5

The Skeletal System

The Skeletal System
• Parts of the skeletal system
• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints
• Cartilages
• Ligaments
• Two subdivisions of the skeleton
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton

Functions of Bones
• Support the body
• Protect soft organs
• Skull and vertebrae for brain and spinal cord
• Rib cage for thoracic cavity organs
• Allow movement due to attached skeletal muscles
• Store minerals and fats
• Calcium and phosphorus
• Fat in the internal marrow cavity
• Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

Bones of the Human Body

• The adult skeleton has 206 bones
• Two basic types of bone tissue
• Compact bone
• Homogeneous
• Spongy bone
• Small needle-like pieces of bone
• Many open spaces

Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape

• Bones are classified as:
• Long
• Short
• Flat
• Irregular

Classification of Bones
• Long bones
• Typically longer than they are wide
• Shaft with heads situated at both ends
• Contain mostly compact bone
• All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist, ankle, and
kneecap bones)
• Example:
• Femur
• Humerus

Classification of Bones
• Short bones
• Generally cube-shaped
• Contain mostly spongy bone
• Includes bones of the wrist and ankle
• Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone which form within
tendons (patella)
• Example:
• Carpals
• Tarsals

Classification of Bones
• Flat bones
• Thin, flattened, and usually curved
• Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of
spongy bone
• Example:
• Skull
 • Ribs
• Sternum

Classification of Bones
• Irregular bones
• Irregular shape
• Do not fit into other bone classification categories
• Example:
• Vertebrae
• Hip bones

Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of compact bone
• Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly of spongy bone

Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue membrane
• Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
• Secure periosteum to underlying bone
• Arteries
• Supply bone cells with nutrients

Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Articular cartilage
• Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint surfaces

Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Epiphyseal plate
 • Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone
• Epiphyseal line
• Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
• Seen in adult bones

Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Marrow (medullary) cavity
• Cavity inside of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
• Contains red marrow for blood cell formation in infants
• In adults, red marrow is situated in cavities of spongy bone
and epiphyses of some long bones

Bone Markings
• Surface features of bones
• Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
• Passages for nerves and blood vessels
• Categories of bone markings
• Projections or processes—grow out from the bone surface
• Terms often begin with “T”
• Depressions or cavities—indentations
• Terms often begin with “F”

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

• Osteon (Haversian system)
• A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings
• Central (Haversian) canal
• Opening in the center of an osteon
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
• Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
• Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Carries blood vessels and nerves

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

• Lacunae
• Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
• Arranged in concentric rings called lamellae
• Lamellae
• Rings around the central canal
• Sites of lacunae

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

• Canaliculi
• Tiny canals
• Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
• Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a
nutrient supply

Formation of the Human Skeleton

• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
• During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by
bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints

Bone Growth (Ossification)

• Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth of long
bones during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed
• Older cartilage becomes ossified
• Cartilage is broken down
• Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a
medullary cavity
• Bone replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts

Bone Growth (Ossification)

• Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
• Bones are remodeled in response to two factors
• Blood calcium levels
• Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
• Bones grow in width (called appositional growth)
Types of Bone Cells
• Osteocytes—mature bone cells
• Osteoblasts—bone-forming cells
• Osteoclasts—giant bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of
calcium in response to parathyroid hormone
• Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts and
osteoclasts

Bone Fractures
• Fracture—break in a bone
• Types of bone fractures
• Closed (simple) fracture—break that does not penetrate the
skin
• Open (compound) fracture—broken bone penetrates
through the skin
• Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization

Common Types of Fractures

Repair of Bone Fractures
• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch

The Axial Skeleton

• Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
• Divided into three parts
• Skull
• Vertebral column
• Bony thorax

The Skull
• Two sets of bones
• Cranium
 • Facial bones
• Bones are joined by sutures
• Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint

Paranasal Sinuses
• Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
• Functions of paranasal sinuses
• Lighten the skull
• Give resonance and amplification to voice

The Hyoid Bone

• The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
• Aids in swallowing and speech

The Fetal Skull

• The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body
length
• Fetal skull is 1/4 body length compared to adult skull which
is 1/8 body length
• Fontanels—fibrous membranes connecting the cranial
bones
• Allow skull compression during birth
• Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and infancy
• Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

The Vertebral Column

• Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
• There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by
intervertebral discs
• Seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck
• Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
• Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back

The Vertebral Column

• Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones
 • Sacrum
• Coccyx

The Vertebral Column

• Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic
and sacral regions
• Present from birth
• Form a C-shaped curvature as in newborns
• Secondary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the
cervical and lumbar regions
• Develop after birth
• Form an S-shaped curvature as in adults

Sacrum and Coccyx

• Sacrum
• Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
• Coccyx
• Formed from the fusion of three to five vertebrae
• “Tailbone,” or remnant of a tail that other vertebrates have

The Bony Thorax

• Forms a cage to protect major organs
• Consists of three parts
• Sternum
• Ribs
• True ribs (pairs 1–7)
• False ribs (pairs 8–12)
• Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
• Thoracic vertebrae

The Appendicular Skeleton

• Composed of 126 bones
• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
• Composed of two bones
• Clavicle—collarbone
• Articulates with the sternum medially and with the scapula
laterally
• Scapula—shoulder blade
• Articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint
• Articulates with the arm bone at the glenoid cavity
• These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally
free movement

Bones of the Upper Limbs

• Humerus
• Forms the arm
• Single bone
• Proximal end articulation
• Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
• Distal end articulation
• Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the
forearm

Bones of the Upper Limbs

• The forearm has two bones
• Ulna—medial bone in anatomical position
• Proximal end articulation
• Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with the
humerus
• Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position
• Proximal end articulation
• Head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus

Bones of the Upper Limbs

• Hand
• Carpals—wrist
• Eight bones arranged in two rows of four bones in each
hand
 • Metacarpals—palm
• Five per hand
• Phalanges—fingers and thumb
• Fourteen phalanges in each hand
• In each finger, there are three bones
• In the thumb, there are only two bones

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

• Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones
• Composed of three pairs of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
• Pelvic girdle = 2 coxal bones, sacrum
• Bony pelvis = 2 coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

• The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
• It protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine

Gender Differences of the Pelvis

• The female inlet is larger and more circular
• The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the bones
are lighter and thinner
• The female ilia flare more laterally
• The female sacrum is shorter and less curved
• The female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart;
thus the outlet is larger
• The female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle
of the pubic arch is greater

Bones of the Lower Limbs

• Femur—thigh bone
 • The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
• Proximal end articulation
• Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip)
bone
• Distal end articulation
• Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in the
lower leg

Bones of the Lower Limbs

• The lower leg has two bones
• Tibia—Shinbone; larger and medially oriented
• Proximal end articulation
• Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femur
to form the knee joint
• Fibula—Thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia
• Has no role in forming the knee joint

Bones of the Lower Limbs

• The foot
• Tarsals—seven bones
• Two largest tarsals
• Calcaneus (heel bone)
• Talus
• Metatarsals—five bones form the sole of
the foot
• Phalanges—fourteen bones form the toes

Arches of the Foot

• Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches
• Two longitudinal
• One transverse

Joints
• Articulations of bones
• Functions of joints
• Hold bones together
 • Allow for mobility
• Two ways joints are classified
• Functionally
• Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

• Synarthroses
• Immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses
• Slightly moveable joints
• Diarthroses
• Freely moveable joints

Structural Classification of Joints

• Fibrous joints
• Generally immovable
• Cartilaginous joints
• Immovable or slightly moveable
• Synovial joints
• Freely moveable

Fibrous Joints
• Bones united by collagenic fibers
• Types
• Sutures
• Immobile
• Syndesmoses
• Allows more movement than sutures but still immobile
• Example: Distal end of tibia and fibula
• Gomphosis
• Immobile

Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones connected by cartilage
• Types
 • Synchrondrosis
• Immobile
• Symphysis
• Slightly movable
• Example: Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints

Synovial Joints
• Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
• Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

Features of Synovial Joints

• Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of
bones
• Articular capsule encloses joint surfaces and lined with
synovial membrane
• Joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid
• Reinforcing ligaments

Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint

• Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs
• Lined with synovial membranes
• Filled with synovial fluid
• Not actually part of the joint
• Tendon sheath
• Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

Inflammatory Conditions Associated

with Joints
• Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow
or friction
• Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths
• Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
• Over 100 different types
• The most widespread crippling disease in the United States
• Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, swelling of the joint
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
• Osteoarthritis
• Most common chronic arthritis
• Probably related to normal aging processes
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• An autoimmune disease—the immune system attacks the
joints
• Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
• Often leads to deformities

Clinical Forms of Arthritis

• Gouty arthritis
• Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of uric acid
crystals from the blood
• Can usually be controlled with diet
• More common in men

Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System

• At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
• Bones are joined by fibrous membranes called fontanels
• Fontanels are completely replaced with bone within two
years after birth

Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

• Fetus
• Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage
• Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes
• Flat and long bone models are converted to bone
• Birth
• Fontanels remain until around age 2

Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

• Adolescence
• Epiphyseal plates become ossified and long bone growth
ends
• Size of cranium in relationship to body
 • 2 years old—skull is larger in proportion to the body
compared to that of an adult
• 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult size and proportion
• Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the skull

Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

• Curvatures of the spine
• Primary curvatures are present at birth and are convex
posteriorly
• Secondary curvatures are associated with a child’s later
development and are convex anteriorly
• Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis and lordosis) are
often congenital

Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

• Osteoporosis
• Bone-thinning disease afflicting
• 50 percent of women over age 65
• 20 percent of men over age 70
• Disease makes bones fragile and bones can easily fracture
• Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as
dowager’s hump)
• Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female
skeleton