Environmental ManagementChapter one: ROCKS (LITHOSPHERE)UNIT 1.
1: Formation of rocksThe planet
Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The force ofgravity pulled the heavier elements
together first, forming the core. Thelighter elements then formed the Earth’s crust about 3–4 billion
years [Link] mantle developed as a layer between the dense core and the light [Link] structure still
exists today (Figure1.1).crustmantleouter coreinner coreThere are three types of rocks:[Link]
rocksWhen molten rock from the crust and upper mantle cools, igneous rocks areformed. The molten
rock is called magma when it is still below the surfaceand lava when it reaches the [Link] is
found in the outer mantle; it is hot, liquid rock that is underpressure from the rocks above it. When
it cools it turns to solid rock. Whenliquid magma rises to the surface from volcanoes the cooling occurs
quicklyand forms lava. Igneous rocks are made of material that was once molten;they usually contain
crystals that are formed as the molten material [Link] crystals found in rocks are formed when
solutions of minerals cannotabsorb any more dissolved minerals. Some of each mineral
typeprecipitates out of solution to form the center of a crystal. This thenprovides a surface for more
mineral ions to precipitate onto. The crystalbecomes larger until the solution disappears.10–
100kmContinental crustOceanic crust2900km5100km6370kmmantle
If the rock cools quickly, only very small crystals can form before the rockbecomes solid. Rapid cooling
occurs when magma is released fromvolcanoes onto the surface of the Earth’s [Link] magma rises
from the mantle into the crust without reaching the Earth’ssurface, then the magma cools more slowly,
allowing the formation of [Link] and pressure are theusual reason for
mineralsbecoming dissolved; areduction of heat andpressure usually leads to theformation of
crystalsExamples for igneous rock: basalt and [Link] of granite piece of
[Link] rocksSedimentary rocks are formed by the weathering of existing rocks at
theEarth’s surface, the accumulation and fossilization of living material, or theprecipitation of dissolved
materials out of solution in water. Weatheringprocesses release small mineral particles that
accumulate to form [Link] time, layers of sediment build up to form sedimentary [Link]
sediments include different-sized mineral particles. The smallestparticles are clays, followed by silts
and then sands. These particles areimportant in the formation of soils. Larger particles of gravels
and smallboulders can also be found in [Link] particles are transported by streams and rivers
and then deposited assediment. Each layer of sediment becomes more compact and
harderbecause of the pressure created by the newer deposits above [Link] for sedimentary
rocks: sand stone, limestone and shaleSandstoneLimestoneshale [Link]
rocksMetamorphic rocks are created from existing rocks when the heat(above150°C) or
pressure (above1.5*108Pa or1480atm), or both heat andpressure, causes changes in the rock crystals
without melting the existingrock. The existing rock therefore changes in structure, becoming
ametamorphic rock. The changes in structure can be chemical or physical [Link] and
igneous rocks can become metamorphic rocks, and ametamorphic rock can become another
metamorphic rock. Metamorphicrocks are usually harder than sedimentary [Link] of
metamorphic rocks are marble and [Link] SlateWhen the
Earth’s crust first formed, all the rocks were igneous. Theserocks were slowly eroded, releasing small
particles that formed sediment,and these sediments built up over time to form sedimentary rocks.
Therocks that make up the Earth’s crust are always moving,which creates theheat and pressure needed
to form metamorphic rock.Table1.1 compares the characteristics of the different rock
types.IgneousSedimentaryMetamorphic3
Made fromliquidmagmaMade from other rockfragmentsMadefromexisting rockMagmacools to
formsolid rockRock fragments becomeburied and increasedpressure forms a rockThe original rockis
changed in formby heat andpressureMineralcrystalssometimespresent; thesize of
thecrystalsdepends onthe speed ofcoolingCrystals absentMineral crystalspresentNo
fossilspresentFossils may be presentNo fossils presentUNIT 1.2: Extraction of rocks and minerals from
the Earth:Minerals provide us with a wide range of materials that we use in everydaylife. Coal and oil
provide energy and many chemicals used in [Link] ores provide us with the metals and
alloys needed to make productssuch as computers, mobile phones, cars, wire sand nails. The demand
forminerals continues to increase, both from developed and developing [Link] for
minerals:Searching for mineral includes four methods1. Prospecting: is the simplest way to find mineral
deposits is to lookcarefully at the surface of rocks. This process of prospecting has found nearlyall the
surface deposits of minerals worldwide.2. Remote sensing methods: Deposits on the Earth’s surface
can also befound using a range of remote sensing methods. For example, an area of landcan be
photographed from the air and the images carefully analyzed for signsof minerals. Aerial photography
can cover much more ground than a personwalking over the surface of rocks.4
Mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s surface, producing mineraloxides. These can be
detected by their unique radiation pattern, which isrecorded by a satellite and downloaded to a
computer for [Link] satellites operate by sending signals to the surface of the Earth and
thencollecting reflected signals. The system works in all weathers, throughcomplete cloud cover
and at [Link] mineral ores in the rocks below the surface can be located from thesatellite
images Computers are used to process the data from a region ofinterest to see whether any
minerals are present in the area. The satellite’spositioning system records the exact location. Using
satellites means largeareas can be geologically mapped quickly and at low cost.3. Geochemical method:
Field surveys and taking samples from the groundthen these samples are send to a laboratory for
geochemicalanalysis, so thatthe chemicals in the samples can be identified. The location of the
samplepoints in the field can be found accurately using the Global Positioning System(GPS).4. Geophysics
method:A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent throughthe Earth’s surface. Several sensors at
different distances from the source ofvibrations are laid on the ground. The vibrations create shock
waves that traveldown into the rock layers and are reflected back to the sensors on the [Link]
shock waves record different patterns depending on what minerals arepresent in the rock
[Link] rocks and minerals:To make sure that the deposits of mineral ores are large enough to be
extracted,are source evaluation is carried out. The aim of the evaluation is to estimate thegrade and
tonnage of the mineral of interest present in a deposit, and to identifythe size of the deposit as well as
the mixture of mineral ores [Link] the information collected, the deposit may be classified as a
mineral orereserve. Classifying the deposit as a reserve takes into account the amount ofmaterial that it
is practical to extract. Finally, a feasibility study is carried outto evaluate all the financial and technical
risks of any proposed mining. Thefinal decision may be to develop a mine straight away or wait until
conditionschange in the future.5
Methods of extraction:There are two main types of mining. Surface mining includes open-cast,open-
pit, open-cut and strip mining. Sub-surface mining includes deepand shaft [Link]
mining:Open-pit mining is also called open-cast or open-cut mining. This type ofmining is used when a
valuable deposit is located near the surface, oftenburied below a thick layer of worthless material.
The material above thedeposit is called overburden. The overburden has to be removed first
toexpose the deposit, and is stored nearby to be used later for mine [Link]-pit mines are
carefully dug in sections called benches. The walls ofthe benches are kept at an angle to reduce the risk
of rock falls. The safeangle of the seawalls depends on the type of deposit and overburden. Roadshave
to be made as the digging progresses to allow the removal of themineral deposit and overburden.
Building materials such as sand, gravel andstone are removed from open pits called [Link] are
two main reasons why open-pit mineseventually stop being worked. In some cases, asmuch
valuable deposit as possible has been [Link] other cases, the amount of overburden that needsto
be removed has increased to an extent that themine is no longer [Link] mining is used to
mine a seam of mineral. First ofall the overburden, which consists of the overlyingrock and soil, is
removed. Strip mining is mainly usedto mine coal near the [Link]-surface mining:Sub-surface
mining involves digging tunnels into the ground to reachmineral deposits that are too deep to
be removed by surface [Link] horizontal tunnels are dug directly into the coal seam in the
sideof a hill or mountain: this is a drift mine entered by an adit (the entrance toa horizontal mine). These
tunnels produce waste rock as well as themineral ore.A sloping tunnel is dug to reach deeper
deposits. Mining machinery can belowered down the sloping tunnels while waste rock and mineral
ore arehauled up to the surface.6
The deepest deposits are reached by digging a vertical shaft. Horizontalgalleries are then dug into
the mineral [Link] type of mining is more expensive andtechnically challenging than either
horizontal orslope tunneling. Only large deposits of valuableminerals are mined in this [Link] miners
’job is to make sure all themachinery is working correctly and [Link] with open-pit
mining, any form ofshaft mining is more difficult because a supplyof fresh air and water drainage has
to beprovided. There are also the dangers ofcollapsing tunnels as well as the risks ofpoisonous
gas, explosion and underground [Link] affecting the viability of extraction of minerals:Once a
mineral deposit has been located, a mining company has to decidewhether it should mine the
deposit or not. Mining companies need to considera range of issues when planning to open a mine,
including:•The costs of exploration and extraction: deeper deposits can only beextracted by shaft
mining. This is more costly to set up and maintain, so thecost per ton will be higher than open-pit
mining. Only deposits of high valuecan be mined economically in this way.•Geology:green field sites
are areas that have never been mined forminerals. The chances of finding a deposit there are low,
brown field sitesare areas that have already been mined. They usually have a higher chancethan
Greenfield sites•Climate: during extreme weather or that is not stable different miningactivities will not
take place.•Accessibility: roads, railways...etc.•The environmental impact: the negative effects of a
mine on thesurrounding.•Supply and demand:The quality of the mineral deposit andthe size of
deposit that can be extractedare important and increase the demand. Small deposits of high-grade ore
andhigh-value ores may be worth mining. Small deposits of low-grade ore andlow-value ores that cannot
be mined at a profit are left as known reserves. Inthe future they may be mined.7
Transportation: transporting the ore from a mine to processing plants may bedifficult and expensive. This
factor alone could prevent a deposit being [Link] cost of building road or rail links to the processing
plants or to the nearestsuitable port for export is a start-up cost that has to be considered.
Thesetransport links have to be kept in working order, so there will also bemaintenance [Link]
large tonnages, such as iron ore, rail transport is the only practical andcost-effective method of moving
the ore. If the ore is going to be exported,large ships, called bulk carriers, can be used to keep the
transport costs [Link] way of keeping the transport costs low is to carry out
someprocessing of the ore at the mine. The process used depends on the chemicalnature and grade of
the ore. The aim of processing is to concentrate themineral ore and separate it from the waste
material. The waste material isstored at the mine. This type of processing produces a higher grade of
ore so ithas a higher value per tonne. Some ores are high grade when they come out ofthe ground. For
example, some iron ores are called direct shipping ores (DSO)because they have enough iron content
that they do not need processing at [Link] 1.3: Impact of rock and mineral extraction1)
Environmental impacts:Impacts on the environment from the extraction of rocks and mineralsrange
from large-scale habitat destruction to pollution of the atmosphere,land andwater. Those living near the
site are also affected by noise andvisual pollution.Pollution:The working life of any type of mine will
result in some pollution of [Link] can take the form of noise, water, land, air and
[Link] pollution:is a problem when large-scale surface mining takes [Link]
overburden is loosened by explosive charge sand then removed by largemachines. The noise can disturb
the behavior of many animal species near themine and cause health problems for people. Deep
mining usually producesless noise than surface mining.2. Water pollution:The water that drains through
mine waste, or comes directlyfrom mine shafts, can cause dramatic changes to the populations of
livingorganisms in streams and rivers. Drinking water supplies may also be pollutedby drainage from
mines, making it unsafe for people to [Link] pollution is caused by chemical reactions between
water and exposedrocks and mine waste. The water may become acidic and then dissolve toxicmetal
ions. The combination of acidic water with a high concentration of toxic8
metal ions kills many aquatic organisms. Some of the metal ions exist only inlow concentrations in bodies
of water. However, organisms absorb these ionsand retain them in their body, reaching concentrations
much higher than that inthe water. This is called bioaccumulation. The concentrations increase further
inorganisms that are higher up the food chain. This process is calledbiomagnification (the
process in which the concentration of a substance inliving things becomes higher at progressively higher
levels in a food chainor web), and can cause the death of top consumers.3. Air pollution and soil
pollution: The land surrounding a mine will becomepolluted by mine waste. Only a few plants can grow,
even many years aftermining has many mining activities release dust particles, which will settle onthe
vegetation near the [Link] from mining activities may also have toxic effects depending on
thechemical components present in the dust. This can also reduce or stop plantgrowth, and the
particles can be dangerous to human health.4. Loss of habitat and biodiversity: Any mining activity will
involve the lossof habitat for some species of plants and animals. Even small-scale surfacemineral
extraction requires the vegetation to be cleared from an area of [Link] plants removed have lost a
place to grow, and so have the animals thatdepend on the plants for food and [Link] mining
means that shafts have to be dug down to the seams of valuableminerals. Only a small area of land is
cleared of vegetation. After this type ofmine has been working for several years, more habitats will
be destroyedas the amount of mine waste stored aboveground [Link] form of large-scale
surface mining causes the greatest loss of [Link] areas of vegetation have to be removed
and then large volumes ofremoved overburden have to be [Link] a company applies for a
license to start working, an environmentalimpact assessment (a process by which the
probable effects on theenvironment of a development are assessed and measured) is carried [Link]
environmental impact assessment tries to identify all the possible types ofdamage to the environment.
Any mining company must have detailed plans tocontrol the amount of damage to the environment.2)
Economic impacts:Extracting valuable minerals provides employment for people and providestaxes
for the government. Modern mining is carried out using machines so onlya small number of people
will be directly employed to extract [Link] extraction usually benefits both local and
national economies. Some improvements to transport and services, such as health care and
education,will be required to supply any mining industry as well as support the mineworkers and
their families.9
UNIT 1.4: Managing the impact of rock and mineral extractionSafe disposal of mining wasteIn the past,
mining waste was usually been put in piles near the point ofextraction. In some cases, stable
waste piles were placed on top of watercourses, which then become polluted with toxic
[Link], safe storage and disposal of mine waste is one of the most importantaspects of any
mining license applicationLand restoration and bioremediationWhen mining has finished, the land
needs to be restored, there are threemethods of restoration:1. Succession: Sometimes mine waste can
be reshaped to blend in with thesurrounding landforms. The waste can then be covered by a layer of
soil,which may be enriched with fertiliser. Such an area can then be planted withtrees. This will help
other plants and animals to colonise the area. As timepasses, the soil will be improved by the addition
of organic matter from plantand animal wastes. This method of land restoration (succession) is often
usedto manage the waste from coal mining.2. [Link] is the process of removing
pollutants fromwaste using living [Link] mine waste does not allow the growth of tree roots,
so other methods ofrestoration have to be used. Contaminated waste can be treated where it wasleft
(insitutreatment).Many organisms are able to break down toxic substances into less
hazardoussubstances. This often happens slowly in natural environments. Somemicroorganisms,
such as Bacteria found in soils, are able to absorb pollutantsand process them via metabolic pathways
into less harmful substances. Whenbacteria take in pollutants they usually gain either energy or
nutrients. Someplants are also naturally able to bioaccumulate toxic metals, and this processcan be
speeded up with the addition of fertilizers. These plants are grown oncontaminated waste. The plants
absorb toxic metals, and later the parts of theplant above ground are removed so the waste left in the
ground becomes lesstoxic.3. Landfill: mineral extraction often creates large holes in the landscape. If
therock lining the hole is impervious to water and non-toxic then it can be allowedto fill with water to
form a reservoir. This water could be used for irrigatingfarm land or processed to provide clean, safe
drinking water for [Link], these holes are filled with household waste until they are full.
Thewaste is then covered with soil and planted with trees. This is referred to [Link] successful are
these strategies? All strategies have a value, some10
scientists believe that allowing a site to undergo a natural process ofrecolonization and
slowchange to the environment (a process calledsuccession) may actually be the most beneficial
methodReclamation is important to reduce the incidence of such events as land slide,sand erosion.
However, once this has been done, the natural process ofsuccession can probably be relied onto
achieved the ecosystem recovery SERland others think we should aim [Link] 1.5: SUSTAINABLE USE OF
ROCKS AND MINERALSThesupplyof rocks andmineralsthatare used as buildingmaterialsandforindustrial
production [Link] see, therefore,how the use ofthesematerials can meetthe
[Link] use means usethatmeets the needs of the present without
affecting theability offuturegenerationsto meet theirneeds. A fullysustainableresourcewill never runout,
andthis can beachievedin fisheries, agricultureandforestrywhere theresourceisbiologicaland can
[Link],suchthings as rocks andmineralswillnot last [Link]
societies needto use anyresource with care sothatits use isatleastmoresustainablethanithasbeeninthe
[Link] reservesofanyrock or mineral must
takeintoaccountenvironmental,[Link] a plannedandcontrolled use
ofanyreservetoprovide the most benefitto people, maintaineconomic growth andstability and
[Link] agreements
encouragesustainabledevelopmentof [Link] term sustainabilityisnowwidely used. However,
asthe worldpopulationcontinuestoincrease,itisdifficulttoseehow the challengeofcompletesustainability
canbe met. Perhaps the bestthat can beachievedis theprolonged use of resources with
limitedenvironmentaldamageand the mostbenefit forhuman [Link] strategies can be used
tomake the exploitationofrocks andmineralsmoresustainable.1) EfficiencyofextractionIncreasing the
efficiency ofextraction seems [Link],undergroundcoal
minesonlyremovebetween55and70%of thecoal present in [Link] because of the
technicaldifficultiesofextracting the remainingcoalin a safeand cost effectivemanner. Open-
pitminingismoreefficientatextractionthanundergroundminingbut somewastage still occurs.There are
many methods to improve and increase the efficiency ofextraction, [Link] of mine wastes for a
second time. This allows valuable11
materials to be recovered and reduces the risk of pollution from storedmine [Link] treatment
of the waste is a new extraction method, whichextracts much of the valuable mineral still within
[Link] treatment with microorganisms can also be used to extractmore product from the
[Link] in the performance of the machines used in mining andprocessing also increase
the efficiency of [Link] use of data analysis by computers is likely to lead
toimprovements as well.However, surface mining has more potential for an increase
inefficiency of extraction than underground mining. This is because it ismore difficult to predict
geological conditions underground2)
EfficiencyofuseandrecyclingRecyclingmaterialsmakesanimportantcontributiontothesustainableuseofrocks
[Link],fromcarstosteelcans,[Link]
[Link]
lessenergythanprocessingtheoresorconcentratestomake
[Link] to use
mineralssuch as metals moreeffiecientlyincludeengineeringsolutions. Forexample,itispossible todesign
steel beams used inbuildingstohave the samestrengthbut use less steel. In the 1980stitanium
becameveryexpensive and there was anincentivetodesignproductsthat used less ofthismetal.
Manycountriesmayin the futurerequire car manufacturers by lawtotakebacktheirproducts when they
arefinished with. Itis hoped thiswillencourage them tomakemoredurableproductsthatuse less
mineralsand lastlongerThemajorwayinwhich governments aretryingtoencourage a moresustainable
use ofmineralsand rocksisto pass lawsthatrequires manufacturersto becomeresponsibleforrecyclingand
reuse. Forexample, theWasteElectrical andElectronicEquipment(WEEE)