Science 2nd Quarter Reviewer

Faults
Fault
-FRACTURE on the Earth’s surface
-Movement may occur along the fault called a SLIP
-The amount of movement along a fault is called DISPLACEMENT

Fault Classification
-Classified according to the MOVEMENT of the rocks along them
-To keep track of the rocks that are moving, geologists use the terms FOOTWALL BLOCK and HANGING WALL
BLOCK

1. Normal Fault
-Relative to the Footwall the HANGING WALL BLOCK SLIDES DOWN
2. Reverse Fault
-Relative to the hanging wall block the FOOTWALL BLOCK SLIDES DOWN

3. Strike-Slip Fault
- PARALLEL TO A HORIZONTAL LINE on the fault’s surface
 Left Lateral
 Right Lateral

Seismic Waves
Seismic Waves
- Energy released by an earthquake is transmitted to the different parts of the Earth by SEISMIC WAVES
- Categorized into two

 Body Waves
- Waves that can travel through the EARTH’S INTERIOR

 Surface Waves
- Waves that only travel on the EARTH’S SURFACE
Body Waves
- Categorized into two
 P-Waves (Primary Waves)
- Produces back-and-forth vibrations parallel to the wave direction

 S-Waves (Secondary Waves)

- Produces up-and-down vibrations perpendicular to the direction of the wave’s direction

Surface Waves
- Categorized into two
 Rayleigh Waves
- Causes the ground to undulate up and down
- Results from the rolling elliptical/circular motion of the ground
  Love Waves
- Causes ground to shimmy back and forth
- Results from a sideward motion along the surface
- Causes the most damage to structures

Seismometer
- Instrument that can measure the ground motion produced by an earthquake, even if that motion is very tiny
 Earthquakes: Causes and Characteristics
Earthquakes
- Natural geologic phenomena caused by the sudden and rapid movement of a large volume of rock
- The violent shaking and destruction caused by earthquakes result from rupture and slippage along faults.

Faults
- Categorized into two
 Inactive Faults
 Active Faults

Faults and Earthquakes

- The connection between fault movement and earthquake generation is explained by the elastic rebound
theoryZ proposed by H.F. Reid of John Hopkins University
Focus and Epicenter
 Focus
- The origin of an earthquake is called the focus.

 Epicenter
- The point at the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter.

Earthquake’s Magnitude and Intensity

 Magnitude
- Used to estimate the energy released at an earthquake’s source.
- The most common way to express the magnitude of an Earthquake is the Richter Scale.
 Intencity
- Measure of the degree of earthquake shaking at a given locale based on observed effects.
- In the Philippines, the intensity of an earthquake is expressed according to the PHIVOLCS Earthquake
Intensity Scale. (PHIVOLCS – Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology)
 Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Cyclones
- Warm-core low pressure systems associated with a spiral inflow of mass at the bottom level and spiral
outflow at the top level

Parts of a Cyclone
 Eye
- The cyclone's center is a relatively calm, generally clear area of sinking air and light winds that usually
do not exceed 24 km/h and is typically 32-64 km across ○ Will usually develop when the maximum
sustained wind speeds go above 119 km/h and is the calmest part of the storm.

 Eyewall
- Consists of a ring of tall thunderstorms that produce heavy rains and usually the strongest winds. ○
Changes in the structure of the eye and eyewall can cause changes in the wind speed, which is an
indicator of the storm's intensity.

 Rainbands
- Curved bands of clouds and thunderstorms that trail away from the eye wall in a spiral fashion. ○ Capable of
producing heavy bursts of rain and wind. ○ There are sometimes gaps in between spiral rain bands where no
rain or wind is found

Formation of Tropical Cyclones

- Warm air rises because of density
- Air travels from areas of high to low pressure
- Tropical cyclones originate from ocean areas wherein the water and the air above it have a temperature of 26°C and
above

- Cluster of thunderstorms must form over the warm sea to serve as the “seed” from which a cyclone can grow

- The formation of thunderstorms requires the convergence of air currents

- When air currents converge at sea level, there’s nowhere for the air to go but up
- In the rising air, water vapor condenses to form clouds. Its condensation releases latent heat, which warms
the air and makes it even less dense, so it rises still higher, where more water condenses
- Storm growth is a positive feedback process
- For this storm to become a cyclone, this storm needs to start rotating
Coriolis Force
- All free-moving objects or fluids, including the wind, are deflected to the right of their path of motion in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere

- However, this effect is not strong within 5º of the equator so no cyclones start within this zone of the Earth
Additional Requirement
- Winds at high altitudes must be weak so as not to disturb the forming circulation

Formation
- As the storm begins to rotate faster, air pressure at the base of the storm’s center decreases brought about
by centrifugal force

- Air also moves outward so that incoming air does not increase the pressure in the center and not cause the
process to stop

Dissipation
- The cyclone is eventually dissipated when they have no more water to draw energy from

Typhoons
- Tropical cyclones are categorized according to the strength of the associated winds

Typhoon Classification

1. TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD)

- Maximum sustained winds of up to 62 kph or less than 34 knots

2. TROPICAL STORM (TS)

- Maximum wind speed of 62 to 88 kph or 34 - 47 knots

3. SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS)

- Maximum wind speed of 87 to 117 kph or 48 - 63 knots

4. TYPHOON (TY)
- Maximum wind speed of 118 to 184 kph or 64 - 99 knots

5. SUPER TYPHOON (STY)

- Maximum wind speed exceeding 185 kph or more than 100 knots

Asteroids
Asteroids
- Meaning Star-like
- Irregularly shaped rocky body orbiting the Sun that does not qualify as a planet or a dwarf planet under the
International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) definitions of those terms introduced in 2006
- By convention, astronomers consider rocky or metallic objects larger than 100 m to be asteroids
- Only three asteroids have spherical shapes.

Composition
- Large boulders and fine debris that forms flat deposits resembling ponds

Location
- A large number of asteroids are found within the asteroid belt
- Contrary to how it appears in science fiction, asteroids are very far apart from one another
- The average distance between them is more than twice the distance of the sun and moon
- Some asteroids are called trojans. Trojans are found in other planets, but a large number (4800) are
associated with Jupiter
- 2000 Earth-crossing asteroids are also known

Types of Asteroids
 C-TYPE (CHONDRITE)
- Most common. Dark in appearance, and consist of clay and silicate rocks
 S-TYPE (“STONY”)
- Made of silicate materials and nickel-iron
 M-TYPE (METALLIC)
- A large component is made of nickel-iron
Origins
 Initially Fragments
- A planet that once orbited between Mars and Jupiter
 NOW: REMNANTS
- Solar nebula hypothesis

-Research suggests that they include

 primitive planetesimals that never coalesced and remnants of larger planetesimals
- The strong gravitational pull of Jupiter disrupted the orbits of these bodies very much that they cannot join
to form a new planet

Planetesimals
- A planetesimal is a term used to describe a small celestial body that is believed to be a building block in the
formation of planets.
- These objects are larger than tiny dust particles but smaller than protoplanets.
- They are thought to have collided and merged to form planets during the early stages of the solar system's
formation

Comets
Comets (Dirty Snowballs)
- Frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of dust, rock, and ices
- Most comets are found in the outer reaches of the solar system. Long-period comets originate from the Oort
cloud.
- Short-period comets originate from the Kuiper belt
- Loose collections rocky materials, dust, water ice, and frozen gases (ammonia, methane, and carbon dioxide)