Chapter 1 Electric Charges and Field

 Electrostatics: The study of behaviour and properties of charges at rest is known as electrostatics. In
other words, the study of charges at rest is called electrostatics.
The term ‘electricity’ came from Greek word ‘elektron’, which means ‘amber’. For the first time in
Greece it was discovered that when amber is rubbed with a wool or silk cloth, then amber develops a
tendency to attract light objects and bits of paper.
 Electric Charge: Charge is an intrinsic property of constituent particles of matter due to which they
can apply electric force on each other.
There are two types of charges in nature, namely positive and negative. Benjamin Franklin introduced
the convention of positive and negative charges on observing that two types of charges available in
nature have a tendency to cancel effect of each other.
 Unit of measurement for charge magnitude: In MKS system, charge is measured in coulomb(C).
The magnitude of charge on proton and electron is represented by letter e.
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
Charge on electron = -e = - 1.6 × 10−19 C
Charge on proton = +e = + 1.6 × 10−19 C
In CGS system, the unit of charge is statcoulomb (statC).
1 coulomb = 3 × 109 statC
 PROPERTIES OF CHARGE
1. There are two kinds of charges in nature. Property that differentiates these two kinds of charges is
called polarity. These two types of polarities are known as positive and negative.
2. Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other.
3. Charge is scalar and additive: It means that the net charge of any system is equal to algebraic
sum of all individual charges considering their polarity as in positive and negative numbers
4. Charge is quantized: Charging can be accomplished only by transfer of electrons, from one body to
another. On the other hand, the magnitude of charge on each electron is equal to the minimum possible
charge (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C) that can exist in isolation. Hence, the net charge on any object that can
exist is always integral multiple of electronic charge or charge carried by one electron. This
property is known as the quantisation of charge. Mathematically, we can denote quantisation of charge
q = ±ne, where n is any integer.
Quantization of charge can be ignored at macroscopic level ( when charge on a body is huge) because the total
charge is huge as compared to charge on an electron €. The grainy nature of charge disappears at the
macrsocopic level.
5. Charge is invariant: The property of invariance simply means that the magnitude of charge on any
object is independent of the speed of object.
6. Net charge of an isolated system is conserved: We cannot create or destroy net charge in an isolated
system. Net charge of an isolated system remains constant
 Difference between Charge and Mass
Charge Mass
1 Charge are of two types +ve and -ve It is always +ve
2 It is always conserved It is not strictly conserved. When it is converted to
energy , mass is not conserved
3 It is quantised It is not quantised
4 It does not change with speed It changes with speed appreciable for very light
particles like electron
𝑚𝑜
m= 2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
5 Force between two charges can be attractive Force between two masses is always attractive
or repulsive
 COULOMB’S LAW
Point Charge: A point charge means that its size is negligible in comparison to the distances involved
in that context.
According to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of electrostatic force between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of their charge magnitudes and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

|𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 |
|𝐹⃗ | ∝
𝐫𝟐
|𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 |
|𝐅⃗| = k c 𝐫𝟐

Here, q1 and q2 represent charge magnitudes and r is the distance between them
The direction of electric force on two point charges is along the line joining those two point charges
towards or away from each other depending on the polarity of two charges. Refer to Figure for the direction
of forces acting between the charges.
1
Proportionality constant kc = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜
Where εo (epsilon knot) is called permittivity of free space. It value εo = 8.86 x 10-12 N-1m-2C2
Lower the value of ε, greater the force between charges.
. In MKS system, if the medium between the charges is vacuum, the proportionality constant
𝟏 𝟏
kc = = = 9 × 109 Nm2 C–2
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝟒𝛑 𝐱 𝟖.𝟖𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
𝟏 |𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 |
|𝐅⃗| =
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝟐
|𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 |
|𝐅⃗| = 9 x 109
𝐫𝟐
Why is proportionality constant written this way? You shall get the answer later at advanced level. So
finally we know that MKS system is vastly used, so the Coulomb’s law in MKS system will be written as
follows:
𝟏 |𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 |
|𝐅⃗| = ( In vacuum)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝟐
So far, we have assumed that charges are kept in vacuum or air is the medium in between the two. If we
place some insulating or dielectric(insulating) medium between the charges then the net force between them
is reduced. Electric force in this case can be written as follows:
𝟏 |𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 |
|𝐅⃗𝐦 | = 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐦 𝐫𝟐
( In medium )
Where 𝛆𝐦 = permittivity of the given medium
𝛆𝐦 > 𝛆𝟎
𝜺𝒎
The ratio = K or 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝒓 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑛 𝐾
𝜺𝟎
Dielectric constant of insulating or dielectric medium. K > 1, for all media.

𝛆𝐦 = K𝛆𝟎
1 |q1 q2 | 1 |q1 q2 | 𝟏 1 |q1 q2 | Fvacuum
⃗⃗m |
Hence |F = = = ( )=
4π𝛆𝐦 r2 4π𝐊𝛆𝟎 r2 𝑲 4πε0 r2 𝐊
Let us assume that F0 be the force between two point charges, when they are kept in air or vacuum at a
separation r, and F be the force between two point charges, when they are kept in a medium with dielectric
constant K, at the same separation. Then,
𝐅 𝑭𝒐
Dielectric constant K = 𝐅𝐯𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐮𝐦 =
𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝑭
Dielectric constant is the ratio of the magnitude of electrostatic force between two point charges, kept
at a certain separation in air or vacuum, to that with magnitude of electrostatic force between same
two charges kept at same separation, in another medium, is called dielectric constant (K) of that
medium.
Dielectric Constant of air or vacuum K = 1

Example: Force between two charges separated by certain distance in vacuum is F. If the same charges are placed at
same distance inside water of dielectric constant 81, what will be the force between two charges.
𝐅𝐯𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐮𝐦
Dielectric constant K =
𝐅𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦
𝐹
81 =
𝐹𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
F
Fwater =
81
Hence force is reduced by a factor of 81.

 Vector form of Coulomb’s law

⃗⃗𝟐𝟏 = 𝐫⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐 - 𝐫⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏

𝒓 ( use trianlge law)
Similarly
𝟏 |𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 |
𝑟⃗21 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
r2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
r1 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 = 𝐫̂𝟏𝟐 ( 3)
𝒓̂𝟐𝟏 = |𝑟⃗21 |
= |r⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ r1 |
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 |𝐫⃗𝟐𝟏 |𝟐
2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂r12 = - r̂21
|q1 q2 |
⃗F⃗12 = - 1 r̂
𝟏 |𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 | |r⃗⃗21 |𝟐 21
𝐅⃗𝟐𝟏 = |𝐫⃗𝟐𝟏 |𝟐
𝐫̂𝟐𝟏 (1) 4πεo
1 |q1 q2 |
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 ⃗F⃗12 = - ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
r2 - ⃗⃗⃗⃗
r1 ) (4)
4πεo |r⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ r1 𝟑
2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
1 |q1 q2 | r⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
r1 Hence
⃗F⃗21 =
4πεo |r⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝟐
r1 |r⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ r1 |
2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 = - 𝐅⃗𝟐𝟏
1 |q1 q2 |
⃗⃗21 =
F ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
r2 - ⃗⃗⃗⃗
r1 ) (2)
4πεo |r⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ r1 𝟑
2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|

Limitations of Coulomb’s law

1. It holds good for stationary point charges.
2. It is not universal as it depends on the properties of the intervening medium
3. The separation between charge must be greater than nuclear size(10-15m) because for a
distance less than (10-15m), strong nuclear forces dominate over electric force.
 Superposition Principle of Coulomb’s Law
We have already learned about the electric force acting between two point charges. In general there may be
involvement of more than two charges in a system.
When there are multiple charges present close to each other, then the net force on one charge can be
calculated by finding the vector sum of forces applied by individual charges.
So, the force between any pair of charges is calculated assuming as if there are no other charges placed nearby
and then these independent forces are added using laws of vectors.
Net force on charge q1 due to charges q2, q3, q4, ………qn..

𝐅⃗𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 + 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟐 + 𝐅⃗𝟏𝟒 + ………𝐅⃗𝟏𝐧

Examples

1. Plot a graph showing the variation of coulomb force (F) versus 1/ r2 where r is the distance between the two
charges of each pair of charge (1 μC,2 μC) and (1 μC,−3 μC). Interpret to that graphs obtained.
q = - Q/4
Two charges A and B of –5 μC each are placed
at a separation of 20 cm. Another charge C of
+3 μC is placed at a separation of 20 cm from
both the charges A and B. What should be the
nature and magnitude ofthe charge to be placed
at the midpoint between A and B so that net
q1
force on charge C is zero?

q2 q3

1 |q1 q2 | 1 |q1 q3 |
F1 = , F2 =
4πεo r2 4πεo r2
F1 = F2 = F
θ = 60
𝐹⃗ net = √3 F (-𝑗̂ )
𝟏 |𝐪𝟏 𝐐|
Force on q1 by Q = F3 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝐨 (𝟏𝟎√𝟑)𝟐
⃗⃗net due to F
To cancel F ⃗⃗1 and F
⃗⃗2
⃗⃗3 = √3 F (+ ĵ )
F

1 |q1 Q| 1 |q1 q2 |
= √3
4πεo (10√3)2 4πεo 202
3
Q= √3 x q2
4
3
Q = + √3 x x5 μC
4
= + 6.49μC
Example6: Two conducting spheres of radius r1 and r2 have charges q1 and q2. The spheres are
touched and then separated. Find the new charges on the sphere.
Total charge before contact = q1 + q2
Let charges after contact = q1’ and q2’
Total charge after contace = q1’ + q2’
By conservation of charge
q1 + q2 =q1’ + q2’
𝒒′𝟏 𝑟1
Also ′ =
𝒒𝟐 𝑟2
’ r
q1 = r1 q2’
2
q +q r1
1 2 = r q2’ +q2’
2
r1
q1 + q2 = (1 + ) q2’
r2
𝒓𝟏
q1’ = (q1 + q2 )
(𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 )
Similarly
𝐫𝟐
q2’ = (q1 + q2 )
(𝐫𝟏 +𝐫𝟐 )

Example 7: Two conducting spheres of radius 2 cm and 4 cm having charge 10𝛍C and 8𝛍C
respectively. The spheres are brought in contact and then separated. Find the charge on each
sphere.
q ’ = (q + q ) 𝐫𝟏
1 1 2
(𝐫𝟏 +𝐫𝟐 )
= 2 =
18μC x 𝟔𝛍𝐂
6
q ’ = (q1 + q2 ) 𝐫𝟐
2 (𝐫 +𝐫𝟏 𝟐)
4
q2’= 18μC x 6
= 𝟏𝟐𝛍𝐂

 Electric Field
Electric charges create a field around them. This field is called electric field. Charges apply force on each
other through this field.
Electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit
positive charge, when placed at that point.
Let q0 be an infinitely small positive charge. We call this charge ‘test charge’. Let F be the force
experienced by this test charge, when placed at a point in an electric field. Electric field intensity at this
point can be written as follows:
⃗𝑭⃗
⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒒𝒐 →𝟎 𝒒𝒐
SI unit = N/C
NOTE:Electric field intensity at a point is not affected by test charge. It is property of source charge, which
has created this field. The magnitude of test charge is assumed to be infinitely small so we can assume that
it does not affect the net field in its surroundings. For conceptual purpose, test charge is just an imaginary
entity
Force ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 on a charge q placed in electric field 𝐸⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ =q 𝐄
𝐅 ⃗⃗
Electric field intensity is a vector quantity. Direction of electric field intensity at a given point in electric
field is same as the direction of force on positive charge placed at that point. Negative charge experiences
force opposite to the direction of electric field intensity

 Electric Field Intensity Due to Point Charges

Let there be one point charge +Q and P be a point at a distance r from the point charge. Electric field
intensity at point P is to be calculated. Assume that a test charge + q0 is placed at point P. The magnitude of
force experienced by the test charge (Coulomb’s law) is given by:

The direction of electric field intensity, at a point due to a point charge, is along the line joining the point
charge and that point. It is away from the positive charge and towards the negative charge

 Superposition Principle of Net electric field

When there are several point charges then net electric field intensity at
any point can be calculated by finding vector sum of electric field
intensity due to all charges. Electric field intensity at a point due to a
charge is not affected by the presence of other charges, and what we
observe is the resultant of all. In Fig.
we can see several charges are placed and suppose we are required to
calculate the net electric field intensity at the point P due to all
charges. Individual electric field intensities are also shown in the
figure, and we can add them according to the rules of vector algebra
to find net electric field at the point P.
 Electric field Lines or Lines of Force
Electric Field Lines Electric field lines are lines or curves drawn around the charge in such a way that a
tangent at any point on them, gives the direction of electric field intensity at that point. The relative density
of electric field lines is proportional to electric field intensity. These are imaginary lines drawn to visualise
electric field around a charge geometrically. Electric field lines are also known as electric lines of forces
because charged particle, when placed in electric field, experiences force along or opposite to the
direction of field intensity.
If we release some positive point charge in an electric field, then will this point charge always follow
electric field line?
Assume that the charge is accelerated for some time in the electric field so it acquires a certain amount of
linear momentum. If the direction of electric field is changed now then the point charge will not follow
electric field line due to the fact that previously acquired linear momentum is in some other direction

Properties of electric field Lines

1. Electric field lines due to an isolated positive point charge is radially outwards and that due to a an
isolated negative point charge is radially inwards.

Radially Outwards Radially Inwards

2. Electric field lines are continous lines which originate from positive charge and terminate at
negative charge.
3. A positive test charge moves along the lines of force. There can be no gap or break in lines else the
charge will have to jump through the gap which is not possible.
4. Electric field lines DO NOT form close loops as they originate from +ve charge and terminate at -ve
charge
5. The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field (E) at that point.

6. Lines of force never intersect. Two tangents at the point of intersection show two direction of electric
field lines at that point which is not possible.
7. The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is proportional to the
magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are close together, E is large and where they
are far apart, E is small.
8. The field lines of a system of two positive equal charges or two equal negative charges, gives pictorial
representation of their mutual repulsion. While around th configuration of two equal and opposite equal
charges, a dipole, shows mutual attraction between charges

E lines originate from +q and terminate at -q

9. For a pair of unequal charges, the electric field lines are denser near the bigger charge.

Q1Q2 < 0
Q1 > Q2
Dener field lines

10. For a uniform electric field, field lines are linear, equidistant and parallel while for non uniform electric
field, they are non liear and are at varying distance.

11. Any excess charge given to a conductor always reside on its surface. There can be no excess charge
inside the conductor.

12. Electric field inside a charged conductor is always zero. If

electric field existed inside conductor, free electrons inside
Ein = 0
conductor will start flowing due to electric force which is not
possible in electrostatics.

13. The electric field lines of a charged conductor are always perpendicular to the surface . If the field
lines have any component parallel the surface of charged conductor, the charge will start moving under
the effect of electric force (F=qE) which will violate electrostatics ( charges at rest)
14. For a an uncharged conductor placed in external electric field, the electric field modify such that field
lines terminate and originate normal to the surface and inside the conductor Electric field is zero.

E=0

15. For a point charge placed near an uncharged metal plate, the electric field lines terminate or originate
normal to the surface of the conductor. (charges induced in the metal but net charge is zero)

16. If any excess charge is given to a conductor with a hollow cavity, all the charge will reside on the outer surface of the
conductor. There will be NO charge on the inner surface or in the hollow cavity. E inside the cavity and in the solid
conductor is zero

17. If a point charge is +Q placed inside cavity of a uncharged conductor, − Q charge induced on the inner surface
and +Q induced on the outer surface of the conductor so that net charge in the solid conductor is zero and
electric field in the solid part of the conductor is also zero. The electric field lines in the cavity terminate
normally on the inner surface.
18. A +Q charge given to a conductor with a cavity. The charge will reside only on the surface. Now
(i) If a -q charge is placed inside the cavity, total charge on outer surface of conductor will be Q-q.
(ii) If +q charge placed inside cavity total charge on outer surface of conductor will be Q+q

 Electrostatic Shielding
In electrostatic condition, electric field inside the metal or conductor is always zero. If you bring charged
object near the metallic object then free electrons redistribute themselves in such a manner that electric field
intensity inside the metal remains zero. The volume inside metal is shielded from external electric field
in electrostatic condition. This property is known as electrostatic shielding. The direction of electric
field intensity near the surface of metal is always normal to the surface.
Electrostatic shielding is a phenomenon seen when a Faraday cage is used to block the effects of an
electric field. The effects of external fields on the internal contents are blocked using the cage.

Car acts like Faraday’s cage

and protects us from
lightening

This person is surrounded by a metal cage, known as a Faraday cage. Faraday cages channel electricity
along the cage instead of into this person.
The real reason cars protect passengers from lightning is because of their metal frame, aka a Faraday
cage.
Uses of Faraday Cage: This shielding effect is used to protect electronic equipment from lightning strikes
and other electrostatic discharges. Mobile phone don’t work inside lift because lift is a metal cage which
shields from electromagnetic waves ( mobile signals)
Examples on electric field
1. Find the electric field at 2 cm from the +10 𝛍𝐂.
⃗E⃗ = 1 |q| 𝑟̂ (r̂ = unit vector radially outwardsfrom the charge)
4πεo r2
|𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 |
⃗E⃗ = 9 x 109 𝐫̂
(𝟎.𝟎𝟐)𝟐
⃗⃗ = 2.25 x
𝐄 10 𝐫̂ N/C
8

2. Find the electric field at 4 cm from the - 20 𝛍𝐂.

1 |q|
⃗⃗ =
E r̂ (r̂ = unit vector radially inwards towards the charge)
4πεo r2
|20 x 10−6 |
⃗⃗ = 9 x 109
E r̂
(0.04)2
⃗⃗ = 1.125 x 108 𝐫̂ N/C
𝐄
3. A small water droplet of mass 1 g carries a charge of 8 × 10–19 C. What electric field strength is
required to suspend the droplet against gravity? F=qE

𝐸⃗⃗
Solution: Mass of water droplet, m = 1 g = 10–3 kg
Charge on water droplet = q = + 8 × 10–19 C
mg
To suspend the droplet against the gravity, force on the droplet due to electric field should be equal to
the weight of the droplet in magnitude and opposite in direction.
⇒ qE = mg
𝑚𝑔 10−3 𝑥 9.8
E= = = 1.2 x 1016 N/C
𝑞 8 𝑥 10−19
4. A uniform electric field E exists in between two large metal plates as shown in the figure. The length of each
plate is b. An electron enters the region between the plates moving with initial speed u perpendicular to electric
field as shown in the figure. Calculate the angle by which the electron gets deviated when it comes out of the
plates.
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑬
First add 𝑬𝟏 ⃗⃗𝟐
E1 = E2 =E = 45 x 109 N/C 𝛉 = 900
E12 = √𝟐E 450 clockwise with x axis
Now Find ⃗𝑬⃗𝟏𝟐 + ⃗𝑬⃗𝟑 with 𝛉 = 90 between them
𝑬
E3 = 𝟐 and 𝑬𝟏𝟐 = √𝟐E
𝑬
E123 = √(𝟐)𝟐 + (√𝟐𝑬)𝟐 =
𝐄 𝟐
=√ 𝟒 + 𝟐𝐄𝟐
𝟗𝐄 𝟐
=√ 𝟒
1.5 E =1.5 x 45 x 109 N/C
= 67.5 x 109 N/C

E
sin90 𝟏
tan α = 2
E =
√2E + cos90 𝟐√𝟐
2
 Two charges +10-8 C and - 10-8 C are palced at P
and Q at distance of 0.1 m as shown. Find the net
electric field at A, B and C.

+10-8
C
- 10-8 C
P Q

At A
𝟏 |𝐪|
E+q = E- q = E = towards 𝐢̂
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐚𝟐
|10−8 |
= 9 x 109 x = 3.6 x 104
(0.05)2
î N/C
⃗⃗A = 𝐄
𝐄 ⃗⃗+q + 𝐄
⃗⃗- q = 2E𝐢̂ = 7.2 x 104 𝐢̂ N/C
At B
|10−8 |
E+q = 9 x 109 x (0.05)2 = - 3.6 x 104 î N/C
|10−8 |
E-q = 9 x 109 x (0.15)2 = + 0.4 x 104 î N/C
⃗E⃗B = 𝐸⃗⃗ +q + ⃗E⃗- q = - 3.6 x 104 î + 0.4 x 104 î

⃗⃗B = - 3.2 x 104 𝐢̂ N/C

𝐄
At C
|10−8 |
E+q = 9 x 109 x (0.1)2
𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄𝐊𝐍 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄𝐊 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄𝐍 = 𝟐
along AN = 9 x 103 N/C along PC away from +q
𝒍 |10−8 |
𝟑𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 E-q = 109 x (0.1)2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄𝐋𝐌 = 𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐋 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄𝐌 = along AM
𝒍𝟐
= 9 x 103 N/C along CQ towards - q
Find ⃗𝑬 ⃗⃗𝑳𝑴 + ⃗𝑬 ⃗⃗𝑲𝑵 with 𝛉 = 𝟗𝟎
Net 𝐄 ⃗⃗𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 𝐄 ⃗⃗𝐋𝐌 + 𝐄 ⃗⃗𝐊𝐍 Eq = E-q = E and ∠ between Eq & E-q at θ = 120
= √𝟐ELM along (-y axis) Hence ⃗E⃗C = E = 9 x 103 N/C 600 from E+q
𝟑𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ⃗⃗C= 9 𝐱 103 𝐢̂ 𝐍/𝐂
𝐄
= √𝟐 x N/C along (-y axis)
𝒍𝟐
 Electric Dipole
A system of two equal and opposite point charges that are kept at a certain separation is called an electric
dipole. Line joining the charges is called axis of dipole.

Electric dipole moment represents strength of electric dipole. Its magnitude is equal to the product of
magnitude of one of the charges in dipole and distance between them. It is a vector quantity and the
direction assigned to it is along the axis of dipole from negative charge towards positive charge
⃗⃗= |𝑞|2𝒂
𝒑 ⃗⃗
Molecules of several materials behave like electric dipoles. In such molecules, the centre of positive charge
is slightly shifted from the centre of negative charge. Such molecules are called polar molecules. In case of
dielectric or insulating materials also, molecules may be polar as well as non-polar. To understand the
electrical behaviour of such polar molecules, the concept of a short dipole is very important.

Ideal dipole :A short dipole is also referred as an ideal dipole. An ideal dipole has q→ ∞ and 2a⃗⃗ → 0 such
with a finite dipole moment.

 Electric Field Intensity on the Axial Line of the Electric Dipole

 Electric Field Intensity at a Point on Equatorial Plane of the Electric Dipole
Electric field lines of an electric dipole

 Electric field at the centre of the dipole axis

lying on the equitorial plane.
𝟏 ⃗
𝒑
𝐸⃗⃗ equitotial = -
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 +𝒂𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
𝟐
At centre on the dipole axis r = 0
⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗centre = - 𝟏 𝐩 𝟏 𝐩
𝐄 = -
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 (𝐚𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐚𝟑
𝟏 𝐪𝟐𝐚 𝟏 𝟐𝐪
Or ⃗⃗centre = -
𝐄 𝑝̂ =- ̂
𝐩
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐚𝟑 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐚𝟐

Example: Two equal and opposite charges of magnitude 10 mC each are fixed at a distance of 1 mm from each other
to form an electric dipole. Calculate the electric field intensity (i) at a point on its axis at a distance 1 m from the
centre of dipole and (ii) at a point on its perpendicular bisector at a distance 1 m from the centre of dipole
 Torque on an Electric Dipole in uniform Electric Field

Most stable
equilibrium

Most unstable
equilibrium
 Dielectrics
Dielectric is just another name for insulating materials. In dielectric materials, there are no free electrons
available, so these materials do not conduct electricity. Ebonite, glass and mica are some examples of
dielectrics.
Molecules of dielectric materials can be of two types.
1. Polar molecule: The centre of positive charge is slightly separated from the centre of negative charge in
absence of electric field (refer to Fig.).Polar molecules are like short electric dipoles. They have a
permanent dipole moment.
Examples of polar molecules are H2O, N2O, HCl, NH3.
Due to thermal motion, the direction of each dipole moment is oriented randomly (Figure). Hence the net
dipole moment is zero in the absence of an external electric field.
When an external electric field is applied, the dipoles inside the polar molecule tend to align in the
direction of the electric field(due to torque by electric field). Hence a net dipole moment is induced in it
in the direction of the electric field. Then the dielectric is said to be polarized by an external electric field

2. . Non-polar molecule: The centre of positive charge coincides with the centre of negative charge in
absence of elect. As a result, it has no permanent dipole moment. Examples of non-polar molecules are
hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), and carbon dioxide (CO2) etc.
When an external electric field is applied, the centers of positive and negative charges are separated by a
small distance. It stretches the molecule and finally the molecule starts behaving like polar molecules
and gets aligned with the electric field,which induces dipole moment in the direction of the external
electric field. Then the dielectric is said to be polarized by an external electric field.

Electric field Electric field

Polarisation
In the presence of an external electric field, the dipole moment is induced in the dielectric
material. Polarisation P ⃗⃗ is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric. For
most dielectrics (linear isotropic), the Polarisation is directly proportional to the strength of the external
electric field. This is written as
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝌𝒆 𝑬
𝑷 ⃗⃗⃗
where χe is a constant called the electric susceptibility which is a characteristic of each dielectric.
 Dielectric Constant of a dielectric
When a dielectric is placed in an external electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ o , due to the net dipole moment 𝑝⃗ induced in the
material, a net negative charge (-qi) is developed at one end of the material and a net positive charge (+qi)
developed at the other end.

Due to extreme positive and negative charged surfaces, an additional electric field ( 𝑬 ⃗⃗𝒊 ) is created. The
direction of this electric field (E ⃗⃗i ) due to polarisation is opposite to the applied external electric field ( E
⃗⃗o )
Magnitude of net electric field inside the dielectric material
Enet = | ⃗𝑬⃗𝒐 | – | 𝐄
⃗⃗𝐢 | where | ⃗E⃗o |>| ⃗E⃗i |
Dielectric constant (K) is one important parameter for dielectric or insulating materials. Dielectric
constant is defined as the ratio of magnitude of external electric field (E0) applied to that of net
electric field (Enet) inside the dielectric medium

𝑬𝒐
Dielectric constant K=
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒕
Or one can also remember above relation as
𝐄𝐨
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐭 =
𝐊

 Metal block inside external electric field

In case of metals, electric field created due to migration of electrons is equal to the applied field, and net
electric field inside metal or conductor becomes zero

E-in

Hence dielectric constant of a metal is infinity

𝐄𝐨 𝐄𝐨
K= = =∞
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝟎
 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

The continuous charge distribution may be in a volume. And this charge distribution can also be over a
surface or along a line. In other words, charged bodies may adapt to any shape like a ring, disc, solid
sphere, hollow sphere, a thin rod, etc.
1. Volume charge density (𝛒): In a non-conducting material we can distribute charge over the volume of
object with any possible shape. It represents charge per unit volume of given object. Mathematically, it can
be expressed as:
𝐝𝐪
ρ = 𝐝𝐕 ( SI unit C/m3)

2. . Surface charge density (𝛔): We can distribute charge on surface of some object. A thin sheet of
charge, one disc with negligible thickness and a hollow sphere are possible examples in this category. It
represents charge per unit area of object. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
𝒅𝒒
𝛔 = 𝒅𝑨 (SI unit C/m2)

3. Linear charge density (𝛌): Objects with negligible cross section fall in this category. A thin rod is one
example. In ring also we can use linear charge density. It represents charge per unit length of object.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
𝐝𝐪
λ = 𝐝𝒍 (SI unit C/m)

The most fundamental relation for electric field intensity, which we can use, is due to a point charge.
Electric field intensity due to a point charge (Q) at a distance r from it is given by the following relation:
𝟏 𝑸
E =𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟐
𝒐

 ELECTRIC FLUX
In order to understand electric flux we need to first understand area vector.

Area Vector Generally, ‘area’ is considered as a scalar quantity, but for certain scientific calculations, it is
also defined as a vector quantity.
The magnitude of area vector is same as area. Its direction is taken along normal to surface.
.

For a closed surface outward normal or normal pointing towards viewer is taken as the direction of area
vector. If there is some curved surface like spherical surface, then direction of area vector will be
continuously changing from point to point. It is radially outwards for all points on a spherical surface
If ∆S is some small area so that we may assume it as a flat surface, then area vector can be written as:
⃗⃗⃗ = ∆A𝒏
∆𝑨 ̂
Electric Flux : Electric flux, associated with some surface inside electric field, is the measure of number
of electric lines of forces passing through that area along normal to the surface.
It is a scalar quantity.
. Let ∆𝐴⃗ be the small area segment vector. Electric field intensity 𝐸⃗⃗ is at an angle θ with the normal to the
surface. Electric flux associated with this area segment is defined as
𝛟 = 𝐄𝚫𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
𝛟=𝐄 ⃗⃗ . 𝚫𝐴⃗

𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Its SI unit is 𝑪 or 𝑚
To calculate total flux for given surface area, we can integrate
the flux for appropriate segment selected on that surface

⃗⃗ ∥ 𝐄
Electric flux is maximum when 𝐀 ⃗⃗ and zero when 𝐀
⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝐄
⃗⃗

For a closed surface, if A⃗⃗ ∥ E

⃗⃗ (θ = 0),Φ is positive. It means that the field lines are leaving the surface
For a closed surface if ⃗A⃗ ↑↓ ⃗E⃗ (θ = 180), Φ is negative. It means that field lines are entering the surface
Example
 Gauss’s Law
There are certain charges distributed in space. The resultant field in space can be visualised as superposition
of electric fields created by individual charges. Visualise one hypothetical three dimensional closed
surface of any shape and size. This surface must not pass through any charge. Charges may be inside
this three-dimensional volume or outside. This surface is known as Gaussian surface. Small letters are
used here to represent charges inside and capital letters for outside, just to differentiate them
Gauss’s Law: The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 𝜺𝟏𝒐 times the net charge
enclosed by the sruface. Mathmatically the law can be written as

Characteristics of Gaussian surface

(1) The surface should not pass through any charge in discrete charge distribution. However, for a continous
charge distribution, the Gaussian surface can pass through the charge distribution
(2) It should be a closed surface such that points inside, on, and outside the surface may be distinguished
clearly.
(2) This surface must pass through the location where the electric field will be calculated.
 a

ELectric field E is along +x axis

Flux through Top, bottom, front and back surface will be
zero
as ⃗A⃗ ⊥ ⃗E⃗ for all these surfaces.
Flux through left surface at distance ‘a’
𝝓𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒕 = Eleft Acos𝛉
x = a , E = αa
Area A = a2
θ= 1800
𝛟𝐋𝐞𝐟𝐭 = 𝛂𝐚 x a2 x cos180 = - 𝛂𝐚3
Flux through right surface at distance ‘a’
𝛟𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = Eright Acos𝛉
x = 2a , E = 𝛂𝟐𝐚
Area A = a2
𝛉= 00
𝛟𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝛂𝟐𝐚 x a2 x cos0 = +2 𝛂𝐚3
Net flux = 𝛟𝐋𝐞𝐟𝐭 +𝛟𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
= - 𝛂𝐚3 + 2𝛂𝐚3
= 𝛂𝐚3

Prove that charge given to a conductor always resides on its surface using Gauss’s law
If we take an arbitrary Gaussian surface inside the conductor
By Gauss’s law Flux through the Gaussian Surface
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Φ = ∮ ⃗E⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA =
𝜀𝑜
Inside conductor electric field E= 0
Hence Φ = 0
q
Hence enclosed
ε
=0
o
So qenclosed = 0
Hence all the charge given to a conductor resides on its surface
 Applications of Gauss’s Law

1. Electric field due to a line charge of infinite length

Consider Line charge of infinite length and
uniform line charge density λ
Due to infinite length, electric field intensity remains
perpendicular to line charge, along radially outward
direction (assuming positive charge)
To find the electric field at a point P at distance ‘r’ from the line
charge,conside a cylidrical Gaussian surface of length ‘l’
and radius r.
The point P lies on the curved surface of the cylidrical Gaussian
surface at distance r.
Charge enlosed within Gaussian surface qenclosed = 𝛌𝒍
Flux through Gaussian surface
Net flux Φ = ∮ ⃗E⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA
Net flux Φ= Φtop + Φbottom + Φcurved
Φ= ∫𝑆1 𝐸⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 + ∫S2 ⃗E⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA + ∫S3 ⃗E⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA
Φ= ∫S1 EdA cos90 + ∫S2 EdA cos90 + ∫S3 EdA cos0

Φ= ∫S3 EdA
Magnitude of E is constant at every point on the curved surface
Φ= E ∫S3 dA ( 1)
From Gauss’s law
q
Φ= enclosed ( 2)
ε o
From (1) and (2)
qenclosed
E ∫S3 dA =
εo
λ𝑙
E (2πr l) =
εo
𝛌
⃗⃗⃗⃗=
𝐸 𝑛̂ ( n̂ is radially outwards for λ > 0and radiall inwards of λ < 0)
𝟐𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐫
2. Electric field due to uniformly charged thin infinite sheet
Consider uniformly charged thin infinite sheet and
uniform surface charge density 𝛔
Electric field due to a thin infinite sheet of charge is
perpendicular
to its surface [Link] find the electric field at a
point P at distance ‘r’ from the plane sheet, consider a
cylidrical Gaussian of area of cross-section A passing
through the sheet as shown in figure.
The point P and P’ lies on the flat circular surfaces of
the cylidrical Gaussian Surface.
Charge enlosed within Gaussian surface qenclosed = σA
Flux through Gaussian surface
Net flux Φ = ∮ E ⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA
Net flux Φ= Φlef flatt + Φcurved + Φright flat
Φ= ∫ ⃗E⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
S1
dA + ∫ ⃗E⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA + ∫ ⃗E⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
S2
dA
S3
Φ= ∫S1 EdA cos0 + ∫S2 EdA cos90 + ∫S3 EdA cos0
Φ= 2 ∫ EdA
Magnitude of E is constant at every point on the flat surfaces containing P and P’
Φ= 2E ∫ dA ( 1)
From Gauss’s law
q
Φ= enclosed ( 2)
ε o
From (1) and (2)
q
2E ∫ dA= enclosed
ε o
qenclosed σA
2EA = =
εo εo
σ
2E =
εo
𝛔
⃗⃗⃗⃗=
𝐄 ̂
𝐧
𝟐𝛆𝐨
̂ is ⊥ and outwards for 𝛔 > 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ⊥ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐧𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝛔 < 𝟎)
(𝐧
Hence E due to an infinite uniformly charged plane sheet is independent of the distace from the
sheet.

σ
2εo
3. Electric field due to a uniformly charged hollow sphere

Electric field due to uniformly distributed charge on a spherical surface will be spherically symmetric like
that of a point charge. Consider a hollow sphere of radius R, on which Q charge is distributed uniformly. A
Gaussian surface selected here is also spherical. Fig. shows two Gaussian surfaces in the form of sphere.
One Gaussian sphere is of radius (r) less than the radius of charged sphere (R); and other Gaussian sphere is
of radius (r) greater than R.

Gaussian
surface

E= 0

(iii) Case III: at a point just outside the shell on the surface r ≈R
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius R. Net charge enclosed = Q
𝑸
Φ = 𝐄𝟒𝛑𝐑𝟐 = 𝜺
𝒐
𝟏 𝑸
E=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝑹𝟐
4. Electric field just outside(near) a charged solid conductor
Let a charge Q be given to a conductor, this charge under electrostatic equilibrium will redistribute and
the electric field inside the conductor is zero (i.e. Ein=0).

Let us consider a point P at which electric field strength is to be calculated, just outside the surface of the
conductor. Let the surface charge density on the surface of the conductor in the neighbourhood of P be σ
. Now consider a small cylindrical box CD having one base C passing through P; the other base D lying
inside the conductor and the curved surface being perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
Let the area of each flat base be ’A’. The electric field strength E at P, just outside the surface of the
conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor in the neighbourhood of P.
The flux of electric field through the curved surface of the box is zero, since there is no component of
electric field E normal to curved surface. Also the flux of electric field through the base D is zero, as electric
field strength inside the conductor is zero. Therefore the resultant flux of electric field through the entire
surface of the box is same as the flux through the face C. This may be analytically seen as:
If S1 and S2 are flat surfaces at C and D and S3 is curved surface, then
Total electric flux

Φ = ∫S1 EdAcosθ + ∫S2 EdAcosθ + ∫S3 EdAcosθ

∫S2 EdAcosθ = 0 as E = 0 at point D inside the conductor

∫S3 EdAcosθ= 0 as θ = 90 for curved surface

Φ = ∫S1 EdAcosθ = Φ = ∫S1 EdA ( θ = 0)

= E ∫S1 dA
Φ = EA ( 1)
According to Gauss’s law
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜎𝐴
Φ = = (2)
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
From (1) and (2)
σA
EA = ε
o

⃗⃗ = 𝛔 𝒏
⃗𝑬 ̂
𝐨𝛆
RATIO OF ELECTRIC FIELD OF TWO CHARGED CONDUCTING SPHERES CONNECTED TO EACH OTHER
A charged conducting Sphere 1 of radius r1 is connected to another charged conducting sphere 2 of radius
r2. by a conducting wire. Find the ratio of electric field of the two spheres.

Charge on the spheres after equilibrium attained = Q1’ and Q2’ respectively
𝑸′𝟏 𝒓𝟏
′ =
𝑸𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑄1
Electric field of sphere 1 , E1 = k
𝑟12
𝑄2
Electric field of sphere 2 , E2 = k
𝑟22
𝐸1 𝑄1 𝑟22
= ×
𝐸2 𝑄2 𝑟12
𝑟1 𝑟22
= ×
𝑟2 𝑟12
𝑬𝟏 𝒓𝟐
=
𝑬𝟐 𝒓𝟏

Examples
1. There is one large vertical non-conducting plane surface with uniformly distributed charge. A
pendulum bob is suspended through an insulating string from a point on this non-conducting surface.
The length of the string is 𝑙 and mass of the bob is m. The charge carried by the pendulum bob is q. It
is found that in a state of equilibrium, the string of the pendulum makes 60º angle with the vertical.
What will be the charge per unit area on surface? Also calculate the tension developed in the string in
equilibrium state.

Solution Electric field due to the plane surface will be

𝜎
normallyh outwards E=
2𝜀0
Force on charge on pendulum by electric field of the
plane sheet
σ
F= qE = q2ε
0
At equilibrium
qE = T sin 60
σ √3
q 2ε = 2
T (2)
o
mg = T cos 60
F=q 𝑇
mg = 2 (1)
E T= 𝟐
𝐦𝐠

Dividing (2) by (1)

σ
q = √3
mg2εo
√𝟑 𝐦𝐠𝟐𝛆𝐨
𝛔=
𝐪
 2. Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their inner faces, the plates have
equal surface charge densities of opposite signs ±σ . What is E in the outer region of the first plate,

At point P
|𝜎| 𝜎
Electric field at P due to A 𝐸⃗⃗𝐴 = 2𝜀 ( -𝑖̂ ) = - 2𝜀 î
𝑜 𝑜

Electric field at P due to B ⃗⃗B = |−σ| ( î ) = σ î

E 2ε o 2ε o

Net electric field at P ⃗E⃗P = ⃗E⃗A + ⃗E⃗B = - σ î + σ î = 0

2εo 2εo
At point Q
Electric field at Q due to A ⃗⃗A = |σ| ( î ) = σ î
E 2ε o 2ε o
|−σ| σ
Electric field at Q due to B ⃗⃗B =
E ( î ) = 2ε î
2εo o
σ σ σ
Net electric field at Q ⃗E⃗Q = ⃗E⃗A + ⃗E⃗B = î + 2ε î = 2 2ε î
2εo o o
𝛔
⃗⃗𝐐 =
𝐄 𝐢̂
𝟐𝛆𝐨
At point R
Electric field at R due to A ⃗⃗A = |σ| ( î ) =
E
σ
î
2ε o 2εo
Electric field at R due to B ⃗E⃗B = |−σ| (- î ) = - σ
î
2ε o 2εo
σ σ
Net electric field at P ⃗⃗R = E
E ⃗⃗A + E
⃗⃗B = î - î = 0
2εo 2εo
Example
A uniform electric field of magnitude E exists in between two parallel metal plates, as shown in the
figure given below. One particle of mass m and charge q is projected along the central line between
the plates. Particle just missed to strike upper plate, while coming out of plates. Find: (a) Time taken
by the particle to come out of plates. (b) Speed of the particle as it comes out of plates. (c) Angle of
deviation suffered by particle. The length of the plates is L and the distance between the plates is d.
Ignore gravity.
 Two small identical electrical dipoles AB and CD, each of dipole moment 𝑝⃗ are kept at an angle of 120°
as shown in the figure. What is the resultant dipole moment of this combination? If this system is
subjected to electric field ( 𝐸⃗⃗ ) directed along +X direction, what will be the magnitude and direction of
the torque acting on this?
Dipole moment 𝑝⃗1 is along BA and p ⃗⃗1 along [Link] the two vectors
Tail to tail as shown in figure 2.
Angle between p ⃗⃗2 = 1200
⃗⃗1 and p
| 𝑝⃗1 |= | 𝑝⃗2 | = p
Hence by vector addition , net dipole moment
|p⃗⃗net |=√𝑝1 2 + 𝑝2 2 + 2𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 120
= √p2 + p2 + 2p2 ( − 1/2)
= √p2
|p⃗⃗net | = p
psin120
Tan∝ = p+pcos120 = √3
∝= 600