which in turn
implies that when each components of pijk has a subscript equal it will be zero,
i.e. uijk = 0 if i = j or i = k or j = k. Hence, p121 = u1 w21 = 0. As such, if
p121 = u1 w21 6= 0, then pijk = ui wjk fails to be an alternating third-order covariant
tensor.
(c) In some coordinate system (xi ) let ui = 1 for i = 1, 2, 3 and let the tensor
product pij = ui vj be a second-order covariant tensor. Then pij is alternating if
for i = 1, 2, 3, j = 1, 2, 3 it holds that pij = ui vj = −pji = −uj vi . Since ui = 1
for all i = 1, 2, 3 this condition reduces to vj = −vi , which obviously can only be
satisfied if vj = 0 for j = 1, 2, 3.

49
22. Let ui1 ...im be a covariant tensor in coordinate system (xi ). Then equation (3.114)
defines a new covariant tensor vi1 ...im which is alternating since in (x̄i ) coordinates
∂xj1 ∂xjm ∂xj1 ∂xjm
v̄i1 ...im = . . . vj ...j = . . . A (uj1 ...jm )
∂ x̄i1 ∂ x̄im 1 m ∂ x̄i1 ∂ x̄im
∂xj1 ∂xjm 1 X
= . . . ηj1 j2 ...jm uj1 j2 ...jm
∂ x̄i1 ∂ x̄im m!
1 X ∂xj1 ∂xjm
= ηj1 j2 ...jm i1 . . . im uj1 j2 ...jm
m! ∂ x̄ ∂ x̄
1 X
= ηj1 j2 ...jm ūi1 i2 ...im = A (ūi1 i2 ...im )
m!
23. (a) Using the fact r = r(u(t), v(t)), such that ∂r/∂u = ru and ∂r/∂v = rv , that the
parameter t is arc length s on C (so that |v| = ds/dt = 1), and (2.40) we can
write the equation for the unit tangent vector T = dr/ds as
dr ∂r du ∂r dv du dv
T= = + = ru + rv
ds ∂u ds ∂v ds ds ds
(b) The acceleration vector a = dT/ds is given by
 
dT d ∂r du ∂r dv
a= = +
ds ds ∂u ds ∂v ds
∂r d2 u du d ∂r ∂r d2 u dv d ∂r
   
= + + +
ds2 ds ds ∂u
∂u |{z} ds2 ds ds ∂v
∂v |{z}
0 2 2
0
dv ∂ 2 r dv ∂ 2 r du
  
du ∂ r du ∂ r dv
= + + +
ds ∂u2 ds ∂u∂v ds ds ∂v 2 ds ∂v∂u ds
 2 2  2 2
du ∂ r du dv ∂ 2 r dv ∂ r
= 2
+2 +
ds ∂u ds ds ∂u∂v ds ∂v 2
 2  2
du du dv dv
= ruu + 2 ruv + rvv
ds ds ds ds
Note that we are assuming that d2 u/ds2 = d2 v/ds2 = 0 because of Problem 10 (f)
following Section 3.8.
(c) Using the first Frenet formula from Problem 6 (d) following Section 2.13 κN =
dT/ds we can write
"   2 #
2
dT du du dv dv
κN · n = ·n= ruu + 2 ruv + rvv · n
ds ds ds ds ds
 2  2
du du dv dv
= ruu · n + 2 ruv · n + rvv · n
ds ds ds ds
 2  2
du du dv dv
=L + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds

50
 (d) Let us consider a fixed point P0 : (u0 , v0 ) on the surface in space S and let
i1 , j1 , k1 be a special basis for vectors in space with k1 = n at point P0 . Then
we write r = r0 + ξi1 + ηj1 + ζk1 , with (ξ, η ζ) = (0, 0, 0) at P0 . The unit normal
n = w/|w|, where w = ru × rv . Hence, ru ⊥ n, rv ⊥ n (i.e. both ru and rv
are orthogonal to n), and so ru · n = rv · n = 0 at P0 . Now since at P0 we also
have ru · n = (ξu i1 + ηu j1 + ζu k1 ) · k1 = ζu , we conclude that ζu = 0 at P0 . A
similar reasoning shows that ζv = 0 at P0 . Furthermore, we find L = ruu · n =
(ξuu i1 + ηuu j1 + ζuu k1 ) · k1 = ζuu , M = ruv · n = (ξuv i1 + ηuv j1 + ζuv k1 ) · k1 =
ζuv , N = rvv · n = (ξvv i1 + ηvv j1 + ζvv k1 ) · k1 = ζvv at P0 . These conditions must
hold at P0 for each allowable coordinate system (u, v). Hence, for new coordinates
(ū, v̄) with ū = ū0 , v̄ = v̄0 at P0 we find, using (2.133) and Problem 6 following
that section, that at P0
 2  2
∂ 2ζ ∂ζ ∂ 2 ū ∂ 2 ζ ∂ ū ∂ 2 ζ ∂ ū ∂v̄ ∂ 2 ζ ∂v̄ ∂ζ ∂ 2 v̄
ζuu = = + + 2 + +
∂u2 |{z}
∂ ū ∂u2 ∂ ū2 ∂u ∂ ū∂v̄ ∂u ∂u ∂v̄ 2 ∂u ∂v̄ ∂u2
|{z}
0 0
2 2
= ζūū (ūu ) + 2ζūv̄ ūu v̄u + ζv̄v̄ (v̄u )
2
∂ ζ ∂ζ ∂ 2 ū ∂ 2 ζ ∂ ū ∂ ū ∂ 2 ζ ∂ ū ∂v̄ ∂ 2 ζ ∂ ū ∂v̄ ∂ 2 ζ ∂v̄ ∂v̄
ζuv = = + + + +
∂ ū ∂u∂v ∂ ū2 ∂u ∂v ∂ ū∂v̄ ∂v ∂u ∂ ū∂v̄ ∂u ∂v ∂v̄ 2 ∂u ∂v
∂u∂v |{z}
0
∂ζ ∂ 2 v̄
+ = ζūū ūu ūv + ζūv̄ ūv v̄u + ζūv̄ ūu v̄v + ζv̄v̄ v̄u v̄v
∂v̄ ∂u∂v
|{z}
0
2
2 2
∂ζ ∂ 2 ū ∂ 2 ζ ∂ 2 ζ ∂ ū ∂v̄ ∂ 2 ζ ∂ζ ∂ 2 v̄
 
∂ ζ ∂ ū ∂v̄
ζvv = 2 = + +2 + +
∂v ∂ ū ∂v 2 ∂ ū2
|{z} ∂v ∂ ū∂v̄ ∂v ∂v ∂v̄ 2 ∂v ∂v̄ ∂v 2
|{z}
0 0
2 2
= ζūū (ūv ) + 2ζūv̄ ūv v̄v + ζv̄v̄ (v̄v )

Let i ≤ i, j, k, l ≤ 2. Then it is trivial to see that the four equations above can
be written as the tensor equation
∂ ūk ∂ ūl
Lij = L̄kl
∂ui ∂uj

24. (a) The result of Problem 23 (c) shows that the curvature κ satisfies the equation
 2  2
du du dv dv
κN · n = L + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds
Using (1.9) and the fact that the principal normal vector N and the normal vector
n for the surface S are both unit vectors, this equation can be rewritten as
 2  2
du du dv dv
κ cos θ = L + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds

51
 where θ = ](N, n). Since T is assumed to be kept fixed (such that du/ds =
const, dv/ds = const), while N is varied, this reduces to κ cos θ = const =
±κn , κn ≥ 0, where the ± sign follows from the fact that cos θ > 0 for 0 ≤ θ < π/2
and cos θ < 0 for π/2 < θ ≤ π.
(b) From part (a) and the fact that κn ≥ 0 it follows immediately that
 2  2
du du dv dv
κn = L + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds

25. Let the tangent vector T vary at a fixed point P0 and let ξ = du/ds, η = dv/ds. Then
by Problem 24 (b) κn = |Lξ 2 + 2M ξη + N η 2 |. Then on order to find the maximum
and minimum of the normal curvature κn for the tangent vector T at the fixed point
P0 we are led to seek the critical points of the function f (ξ, η) = Lξ 2 + 2M ξη + N η 2
subject to the side condition g(ξ, η) = Eξ 2 + 2F ξη + Gη 2 = 1 from Problem 23 (a).
Next, taking a hint from Problem 14 and 15 following Section 2.21, we can write
   >    >
f (ξ, η) = ξ η A ξ η , g(ξ, η) = ξ η B ξ η , where
   
L M E F
A= B=
M N F G

from which we can obtain the quadratic equation

L − λE M − λF
det (A − λB) = =0
M − λF N − λG

from which we may determine the two real eigenvalues λ1 ≤ λ2 , corresponding to

the eigenvectors v1 = (ξ1 , η1 ), v2 = (ξ2 , η2 ) respectively. Hence, according to Sec-
tion 2.21, f has an absolute minimum λ1 and absolute maximum λ2 under the given
side condition.

52