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Module 7 bio year 12 notes

Cell Biology (University of South Australia)

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Study Notes: Module 7

Contents:
1. Inquiry Question 1
2. Inquiry Question 2
3. Inquiry Question 3
4. Inquiry Question 4

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Inquiry Question 1:
How are diseases transmitted?
DOT POINTS:
● describe a variety of infectious diseases caused by pathogens, including microorganisms,
macroorganisms and non-cellular pathogens, and collect primary and secondary-sourced data and
information relating to disease transmission, including:
○ classifying different pathogens that cause disease in plants and animals
○ investigating the transmission of a disease during an epidemic
○ design and conduct a practical investigation relating to the microbial testing of water or food
samples
○ investigate modes of transmission of infectious diseases, including direct contact, indirect contact
and vector transmission
● compare the adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their entry into and transmission between
hosts

● A pathogen is an infectious agent that causes

disease or illness.
Pathogens That Cause Disease in Plants and ● An infection is the entry of a pathogen into a
Animals body followed by the multiplication of the
pathogen.
● The host is the organism in which a pathogen
multiplies.

● Prion
○ Are proteins that do not contain DNA or
Non-Cellular Pathogens RNA
○ Cause nervous diseases in animals
○ Progress rapidly, generally, always fatal
○ Scrapie in sheep, Mad Cow Disease
● Virus
○ Contains DNA and RNA that is enclosed
in a protein coat → capsid
○ 30-300nm → cannot be seen with light
microscope
○ Require living host to reproduce and are
unable to function outside of one
○ Measles, common cold, Corona Virus
○ Since they contain nucleic acid, they can
evolve → allows them to change their
surface proteins so that they can evade
immune system
○ Inject their nucleic acid into the cell to
make more viruses → eventually the
host bursts releasing more viruses

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● Bacteria
○ Single-celled, prokaryotic (no membrane
bound organelles or nucleus)
Micro-organism Pathogens ○ Have one strand of DNA
○ 0.2-10µm
○ Classified on their shape
■ spherical shape (coccus), a rod
shape (bacillus), a spiral shape
(spirillum), a comma shape
(vibrio) or an oval shape
(rickettsiae)
○ Some bacterial have mutualistic
relationships with their host
○ Boils, cholera, tetanus, tuberculosis
○ Reproduce through binary fission → can
reproduce thousands in a short time
● Protozoa
○ Unicellular, eukaryotic organisms with
membrane bound organelles.
○ 1-300µm
○ Are classified by travel (flagella, cilia,
pseudopods or sporozoa).
○ Reproduce by binary fission (dividing
into two)
○ Amoebic dysentery, giardia, malaria,
○ Under certain conditions some
protozoans produce a protective capsule
called a cyst
■ Can survive when there is
unsuitable living conditions
● Fungi
○ This can also be a Macro-organism
○ Transfer the disease through the use of
fungal spores
■ Can spread long distances
through air
■ Are very hardy
■ Can survive extreme
environmental conditions
○ Fungi that infects skin, hair, or nails
produce an enzyme that breaks down
keratin → the fungi feeds on the
products produce by enzyme

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● Multicellular, eukaryotic organisms, that are

visible to the naked eye.
● Some cause disease directly while others are
Macro-organism Pathogens vectors for the transmission of disease
● Endoparasites
○ Live internally in a host
■ Flat worms, tape worms, liver
fluke
● Ectoparsites
○ Live externally on a host
■ Fleas, ticks, lice

● A sudden increase in the prevalence of a

disease above the endemic rate.
● An epidemic occurs through the chain of
infection when several aspects of the agent
Transmission of Disease during Epidemics (pathogen), population (hosts), and the
environment create an ideal situation for
spread.

Conditions that Allow Transmission of

Diseases
● Globalisation
○ International travel, shipping etc
● Overcrowding
○ Refugee camps, areas with an
abundance of people
● Social and environmental interactions
○ Contaminated water supply, poor
sanitation facilities
● Mutation of pathogen
○ Resiting antibiotics and vaccines
● Natural disasters
○ Contaminate water sources
● Climate change
○ Water activities → waterborne
illnesses

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● Direct Contact: involves the transfer of the

pathogen by touching the affected area of the
infected person.
Examples:
○ Touching
○ Contact with saliva, mucus, blood or
bodily fluids
Modes of Transmission of Infectious Diseases ● Indirect Contact: involves transfer of the
pathogen via a non-living object.
Examples:
○ Contaminated food, water or soil
○ Contaminated objects known as fomites
such as door handles
○ Airborn Transmission eg. Droplets
● Vector Transmission: involves organisms
assisting in the transfer of pathogens between
individuals.
Examples:
○ Biological vectors, such as mosquitos →
Transfer pathogen → DOES carry
pathogen
○ Mechanical vectors, such as flies,
physically transfer the pathogen from
one person to another → DON’T carry
pathogen

Aim: To determine if different samples of water from

different sources contain microbes

Microbial Testing of Water Samples Hazard Risk Precaution

Consuming water Can give the person Will not consume

that contains an illness water
microbes

Water spilling A person may slip Clean all spills

and bump their immediately
head

Method:
1. Swab the work surface with disinfectant
2. Light the Bunsen burner
3. Seal one of the agar plates with masking tape to
make it a control sample and label it as a control
4. Place 5 drops of de-ionised water sample onto an
open agar plate
5. Heat the L-shaped glass spreader over the Bunsen
burner for 10 seconds to sterilise it
6. Spread the water evenly over the agar plate
7. Seal the agar plate and label it according to its water
source using masking tape and a label pen
8. Repeat steps 4-7 two more times, with the
de-ionised water

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9. Repeat steps 4-8 with the tap water, creek water and
boiled water
10. Place the agar plates upside down into the
incubator and leave them inside for 2-3 days

Results:
Water Sample Microbes Present

De-Ionised Water Yes

Tap Water No

Boiling Water No

Creek Water Yes

Control No

Reliable? Yes
Valid? Yes

DOT POINTS:
● investigate the work of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, to explain the causes and transmission of
infectious diseases, including:
○ Koch’s postulates
○ Pasteur’s experiments on microbial contamination

● Are the principles he used to identify the

specific micro-organism that was responsible for
a disease
Koch’s Postulates ● This is still used today to identify the
microorganism that causes a disease
● In order to find the microorganism that creates
the disease it must:
○ Be present in every diseased host and
must show the same symptoms
○ The microorganism must then be
isolated and cultured (grown) in the
laboratory where it can be described and
recorded
○ A healthy host must be found and then a
sample of pure culture can be
inoculated into it
■ The host must develop the same
symptoms as the original host
○ The microorganism must once again be
isolated from the second host and
cultured and identified to be the same
microorganism in the original species

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● Pasteur’s experiment disproved the

spontaneous generation theory and instead
proved germ theory
Pasteur’s Experiments on Microbial Contamination ● He placed the same amount of beef broth into
two identical swan-neck flasks
● He then boiled the flasks for a certain amount of
time
○ This was to remove any possible
microbes that were in the flask already
● He then broke off the neck off of one of the
flasks
● After viewing the flasks after a certain amount of
time, it could be seen that microbes were only
present in the flask that has the swan-neck
broken off
○ This disproved spontaneous generation
as the germs should’ve been in both
flasks in order for this theory to work

CLASS EXPERIMENT
Aim:

Method:
1. Label each flask A and B
2. Place 200 mL of nutrient broth into each conical
flask
3. Place the stopper with the straight glass tube
into conical flask A and the s-shaped stopper
into flask B
4. Boil the solution vigorously in both flasks for
several minutes
5. Cool the solution slowly in both flasks
6. Observe the results in both flasks over a period
of 10 days and record observations.

DOT POINTS:
● assess the causes and effects of diseases on agricultural production, including but not limited to:
○ plant diseases
○ animal diseases

● Can infect any part of the plant, e.g. roots, stem

(including timber), leaves, flower and/or fruit

● Citrus canker
○ Cause
Plant Diseases ■ Caused by the bacterium
Xanthomonas citri, forming
lesions on stems
■ Was a notifiable disease
○ Effect
■ There was no cure for this
disease meaning any plant that

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acquired it had to be cut down →

Economical impact for farmers
■ If it was established in Australia,
trading partners would reject any
fruit that could carry the disease
to avoid importing it → industry
threatened
● Wheat Rusts
○ Cause
■ Cause by species of fungi
Puccinia leading to stripe, stem,
and leaf rust
■ Spores are then created and
travel through the air meaning
that it can be spread to extensive
regions
○ Effect
■ An untreated infection could
reduce grain yield by up to 90
per cent. → Loss of produce =
less money
● Potato Moth
○ Cause
■ A destructive pest of potatoes
that can also infect tomatoes
■ A caterpillar feeds on the leaves
and tubers in the ground or in
storage
○ Effect
■ Crops that have been eaten by
the caterpillar cannot be sold →
loss in produce = profit loss
■ Damage by the larvae affects the
growth of seedlings and young
transplants and may seriously
reduce the yield and quality of
leaf on older plants

● An impairment of the normal state of an animal

that interrupts or modifies its vital functions
● Anthrax
○ Cause
Animal Diseases ■ Caused by the bacterium
Bacillus anthracis which affects a
wide range of animal species
■ Humans can also become
infected through contact of an
infected animal or the inhalation
of spores
○ Effect
■ Animals that have the disease
generally suddenly die → less
produce
● Australian bat lyssavirus

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○ Cause
■ Is related to rabies and is
transferred by being
contamination, being bitten or
saliva
○ Effect
■ It is quite rare and doesn’t have
too much of an effect
● Flystrike
○ Cause
■ Caused by several species of
blowflies
■ Creates a strike in sheep making
a damaged wound that attracts
other blowflies which lay their
eggs in the wound
○ Effect
■ costing the Australian sheep
industry $280 million a year
■ Causes a loss of productivity
from the animal affected → loss
of produce = less profit

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Inquiry Question 2:
How does a plant or animal respond to infection?
DOT POINTS:
● investigate the response of a named Australian plant to a named pathogen through practical and/or
secondary-sourced investigation, for example:
○ fungal pathogens
○ viral pathogens

● An introduced species of water mould that

thrives in Australian conditions

Fungal Pathogens: Phytophthora cinnamomi Pathogen:

● It is a fungus that affects the plant Eucalyptus
marginate causing the disease Phytophthora
Dieback
○ It travels through the soil via zoospores
○ Must survive through wet conditions
○ When living conditions aren’t ideal the
thick chlamydospore walls protect the
spores when the conditions are
unfavourable and dry

Symptoms:
● It attaches to the roots of the plant and absorbs
its nutrients, causing the tree not to be able to
absorb water or its own nutrients from the soil
○ Slowly dying foliage

Response:
● The plant has an increase in lignin production to
protect the cell wall of plant cells as it is
impervious (cannot pass through) to the
pathogen

DOT POINTS:
● analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing the physical and chemical changes that
occur in the host animals cells and tissues

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● Occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria,

trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause
Physical Changes
Responses to Presence of Pathogens: Inflammation Chemical Changes
Response ● Injuries to body tissues cause mast cells and
basophils to release chemical and initiate
inflammation
○ Heparin & histamines are released
which causes the dilation of blood
vessels that are near the damaged site
→ increases the permeability of blood
vessels meaning that things can pass
through
● More blood then rushes through the blood
vessels and to the site of infection, bringing
phagocytes and clotting factors in the process
○ Clotting factors clot the blood, blocking
the pathogens from spreading to other
parts of the body
○ Phagocytes engulf the pathogen
○ The area becomes red, hot and swollen
● Macrophytes secrete hormones called cytokines
○ Some cytokines inform the
hypothalamus to increase body
temperature
■ Increases the body’s
temperature
○ Other cytokines attract immune system
cells to the site and activate cells
involved in tissue repair

● Are specialised white blood cells that attack

pathogens by engulfing them and destroying
them
Responses to Presence of Pathogens: Physical Changes
Phagocytosis Chemical Changes
● Once the pathogen is inside the cell, enzymes
are released to destroy the pathogen
● The phagocytes can move out of blood and in
between blood cells, as well as change their
shape so they can move arround the pathogen
and completely enclose them.
● The enzyme lysozyme is released to destroy
the pathogen.
● Pus can be created as a result of dead
phagocytes, bacteria, tissue fluid and dead cells
● Some pathogens have the ability to repel
phagocytes

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Inquiry Question 3:
How does the human immune system respond to exposure to a pathogen?
DOT POINTS:
● investigate and model the innate and adaptive immune systems in the human body
● explain how the immune system responds after primary exposure to a pathogen, including innate and
acquired immunity

● The body's first line of defence against germs

entering the body
● Consists of chemical and physical barriers
Immune System: 1st line of Defence (things that stop the pathogen from travelling
further into the body)
Physical
● Skin
○ Skin is an intact, outer tough layer which
prevents penetration
○ Cells fit tightly together to form a
protective layer covered by dead cells
○ When intact, prevents the entry of
pathogens
○ Pores secrete substances that kill
bacteria
○ Skin is dry so it is nearly impossible for
pathogens to grow on it
● Mucous membrane
○ Cells lining the digestive and respiratory
tract and the openings of the urinary and
reproductive systems secrete a
protective layer of mucus
○ The mucus is sticky → traps pathogens
and other particles
○ It is removed by cilia
○ More mucus is produced when there are
many pathogens
○ Can contain an antibody → prevents
bacteria from attaching to surfaces
● Cilia
○ Fine hairs on the cells lining the air
passages
○ They move in a wavelike motion to work
with the mucus to push pathogens that
are in the respiratory tract up the throat
Chemical
Anti-Microbial Secretions:
● Acid in the stomach and vagina, and on the skin
○ Stomach acid destroys pathogens in
food, including those that are carried to
the throat by cilia and then swallowed.
● Alkali in the small intestine
○ Destroys acid-resistant pathogens
● Lysozyme - Tears, saliva & sweat
○ Dissolves the cell membranes of
bacteria

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Other Body Secretions:

● Urine
○ Cleans and flushes the lower urinary
tract; it is sterile and its acidity inhibits
bacterial growth
● Secretions from sweat glands and oily
secretions from glands in hair follicles
○ Contain chemicals that destroy bacteria
and fungi or inhibit their growth

● Nonspecific resistance that destroys invaders in

a generalized way without targeting specific
individuals
● Includes Inflammation Response and
Response of Immune System: 2nd Line of Defence Phagocytosis (see above)
● Lymph system response
○ An intercellular fluid that is collected
around the body by lymph vessels
○ Returns the fluid back to the circulatory
system near the heart
○ As the fluid travels around the body, the
lymph nodes filter to remove microbes,
tissue debris and dead cells from
circulation
○ Swollen lymph nodes are a good
indication of an infection
● Cell Death to Seal off Pathogens
○ When white blood cells (lymph nodes,
macrophages) surround a pathogen and
die to seal off the infected area →
prevent spread
○ If infected cells are surrounded it
prevents the spread
○ The wall forms a capsule known as a
granuloma or cyst
■ Cells inside die causing the
destruction of the pathogen
○ The debris inside the cyst is destroyed
by macrophages that surround the
walled-off area
● Natural Killer Cells
○ Specialised type of blood cell →
recognises body cells that are infected
with viruses
○ They attach to the infected cell and
release chemicals that cause the cell to
undergo apoptosis (cell suicide)
○ Can recognise tumours and apply the
same method
● Secretion of antimicrobial proteins
○ Secretes many proteins that provide
defence
○ Some directly attack antigens while
others trigger immune responses

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● Complement Proteins
○ Refers to a series of >20 proteins that
circulate in blood and tissue fluid
○ Proteins are generally inactive →
activated as part of innate immune
system to certain antigens
○ This complements the immune defence
mechanisms
○ Help kill foreign cells
■ can destroy bacteria directly by
punching holes in their cell walls,
causing them to lyse (break
down)
● Cytokines
○ Small proteins secreted by range of cells
○ Are signalling molecules that help cell to
cell communication during infection,
immune & inflammation response
○ Different kinds of cytokines trigger
different responses
○ Infereon - cells that have been infected
release this which is a benefit for
neighbouring cells, hindering the virus
cell replication in them

● Specific lymphocytes that produce antibodies as

part of the adaptive immune response
● B cells are lymphocytes that are produced in
bone marrow
Response of Immune System: 3rd line of Defence ● After they have matured they are also released
Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response into the blood, spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes.
● B cells recognise and bind antigens. Each B cell
recognises one specific antigen.
● B cells can be differentiated into one of the two
things:
● Plasma Cells
○ Secrete antibodies into the blood system
○ Can produce thousands of antibodies
per second
○ Antibodies are proteins, shaped like a Y
and has two binding sites
■ Each binding site is for a specific
antigen
○ The antibodies move to the infection site
and combine with an antigen at the
epitope (part of antigen recognised by
the immune system)
■ This forms the antigen–antibody
complex
■ This deactivates the antigen,
DOES NOT DESTROY IT
○ Antibodies can clump the antigens
together or surround them to make it
easier for phagocytes to destroy it

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○ Other ways the antigen can be

destroyed is by immobilising it, blocking
and neutralising the active binding site of
the antigen
● Memory Cells
○ B cells can differentiate into memory
cells
○ When they reencounter the same
antigen (this can be years or decades
later), they can produce into
antibody-producing plasma cells.
○ This allows for the destruction of the
antigen to occur more quickly than the
first time when it wasn’t identified.

● The adaptive defence when cells become

infected
● Defends the body against
Response of Immune System: 3rd line of Defence ○ bacteria and viruses that are inside the
Cell-Mediated Immune Response cells
○ protozoa, fungi, flatworms and
roundworms
○ cancerous cells and transplanted foreign
tissue
● T Cells are produced in the bone marrow and
mature in the thymus gland
○ Once matured they are released into
blood, spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes
● Each T Cell has a surface receptor protein the
can recognise a specific antigen
● Helper T Cells (Th Cells)
○ Has a receptor protein on its surface that
recognises one type of antigen
○ When it recognises an antigen, it will
release a cytokine chemical → activates
cytotoxic T cells and B cells → specific
to the antigen
○ Cytokine chemicals that stimulate
macrophage activity are released
● Cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells)
○ Stimulated to produce clones of
themselves when activated by Th cells
○ Detect cells that have displayed on their
surface antigen that matches their
receptor protein
○ ‘Army’ of Tc move to site of infection →
bind with infected cells → release
chemicals to destroy infected cell
● Memory T Cells
○ Produced at the same time as Tc cells
○ Remain in body so it can quickly
respond to possible future invasions
from the same antigen

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● Suppressor T Cells
○ Are responsible for stopping the immune
response when the infection has been
defeated
Interaction between B and T Cells
● Helper T-cells induce B-cells to divide and
produce large numbers of clones
○ Millions of B-cells can be dedicated to
destroying specific antigen
● Helper T cells stimulate the production of
antibodies by B-cells
● On the surface of cells there are glycoprotein
molecules called MHC → allow recognition of
cells from the body
● MHC allows the identification of cells that are
foreign
○ Foreign cells have different MHC
molecules on their surface
● T and B cells to work together successfully due
to their close proximity and regular activities
through the secretion of chemicals called
cytokines by the helper T cells
Summary
● Antigen is engulfed by a macrophage which
then presents a part of the antigen on its
surface. This stimulates the T helper cells.
● Free antigens directly activate specific B cells.
● Infected cells display the antigen proteins on
their surface. This directly activates cytotoxic T
cells.
● A second exposure to an antigen directly
stimulates memory T helper cells. T helper cells
activate the B and T cells.

● The body activating the immune response

against an invading pathogen
● Natural: Without human intervention
Immunity ● Artificial: With human intervention

Passive Immunity:
● Occurs for a short time
● Antibodies cross the placenta to the foetus, or
when the presence of antibodies in breast milk
allows a baby to acquire the resistance of the
mother
● Can be artificially induced
● Typically lasts a few weeks
● Does not involve memory cells and humans
cannot create their own antibodies

Active Immunity:
● Occurs after the person has been exposed to a
pathogen

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● Can occur naturally when the person catches

the disease and recovers or artificially through a
vaccine
● Memory cells are produced and the person is
able to produce antibodies for the specific
pathogen

Vaccines:
● Can contain either the killed bacteria or viruses,
living attenuated forms of the pathogen, or a
toxoid
● Genetic engineering allows for the genes of
certain microbes or mammals to be made into
living factories that mass produced a desired
antigen
● Vaccines act as an antigen and induce the
immune response, producing plasma and
memory cells
● Vaccine doesn’t cause the disease or symptoms
so plasma cells are readily needed → focus on
giving cells a immunological memory for the
pathogen
● If the body encounters the pathogen, memory
cells can act quick to create antibodies to defeat
it so the person doesn’t suffer from the disease

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Inquiry Question 4:
How can the spread of infectious diseases be controlled?
DOT POINTS:
● investigate and analyse the wide range of interrelated factors involved in limiting local, regional and global
spread of a named infectious disease

● Good Hygiene:
○ Sneezing into a tissue
○ Coughing into your elbow
Local Factors involved in Limiting Spread
○ Sanitising hands
of COVID-19
○ Washing hands for 20 seconds
○ Avoiding touching your face and eyes
● Social Distancing:
○ Keeping 1.5m away from others where
possible
○ Avoiding physical greetings such as
hugs, handshakes etc
○ Taking extra care on public transport
○ Avoiding large crowds and gathering
○ Getting tested and staying at home if
any symptoms show
○ In schools, workplaces and in public
masks were worn
● Self-Isolation
○ Self-isolation involves a person who has
COVID-19 symptoms to stay at home for
roughly 2 weeks until they are no longer
contagious (roughly a period of 5 days)
● Environmental cleaning and disinfection in the
community
○ Items are categorised into either
frequently touched surfaces or minimally
touches surfaces.
○ Frequently touched should be frequently,
mechanically cleaned or with detergent.
○ Minimally touched surfaces can be
cleaned with wipes, mops, and other
cleaning products.
● Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
○ In places of high-risk areas, it is
important for everyone to wear masks to
protect themselves or other people.
○ Eye shields & gloves are generally worn
by workers who are coming into contact
with people who may have covid such
as testing facilities.

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● Vaccination
○ While the vaccine won't protect you
against COVID-19, it will reduce your
risk of influenza, protecting the elderly
and other age groups.
○ The flu vaccine will help reduce the
strain on hospitals and lungs — both
seasonal influenza and COVID-19 can
cause respiratory problems and even
pneumonia.
○ There is also a COVID-19 vaccine that
can help lower the risk of catching the
virus or minimise the symptoms when it
is caught

● Border protection and travel bans.

○ Countries around the world increasingly
adopted sweeping measures, including
Regional/Global Factors involved in Limiting
full lockdowns, shutting down airports,
Spread of COVID-19
imposing travel restrictions and
completely sealing their borders, to
contain the new coronavirus.
● Communication to transmit accurate and
up-to-date data on COVID-19 outbreaks as they
occur
○ Communication between scientists is of
vital importance in the control of
infectious diseases.
● Distribution of masks, ventilators, gloves, gowns
and hand sanitiser from international suppliers.

DOT POINTS:
● investigate procedures that can be employed to prevent the spread of disease, including but not limited to:
○ hygiene practices
○ quarantine
○ vaccination, including passive and active immunity
○ public health campaigns
○ use of pesticides
○ genetic engineering

● Refers to practices and conditions that maintain

health and prevent disease by cleanliness and
proper sanitation
● The need for medical cleanliness was
Hygiene Practices established after Louis Pasteur proposed his
germ theory
● Hygiene practices are necessary to maintain as
they ensure good health and limit the spread of
pathogens

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● The isolation of an organism that has come into

contact with a disease
● Role in Australia is to minimise the risk of exotic
Quarantine pests and diseases entering the country
● Strategies include:
○ Border control: checking passengers
that enter the country to deter the entry
of prohibited material into the country →
prevents entry of plant and animal
disease
○ Animal quarantine: Involves all animals
coming into Australia spending time at
quarantine stations to ensure they are
free of disease before release
○ Plant quarantine: Examining of all plant
parts. (many are refused entry). Live
plants must be kept at quarantine
stations until any diseases present have
the time to develope

● Involves the introduction of a vaccine into the

body to cause immunisation via the third line of
defence
Vaccination ● Preparation of a harmless foreign antigen and is
often made from weakened or killed forms of
the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface
proteins
● Can relate to passive immunity when a woman
is pregnant as she can pass on the antibodies
to her baby
● Refer to above for more info

● Procedures aimed at persuading the public to

engage in or stop specific behaviours and to
communicate information about symptoms,
Public Health Campaigns treatment and public health support
● HIV and AIDS Campaign
● Childhood Immunisation Campaign
● Coronavirus (COVID-19) Campaign
● Encourages actions to stop the spread of
disease or infection

● Chemicals that destroy organisms considered to

be pests
Pesticides ● Most pests are insects, but other pest groups
include ticks, mites, worms, slugs and snails
● DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichoroethane) is a
pesticide that was used during WWII to destroy
body lice in order to control typhus fever
○ Was used to kill mosquitoes to kill
malaria
○ Natural selection led to DDT-resistant
strains that required stronger pesticide
concentrations

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● High levels of DDT caused problems such as:

○ egg shells of Australian peregrine
falcons broke before the young could
hatch
● It has been banned as a pesticide

● The alteration of chromosomes by adding or

removing genes
Genetic Engineering ● Can create disease-resistant plants
○ Plant biologists are working on crop
plants to delete genes that code for
chemicals that attract pests
○ Bt Corn reduces the diseases in corn
● Engineering can silence genes in targetted
pathogens by disabling the gene
○ Researchers have developed
gene-silencing spray that shuts down
viral genes inside tobacco plant cells
● Engineering of vectors (eg mosquitoes) allows
for the control of the spread of disease
○ Achieved by modifying the mosquitoes
genes so they bear sterile offspring or
preventing the birth of females so the
disease stops spreading

DOT POINTS:
● investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment strategies for the control of
infectious disease, for example:
○ antivirals
○ antibiotics

● Do not kill viruses, but inhibit their development

inside infected cells
Antivirals ● Simply slowing down its progress, allowing the
body's natural defences to take over
● They stop the spread of viral disease and
therefore are a useful addition to the control of
disease.
● Since viruses rely on host cells to replicate, it
can be challenging to develop antivirals that
selectively target the virus without harming the
host cells. Therefore, antivirals may have more
potential for side effects.

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● Antibiotics are chemicals that target the bacteria

without destroying the host and are not at all
Antibiotics effective against viruses
● The overuse of antibiotics has led to the
selection of more virulent bacteria that are
resistant to antibiotics.
● When antibiotics were first introduced, they had
a dramatic effect on the pathogens that cause
disease. Over time, it became apparent that
antibiotics were less effective.
● This was because of the development of drug
resistance in the pathogen.
● Antibiotics target specific components or
processes in bacteria, such as cell wall
synthesis, protein synthesis, or DNA replication,
leading to bacterial death or growth inhibition.
● Certain antibiotics can still cause side effects or
disrupt beneficial bacteria in the body.

DOT POINTS:
● investigate and evaluate environmental management and quarantine methods used to control an epidemic
or pandemic

● Effective environmental management can limit

the spread of disease outbreaks and improve
the health of those affected
● Water Supply
Environmental Management ○ To prevent/control an infectious disease
outbreak water supplies should be
protected by:
■ boiling water before drinking
■ chlorinating water
■ importing contained water from
safe supplies
■ sealing, containing, and/or
draining water bodies to control
the spread of disease.
● Food Sources
○ limiting food preparation to those who
are not infected by the contagion (and
have not been in contact with those
infected)
○ following proper hygiene practices when
handling food (e.g. hand washing)
○ importing food from safe supplies
○ storing food in sealed,
temperature-controlled containers
○ disposing of all affected food items and
avoiding consumption if food is an agent
of disease transfer (e.g. a batch of food
contaminated by Salmonella sp.)
○ avoiding sharing food with others.
● Sanitation
○ sealed and functioning sewage systems

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○ safe disposal of animal waste, food

scraps, and rubbish (e.g removal of
rubbish from towns to a sealed, secure
rubbish tip)
○ safe, secure disposal of hospital and
health services waste.
● Air Quality
○ Poor air quality and ventilation can
facilitate the transfer of infectious
diseases that are spread by airborne
droplets

● Separates and restricts the movement of

people, animals and materials that may spread
Quarantine infectious disease
● Quarantine involves keeping an organism that is
infected away from others until it no longer
becomes contagious

DOT POINTS:
● interpret data relating to the incidence and prevalence of infectious disease in populations, for example:
○ mobility of individuals and the portion that are immune or immunised
○ Malaria or Dengue Fever in South East Asia

● The incidence of infectious disease refers to the

rate of occurrence of new cases, i.e. the
number of new cases occurring during a
Incidence specified time
● Incidence can be expressed as a percentage
(number per 100) or as a fraction of the
population (number per 100 000 or 1000 or
10 000 etc).
● It can also be thought of as the infection rate or
the probability (risk) of contracting the disease

● Measures the proportion of cases in the

Prevalence population at a particular point in time
● Prevalence refers to all cases of the disease,
both previous and current.
● Prevalence can also be expressed as a
percentage

DOT POINTS:
● evaluate historical, culturally diverse and current strategies to predict and control the spread of disease

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● During the Middle Ages, most people believed

that diseases such as cholera and bubonic
plague were caused and spread by miasma
Control Methods of the Spread of Disease: (bad air)
Historical ○ Believed that disease could be caused
by a ‘bad smell’
● They understood that disease cannot reinfect a
person after they had recovered from it
● Innoculation refers to the introduction of a
substance into the body that will cause an
immune response that can provide future
protection against a specific disease
○ First attempt was with smallpox by the
Chinese, where powder made from the
scabs of the disease were deliberately
inhaled to receive immunity
○ In other countries the preferred method
was applying power or pus under the
skin rather than inhalation

● Traditional Chinese Medicine

● Focus on treating illness when it is in the early
stages or prevention rather than treating a
person after they have had the disease
Control Methods of the Spread of Disease: ● They were able to predict the possible spread of
Culturally Diverse a disease if they observed particular symptoms
that they were familiar with in a person
● Included many control strategies:
○ Acupuncture
○ Herbal medicine
○ Maintaining a specific diet
○ Massage
○ Tai chi
○ Can be shown to alter the activity of the
immune system, stimulating the
production of immunoglobulins

Prevention
● Current strategies use modelling which can be
used to
○ Predict future occurrences of diseases
Control Methods of the Spread of Disease: ○ Project and simulate how a disease will
Current progress and spread
○ Simulate the effects of interventions
○ Inform public health interventions and
distribution of resources such as mass
vaccination programs
○ Identify hotspots of emerging (novel)
infectious disease and provide early
warnings
○ Increase understanding of human
mobility patterns and the impact of
mobility restriction measures such as
travel restrictions.

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Controlling Spread
● Immunisation programs
● Public health campaigns
● Provision of fresh water
● Good sewage treatment and disposal
● Garbage disposal
● Applying good hygiene practices in all situations
● Quarantine and vector control measures

DOT POINTS:
● investigate the contemporary application of Aboriginal protocols in the development of particular
medicines and biological materials in Australia and how recognition and protection of Indigenous cultural
and intellectual property is important, for example:
○ bush medicine
○ smoke bush in Western Australia

● Indigenous Australians hold a large amount of

knowledge of what medical properties native
plants hold

Native Plant Use in Bush Medicine

Crushed leaves applied in a paste to wounds or tea infusion for sore

Bush Medicine and Smoke Bush Tea Tree
throat.

Leaves made into a wash fore sores, colds, headaches, diarrhoea and
Emu Bush
chest pains.

Compress of warmed leaves induces milk flow in new mothers and oily
Gumbi Gumbi
seed ground into a paste and rubbed into the body treats eczema.

Eucalyptus (Oil) Leaf infusion used to treat aches, pains, fevers and chills

Made into a tea or steam inhalation for colds and chest congestion.
Lemon Grass
Rubbed on the body treats aches, pains and skin sores.

● Research into native plants generally requires

establishing partnerships between Aboriginal
communities and industries or professions
● Aboriginals are worried that their traditional
knowledge is being exploited and that their
Indigenous cultural and intellectual property
rights are not recognised
○ Can be seen through Smoke Bush
○ Was recognised as a possible treatment
for HIV/AIDS in late 1980s
○ WA Government allowed pharmacy
company to exclusive rights to the
compounds → Make profit eventually
○ There was no discussion of
acknowledgement or royalties to be
given to the Indigenous Australians

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