79 A Course Manual on Basic Electronics Engineering

Chapter 4
Operational Amplifier and Oscillator
1. Basic Model
An operational amplifier (Op-Amp), is a very high-gain differential amplifier with high input
impedance and low output impedance. Basically, operational amplifiers are used in mathematical
operations, oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits. Fig. 4.1 shows a
basic Op-Amp with two inputs and one output as would result using a differential amplifier.

Figure 4.1: a) Basic op-amp symbol and b) 8-pin DIP package of 741 Op-Amp

In relation to our previous discussion of differential amplifier, the inputs v  and v  corresponds to vi1

and vi 2 respectively and output corresponds to single-ended output vo 2 . If the input is applied to non-
inverting terminal (+), output will be in phase with input and when input is applied to inverting (-),
the output will result in out of phase with input.

Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal operational amplifier is one that has the following properties: It has
1. Infinite open loop gain
2. Infinite input impedance
3. Zero output impedance
4. Infinite bandwidth
5. Infinite Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
6. Input terminals are virtually short or grounded

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Figure 4.2: a) Idea Op-Amp representation and b) practical Op-Amp representation

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

When separate inputs (differential input) are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference signal is

 
the difference between the two inputs.
vo  Ad vi  vi
When both input signals are the same (common input), a common signal element due to the two
inputs is the average of the sum of the two signals.
 v   vi 
vo  Ac  i 

 2 
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out-of phase components,
the resulting output can be expressed as,
vo  Ad vd  Ac vc

Where vd = difference voltage

v c = common voltage

Ad = differential gain of the amplifier and

Ac = common-mode gain of the amplifier

Now, value for the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined by the equation:

CMRR 
Ad
Ac

The value of CMRR can also be expressed in logarithmic terms as,

A 
CMRR dB  20 log10  d 
 Ac 
When we express the output voltage in terms of the value of CMRR as,

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   1 vc 
vo  Ad vd 1  c c   Ad vd 1  
Av
 Ad vd   CMRR vd 
This shows that for large values of CMRR, the output voltage will be Ad vd , with the common-mode
component greatly reduced or rejected. Ideally, the value of the CMRR is infinite. Practically, the
larger the value of CMRR, the better is the circuit operation.

Virtual Ground Concept

An Op-Amp has a very high voltage gain typically in the order of 10 5. For example, if vo  15V and

Av  105 the input voltage would then be vd   150V

15
105

Figure 4.3: a) Inverting Op-Amp and b) Idea of virtual ground

As, we know that the input impedance of Op-Amp is ideally infinite, and thus the input current into it

is zero. Thus, differential input vd  v   v   0 . Therefore, v  can be considered as 0 volt if v  is

grounded. For feedback amplifiers constructed with Op-Amps, we have found that the two Op-Amp
terminals will always be approximately equal, it appears that the two Op-Amp terminals are shorted
together, this is called "virtual short" (but there is no short inside the Op-Amp!).
Applying the concept of a virtual short can greatly simplify the analysis of an Op-Amp feedback
amplifier.
Need of negative feedback in Op-Amp
Any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation level because of very high
gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the Op-Amp is either negative or positive
saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation levels. Therefore, open loop Op-Amp
is not used in linear applications. With negative feedback, the voltage gain can be reduced and
controlled so that Op-Amp can function as a linear amplifier. Other advantages of using negative
feedback are; improved stability of the circuit, reduction in distortion increased bandwidth and
improvement in input and output impedance.

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Inverting Amplifier
The most widely used constant-gain amplifier circuit is the inverting amplifier as shown in the Fig.
4.4.

Figure 4.4: Inverting Amplifier

Using the concept of virtual ground between the input terminals, v   v   0 . Since for ideal Op-Amp
input impedance is infinity, it draws no current.
Applying KCL,
vi  v  v   vo

R1 Rf

vi  vo
 for v   0
R1 Rf


vo Rf
is the closed loop voltage gain.
vi R1
-ve sign indicates that the output is out of phase (inverting) with input applied voltage.

Non-inverting Amplifier
Fig. 4.5 shows an Op-Amp circuit that works as a non-inverting amplifier or constant gain multiplier.

Figure 4.5: Non-inverting Amplifier

Using the concept of virtual ground between the input terminals, v   v   vi . Applying KCL,

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0  v  v   vo

R1 Rf

vi vi  vo
  for v   vi
R1 Rf

 1 1 
 vi   
 R f R1 
vo
Rf  

vo  R f 
 1   is the closed loop voltage gain.
vi  R1 

Thus, the output is in phase (non-inverting) with input applied voltage.

2. Op-Amp Applications
Integrator
If the feedback component used is capacitor as shown in Fig 4.6, the resulting connection is called
integrator.

Figure 4.6: a) Integrator and b) practical integrator

Using the concept of virtual ground, v   v   0 . Since for ideal Op-Amp input impedance is infinity,
it draws no current.

 
Applying KCL,
vi  v  d v   vo
C
R1 dt

 C o for v   0
vi dv
R1 dt

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
dvo 1 vi
dt C R1

vo   
1
vi dt The output is the integration of input.
R1C
If the input is square wave, then output from integrator will be triangular wave.

Differentiator
Fig. 4.7 shows the differentiator circuit using Op-Amp. It is rarely used for the operation.

Figure 4.7: Differentiator

Using the concept of virtual ground, v   v   0 . Since for ideal Op-Amp input impedance is infinity,
it draws no current.

 
Applying KCL,
d vi  v  v   vo
C 
dt Rf

  o for v   0
dvi v
C
dt Rf

vo   R f C
dvi
The output is the differentiation of input.
dt
If the input is triangular wave, then output from integrator will be square wave.

Summing Amplifier or Adder

Most widely used Op-Amp circuit is the summing amplifier circuit shown in the Fig. 4.8. The circuit
shows a three-input summing amplifier, which provides a means of algebraically adding three
voltages, each multiplied by a constant-gain factor.

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Figure 4.8: Summing Amplifier

Using the concept of virtual ground, v   v   0 . Since for ideal Op-Amp input impedance is infinity,
it draws no current.
Applying KCL,
v1  v  v2  v  v3  v  v   vo
  
R1 R2 R3 Rf

v1 v2 v3  vo
   for v   0
R1 R2 R3 Rf

v v 
vo   R f  1  2  3  The output is the sum of inputs multiplied by constant-gain.
v
 R1 R2 R3 
If more inputs are used, they each add an additional component to the output.

Difference Amplifier or Subtractor

We can combine the non-inverting amplifier and inverting amplifier configurations to be able to take
difference between two inputs. Fig. 4.9 shows such a difference amplifier.

Figure 4.9: Difference Amplifier

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Using voltage divider rule,

v   v1
R3
R1  R3

Using the concept of non-inverting input, the output due to v  alone is,

R3  R4 
vo1  v1 1  
R1  R3  R2 

And for inverting input the output is,

vo 2   v 2
R4
R2
Now, using superposition theorem,
R3  R4 
vo  v1 1    v 2 4
R
R1  R3  R2  R2


R4 R3
If we set
R2 R1

R3  R3 
vo  v1 1    v 2 3
R
R1  R3  R1  R1

R3  R1  R3 
vo  v1    v2 3
R
R1  R3  R1  R1

vo 
R3
v1  v2  The output is the difference of inputs multiplied by constant-gain.
R1

3. Basic Feedback Theory

The basic concept of feedback has been mentioned in previous section in op-amp circuits. Depending
on the relative polarity of the signal being fed back into a circuit, there may be negative or positive
feedback. Negative feedback results in decreased voltage gain, while positive feedback drives a
circuit into oscillation as in various types of oscillator circuits.
A typical feedback connection is shown in Fig. 4.10. The input signal Vs is applied to a mixer

network, where it is combined with a feedback signal V f . The difference of these signals Vi is then

the input voltage to the amplifier. A portion of the amplifier output Vo is connected to the feedback
network (  ), which provides a reduced portion of the output as feedback signal to the input mixer
network.

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Figure 4.9: Block diagram of feedback amplifier

In negative feedback, the feedback signal is of opposite polarity to the input signal. Negative
feedback results in reduced overall voltage gain. Here is the simple illustration how it reduces overall
gain.
If there is no feedback, V f  0 then open-loop voltage gain of the amplifier is,

A 
Vo Vo
Vs Vi

If a feedback signal V f is connected in series with the input, then

Vi  Vs  V f

Then we can write Vo  AVs  V f 

Vo  AVs  Vo  Since V f  Vo

Vo 1  A  AVs
So, the overall gain with feedback is,

Af  
Vs 1  A
Vo A

This shows that the gain with feedback is the amplifier gain reduced by the factor 1  A .

Concept of stability
The negative feedback reduces the gain but it has many advantages. One of the main advantage is it
increases the gain stability. As the feedback network consists of passive components, thus we can
choose the values of those components precisely and gain can be stabilized.
As we know that,

Af 
1  A
A

Differentiating with respect to A

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d  A  1  A.1  A 
  
dA  1  A
 
1  A 1  A2
dAf 1
2
dA

Dividing both sides by A f 

1  A
A


1  A
dA A f 1  A
dAf 1 1
2
A


A 1  A
dAf dA 1
Af

Since 1  A  1 , the percentage change in gain with negative feedback is less than the percentage
change in gain without using feedback. Thus, gain stability is improved by use of negative feedback.

4. Oscillator
An oscillator is an element that generates alternating signal of known frequency and amplitude. More
specifically, it can be defined in any of the following ways.
 It is a circuit which produces ac signal (but generators cannot be called oscillators!)
 It is an unstable amplifier
Oscillators have numerous advantages such as they are used in radio transmitters, receivers and
radars.
Importance of Positive Feedback in Oscillator
The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain A f greater

than 1 and satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an oscillator circuit. If positive
feedback is employed in oscillators, the closed loop gain will be,

Af 
1  A
A

When A  1 , then A f   . That means there will be measurable output signal even if no input signal

and circuit is said to be an oscillator.

Essential Condition for Oscillation
The essential conditions for oscillation are:
 A  1 i.e. open loop gain of feedback system must be unity

 the total phase shift must be 0 o or 360o

This is known as the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.
The closer the value of A to unity, the more nearly sinusoidal is the waveform.

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Types of Oscillators
Depending upon the shape of the waveform produced oscillators may be sinusoidal oscillator, square
wave oscillator. If the output signal varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to as a sinusoidal
oscillator. If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and later drops quickly to another
voltage level, the circuit is generally referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.
However, we will deal different types of oscillator circuits that are categorized according to operating
frequency. They are low frequency ([Link] Bridge, RC phase shift) oscillator, high frequency
oscillator (e.g. Hartley, Colpitt) and fixed frequency (e.g. Crystal) oscillator.
All these categories of oscillators produce sinusoidal signals.

Wien Bridge Oscillator

The Wien-bridge oscillator circuit is shown in Fig 4.10 a).

Figure 4.10: a) Wien Bridge Oscillator and b) its output

Here, the Op-Amp is used in non-inverting configuration and values of R and C need to be properly
chosen so as to give no phase shift.
Here,
Z1  R  jX C and
 jRX C
Z2  then, v f  vo
Z2
R  jX C Z1  Z 2

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 jRX C
R  jX C  jRX C
 
R  jX C 2  jRX C
vf
 
R  jX C     jRX C 
vo
 R  jX C 
 jRX C
  
 
vf RX C
vo R  j 3RX C  X C 3RX C  j R 2  X C2
2 2

This quantity must be real number for zero phase shift, for this R 2  X C2 must be zero, which gives,

R 2  X C2 or R 
2fC
1
and

f  is the frequency of oscillation. At this frequency,    .Thus A  1  2  3 which

vf 1
2RC
1 R
vo 3 R1

 R 
implies 3  1  2  or R2  2R1 .
 R1 

Hartley Oscillator
The Hartley oscillator circuit is shown in Fig 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Hartley Oscillator

Here, the operational amplifier provides 180o phase shift (inverting mode) and LC circuit provides an

extra 180o phase shift, so the total phase shift of 360o is achieved. Which is one of the required
conditions for oscillation. Without paying much concentration on the derivation, we directly use the
expression for frequency of oscillation as,

f  where Leq  L1  L2
1
2 Leq C

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Colpitt Oscillator
The Hartley oscillator circuit is shown in Fig 4.12.

Figure 4.12:Colpitt Oscillator

Here, total phase shift of 360o is achieved in same manner as that of Hartley oscillator. The frequency
of oscillation is given by,

f  where Ceq 
1
2 LC eq
C1C2
C1  C2

5. Wave-form Generator using op-amp

Square Wave (Astable Multivibrator)
The principle of square wave generation using Op-Amp is to force the circuit to operate in saturation
by means of positive feedback. The output voltage will be +Vsat (≈VCC) or -Vsat (≈ -VCC) (As the open
loop gain is very large, with a small input voltage output goes into saturation).
Fig 4.13 shows a square wave generator circuit. When vo  v sat , the upper threshold voltage is given
by,

vUT   v sat   v sat since v f  vo   vo

R2 R2
R1  R2 R1  R2

When vo  v sat , the lower threshold voltage is given by,

v LT  v sat   v sat
R2
R1  R2

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Figure 4.13: Square wave generator

With vo  v sat , the capacitor starts charging towards  v sat through the feedback path provided by

resistor R f to the inverting (-) input. As long as the capacitor voltage vC is less than vUT , the output

remains at  v sat .

When capacitor charge to a value slightly greater than vUT , the output is switched from  v sat to  v sat .

As vo switches to  v sat , the capacitor starts discharging via R f . As long as the capacitor voltage vC is

greater than v LT , the output remains at  v sat . When vC becomes slightly more negative than the

feedback voltage v LT , the output voltage switches back to  v sat . In the same way, the process repeats
and periodic waveform is produced.

Figure 4.13: Square wave

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Frequency of Oscillation
The frequency of oscillation is determined from the time taken by the capacitor to charge from
 v sat to  v sat and vice versa. The instantaneous value of voltage across the capacitor is related as,


vC (t )  v max  [v max  vinitial ]e
t
RC

Where vmax is the voltage towards which the capacitor is charging

vinitial is the initial voltage

Let us consider capacitor is charging from  v sat to  v sat then,

 v sat  v sat  v sat   v sat e


t1
Rf C

1   vsate  1   v sat

t1
Rf C



1   
1   
t1
Rf C
e

1  
  ln 
1  
t1
Rf C

1  
 t1  R f C ln 
1  

1  
t1  R f C ln 
1  
Time taken by the capacitor to charge from  v sat to  v sat is same as the time taken to charge from

 v sat to  v sat . Therefore total time required for the oscillation is,

1  
T  t1  t2  2 R f C ln 
1  
Now, the frequency of oscillation will be,

f 
1  
1

2 R f C ln 
1  

If R1  R2 ,   
R2 1
R1  R2 2

Therefore, T  2R f C ln3  2.2R f C  2R f C and f 

1
2R f C

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Triangular Wave Generator

When a square wave is passed to an integrator the output is a triangular wave. The square wave signal
is applied to the inverting input of the Op-Amp through the input resistor R3.

Figure 4.14: Triangular wave generator

For the positive side of the square wave, the capacitor starts charging and the output of the Op-Amp
increases in a rate proportional to the RC time constant (T=R3C2) and this ramp increases in
amplitude until the capacitor is fully charged.
When the input to the integrator (square wave) falls to the negative peak, the capacitor quickly
discharges through the input resistor R3, and starts charging in the opposite polarity. Now the
conditions are reversed and the output of the Op-Amp will be a ramp that is going to the negative side
at a rate proportional to the time constant. This cycle is repeated and the result will be a triangular
waveform at the output of the Op-Amp integrator.

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