CHAPTER 7: IFUGAO HERITAGE
Michele J. Dulay, Desiree Gume G. Nangpuhan, Serafin L. Ngohayon and Eva Marie C. Dugyon
UNIT 1. HISTORICAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES
Overview
This unit on Ifugao provides an overview of the historical and socio-cultural features of Ifugao and its
people. The province has a rich history and socio-cultural features which are eident in their knowledge
systems and practices. These features have been part of the Ifugaos’ ways of life and served as their
identity as an indigenous peoples’ group. It should also be noted that the Ifugaos, as an indigenous
peoples’ group, is not bound by territories and boundaries, but rather, recognizable through their socio-
cultural features.
Lesson 1. Settlements and Territories
I. Introduction
Ifugao is a landlocked province in Northern Luzon and located in the south-eastern part of the Cordillera
Administrative Region (CAR). In this lesson, the settlements and territories of the province are described.
Ifugao is in its 57th year as a separate province by virtue of Republic Act No. 4695 on June 18, 1966, also
known as the Division Law of Mountain Province. Developmental and sustainability initiatives are now
more focused and inclusive of the different ethno-linguistic groups that inhabits its 11 municipalities.
Ifugao Territories
The province of Ifugao consists of eleven (11) municipalities. These include Aguinaldo, Asipulo, Banaue,
Hingyon, Hungduan, Kiangan, Lagawe, Lamut, Alfonso Lista, Mayoyao, and Tinoc. Lagawe is the capital
of the province. Ifugao is rugged and mountainous except for Lamut and Alfonso Lista which have large
areas of rolling hills and plains.
Ifugao is bounded by Mt. Province to the north and Nueva Vizcaya to the south. The Magat River/Dam
(Philippines’ biggest dam) separates the province from Isabela on its eastern side and Mt Pulag
(Philippines’ 3rd highest mountain) separates the province from Benguet on its western side (Campos, F,
2012).
Ifugao used to be a part of the previous Mountain Province until the passage of Republic Act No. 4695
on June 18, 1966, also known as the Division Law of Mountain Province. The law created four
independent provinces namely Mountain Province and the new Provinces of Ifugao, Benguet and
Kalinga Apayao. Ifugao is popularly believed to have emanated from the word ‘pugaw’ which is “earth”
in the cosmic belief or “hill”, hence, i-pugaw, later modified to Ifugao, means “from the hill”.
Ifugao Settlements
Early settlements in Ifugao are evident with the tangible marks that they left in the areas they occupied.
Hence, the most common organized settlements that are very evident are in communities with Rice
Terraces located in 8 municipalities collectively called now as the Ifugao Rice Terraces (IRT). Built
through indigenous knowledge developed across generations, the IRT survived the test of time. Cultural
practices, beliefs, traditions and feasts are tailored at keeping the symbiotic relationship of the Ifugaos
and their environment as demonstrated by the annual agriculture cycle. In 1995, UNESCO declared 5 IRT
clusters as World Heritages recognizing them as “a living cultural landscape” because of the impeccable
blending of people and the environment, one that must be sustained and adopted.
While initial estimates placed the IRT as 2,000 years old, a recent archeological study provided evidence
that they must be 400-700 years old positing that the boost in land cultivation coincided with the
Spanish colonization (Acabado, 2017) furthered by waves of migration toward the upland areas by the
people who do not like to be under the Spanish Rule.
The early settlements were concentrated mostly in rice terraces areas in Kiangan, Hungduan, Banaue
and Mayoyao with arguably the so-called Old Kiyyangan as the earliest settlement. In the recent
decades, migration and settlements by the Ifugao people became a common phenomenon inside and
outside the Ifugao province. Due to more economic opportunities in areas with more plains and rolling
hills, population is shifting and increasing rapidly in Alfonso Lista and Lamut municipalities.
Lesson 2: Peopling and Ethno-Linguistic Groups
I. Introduction
The Ifugao people are composed of several ethnolinguistic groups. Many writers and researchers
pointed out that the Ifugaos possess a well-developed culture just like most other Filipino groups and
other Cordillera ethnic groups. In this lesson, the learners will be introduced about the Ifugaos as a
peoples’ group and the different ethnolinguistic groups.
The Ifugao People
Accordingly, Ifugao is derived from the word “ipugo” which means people of the earth, or mortals as
distinguished from those of the other realms. Furthermore, it also means ‘people of the hill’ or
mountain people. People of Ifugao like to be identified as Ifugaos or ‘immipugo’. They are among the
groups, who at certain time/s did not like to be called ‘Igorots’. This is mainly due to the historical
meaning of the term and also, by the aspiration to be identified as people who have distinct culture as
compared to the rest of the Cordillera. The Ifugaos are grouped based on the language they speak.
Dialects like the Tuwali and Ayangan were also used to name the different ethno-linguistic groups.
Ethno-Linguistic Groups:
1. Tuwali – spoken largely in the Western area including Kiangan, Lagawe, Hingyon, Hungduan,
and some parts of Banaue, Asipulo, and Lamut.
2. Ayangan – spoken in the Eastern area including Mayoyao, Aguinaldo, Alfonso Lista, and some
parts of Banaue and Lamut.
3. Kalanguya – mostly spoken by the people in Tinoc and some parts of Asipulo
Lamut (western part) and Alfonso Lista (eastern part) are melting pots of all these groups. There are
also other minority groups, especially in these areas. These include Ilocanos and Gaddangs, in
Alfonso Lista. These two municipalities share common features, they are adjacent to lowland
provinces, Isabela for Alfonso Lista and Nueva Vizcaya for Lamut. The Ifugaos, as an indigenous
peoples’ group are not bound by geographical location. Those who have migrated to other
provinces, regions, and even abroad have brought with them their language and some cultural
practices as Ifugaos.
Lesson 3: Education and Social Institutions
I. Introduction
The social and educational institutions of the Ifugaos are intertwined with their religious, economic
and political environment. The people’s survival in a largely mountainous and harsh environment
resulted in the establishment of the institutions to which the people have generally accepted and
became a way of life.
Social Institutions
Before Ifugao was organized into political and geographical groups similar to the rest of the country,
Ifugao societies were largely informal. Social structures were mostly developed based on kinship.
According to Dulawan (2001), the Ifugao kinship system comprised all those related by
consanguinity including the dead ancestors at least up to the fourth generation ascending. This
kinship system is of great importance to the Ifugaos which underlies their social structure, land use,
and rice production. This system, which warrants the commitment and obligation from each
member, highlights its purposethe survival, and the sustenance of Ifugao families.
Like many societies, the nuclear family is the smallest social group consisting of the couple (husband
and wife) commonly called “himbale” and children. The clan is the larger group and is mostly based
on the kinship system as discussed earlier. This bigger social group is divided into classes (Dulawan
(2001). Dulawan (2001) identified the three classes as: 1) Kadangyan (wealthy),
2) the common tagu (children and family of kadangyan who did not perform any of the prestige
feasts), and
3) the nawotwot (the poor). The distinctions are generally based on material possessions (rice fields,
animal holdings, etc.), prestige rituals performed, and role in the community. In certain groups,
clothing/apparel is also distinct for each of the classes. The nawotwot usually do not own lands but
either works as paid labors or land tillers (kUmapya) for the wealthy.
Generally, wealth is measured by the volume and value of material possessions. But to the Ifugaos,
mere possessions of properties do not make one wealthy or kadangyan (Dulawan (2001). He/she
must perform the Ifugao customary prestige rites which include the Uyya-uy and/or the ultimate
prestige rite, the hagabi. A person who performed the rites are called immuyya-uy and/or
himmagabi. The people belonging to the wealthy clan usually dominate and control the political
structure and even the rice production cycle. During festivities and feast, everyone in the
neighborhood and nearby communities are expected to attend, wealthy or [Link] present, like any
other part of the country, Ifugao is structured in the same way. However, through the law which
creates NCIP, culture-based social structures are present like the council of elders, who are often
invited to be part of the local justice system.
Educational Institutions
Education in Ifugao, before schools were established, was informal and largely based on oral
tradition. Before the arrival of external influencers in the 1900s, learning was mainly done at home
and in other communal areas. Learning then was generally the passing of knowledge and skills
through oral mode and by observation.
The oral tradition of transmitting knowledge and skills was done in several ways. The role of skilled
elders, and other culture bearers as mentors and teachers was imperative during this period. A
mumbaki, an Ifugao priest, is also tasked in training mumbaki aspirants.
After deemed prepared by the mumbaki trainer, an aspirant will be ordained into priesthood
(Dulawan, 2005).
Learning areas especially for skills training, the apprenticeship system was used. For the passing of
oral traditions, the agamang, or community sleeping quarters played an important role. This is
usually a house of an old widow where girls/ young women, or widower, for boys/ young men go to
sleep at night. An agamang, according to (Dulawan, M., 2005), is a community institution, and has
been an institutional force in the transmission of the oral heritages of the Ifugaos. With the losing
relevance of the agamang, community gatherings, like wakes, weddings, among other ceremonial
activities, became platforms in the transmission of culture. Educational institutions are also finding
their role in the preservation of culture –transmission of the Ifugao IKSP.
Lesson 4. Games and Sports, Oral Literature, Music and Dances, and Festivals
I. Introduction
The Ifugaos have a rich array of cultural heritage in the field of sports/games, oral literature, rituals,
music and dances to which the festivals are based and inspired. This is also among the very evident
and visible identities of the Ifugaos, whether they reside in the province, in other cities/provinces or
abroad. Some of the cultural practices in this area are even recognized by international
organizations like the Hudhud chant and Punnuk ritual.
Ifugao Games
Indigenous games of the Ifugaos at present, are originally part of the practices having cultural
relevance and purpose. In the past, these were not performed as competitive events for
entertainment purposes but played a role in the cultural justice system. These indigenous games
were done to settle disputes, determine favored groups by deities, and among others, identify
individuals for a specific task. It was believed that winners of such competitions, with the
appropriate rites conducted, are in accordance with the wills of the gods/deities.
At present, these games are being performed during cultural festivals and occasions as a way of
paying homage to cultural identity and also for the generation to be educated through practice, on
the diminishing cultural practices. Some examples of the cultural competitions which are commonly
used to settle disputes or to determine the favored groups in the past include but are not limited to
the following: (Ngohayon, S. L., Martin, M. M. & Dulawan, L.D. (Eds), (2021)
1. Akkad. This game is played by two or more individuals/groups where they walk or run using a
pair of stilts or akkad. This akkad is made of wood with protruding branch or nailed wood to step
on. The first individual/group to finish the race wins.
2. Bangngunan. This is participated by men who use strong leg force to raise (bangunun) the
opponent from his lying position. To play the game, the players lie down by pairs in opposite
directions with their hips at the same level and with one leg raised and interlaced with that of
the opponent. At the signal of a referee, each tries to press down his opponent’s leg to raise him
from the ground. The winner is the one who remains on the ground while the one lifted from
the ground loses.
3. Bultung (Wrestling). To play, the wrestlers hold the G-string and try to pin down the opponent.
The following strategies can be employed by the wrestlers: ballabag (dumping the opponent to
the ground), pakkid (using leg to hook the opponent’s leg), hidil (to impede leg movement to
make the opponent unbalanced), tagge (lifting of the opponent), guyud (pulling), and the tulud
(pushing). The “Bultung” or wrestling in the past was one way to settle disputes, especially those
involving land disputes such as boundaries. In most cases, the claim of the victorious party is
deemed the true boundary and the loser in the wrestling is also the loser in the dispute
(Dulawan, 20021). The ‘Hidit’, a rite that is usually performed to signify negotiations and
settlements, is usually performed to ensure no ill feelings occur between the parties.
4. Guyyudan (tug-of-war). In the distant past, guyyudan was played in cultural activities such as
the ‘Punnuk’ ritual. Among the activities that culminate the “Punnuk” is the tug-of-war by the
river. It was also played with the use of a piece of wood where two players try to pull the bunch
of wood and whoever is dragged away from his original position is the loser. It has evolved and
players nowadays use a rope and it also became a competitive event during festivals.
5. Hanggul. Usually, males play this by pair to determine the strongest in a community during
contests. This could also be used in settling conflicts aside from bultung and others depending
on the agreement of both parties. To play the hanggul, the players rest their hands on a flat
area, preferably a table, and tangle their right hands while their left hands are at their backs.
The player who presses his opponent’s hand flat on the surface wins. The player who lifts his
elbow from the table will also lose.
6. Uggub. The ‘Uggub’ or throwing of darts (young runo shoots) is a trial by ordeal in cases of theft.
Representatives of the two parties are selected and will stand six to seven meters apart. The
accuser is the first to throw the uggub while the accused turns his back. If the accuser hits the
back of the accused, then it proves his accusation. If he fails, then his accusation is false, and/or
if the accuser is hit by the accused, then it further proves that the accusation is false.
7. Hinnukting/Hukting-ngan. The Hukting-ngan as a game is based from cockfighting. Hukting in
the Ifugao-Tuwali language means ‘bump’. Hence, bumping is the common strategy being used
to win in this game. To play the game, each player must first hold one of his legs by the foot and
held steady by the opposing arm while the other hand is bent at the midriff area. the player
limps with his free leg and balances himself as he bumps towards his opponent/s using the
shoulders or forearm. The player who loses grip of his leg or falls down to the ground when
bumped by the opponent loses the game or is disqualified.
Oral Literature
Ifugao has a rich oral literature heritage that has been passed down from generation to generation.
Manuel (2005) stated that it is a progression in the development of the Ifugao oral literature from its
early beginning to its present type. Authorship to such literature is also not identified. Accordingly, it
is impossible to attribute authorship of any piece to one particular person or group. There are
identified 4 types of the Ifugao oral literature:
1) Narratives. This includes folktales, legends, myths (bukad, hudhud).
2) Chant (Ritual and Non-ritual Chants). Ritual chants include the “Alim” and “Baltung” while non-
ritual chants include the hudhud, liwliwa/bonwe or ap-apnga.
3) Song. This usually include simple folk songs, ballads, palat
4) Rhyme. Although there is similarity as to types with western literature, there are differences in
terms of structure and manner of delivery or performance. Some specific Ifugao oral literature
pieces:
A. Hudhud. This includes long narrations depicting the lives and conquests of local heroes. They also
portray the life of early Ifugaos and their culture. This consists of narrative chants performed
especially during harvest and wakes (elderly persons who died a natural death). This Hudhud, an
Ifugao oral literature, is inscribed by UNESCO in 2008 as one of the World’s Intangible Cultural
Heritage of humanity.
B. Alim. This is a ritual ballad that highlights the supposed achievements of a hero. This is not as popular
as the Hudhud since the Alim cannot be performed by anyone and for anybody. This is only performed
during prestige rituals and the death of a wealthy elder as they remove precious items from his body.
C. Liwliwa. This is a jovial parody and mostly contains mutual criticism by males and females who are
chanting alternately. This usually happens during prestige feasts when people are intoxicated by wine.
D. A-Apo. These are usually short stories consisting of myths, folktales, legends, and fables for
entertainment and also used in teaching the children cultural values.
5) Music - Music also plays a huge part in the Ifugao ways of life. Their music is among the constant
in festivities, ceremonies, and other social gatherings in the communities. The songs are
generally chant-like storytelling which is commonly performed in groups on occasion. In some
songs, the community singing may also include solo parts. The instruments which are usually
used include gongs (gangha), wooden bars (bangibang), palipal (made of bamboo), ingngiing
(nose flute), and dipdipu (leather drum).
Dances
The Ifugaos have a distinctive indigenous dance that features the eagle-like opening of hands.
The dance is usually accompanied by the beating of gongs. There are slight variations in the
dance steps among the three ethnolinguistic groups in Ifugao but share many commonalities.
There are types of Ifugao dances that are commonly based on geographical origin and/or
purpose. Identified dances are as follows (Ngohayon, 2011, Ifugao IK Workbook):
1) Dinnuy-a. This is usually performed by the Ifugao-Tuwali group in Kiangan, Lagawe, Hingyon,
Banaue, and Hungduan. The number of gong beaters may vary from 3-5. This is performed
during weddings, thanksgiving parties, and other social gatherings.
2) Futageh. This is widely danced by the Ayangan people who inhabit the Northeastern region
of Ifugao. This dance recognizes the equal role of men and women in the community.
Accordingly, this dance originated in the past as a victory dance in celebration of a
successful head-hunting expedition. Nowadays, it is mainly performed during special
occasions such as a wedding or other social gathering.
3) Pagaddut. The Pagaddut is a wedding dance that originated in Kiangan, characterized by a
faster beat as compared to the dinnuy-a. This becomes a ceremonial dance when performed
during an Uya-uy ritual.
4) Tayaw. The tayaw dance is commonly performed by the Kalanguya people, especially
during festivals like “Keleng”. Accordingly, it is a natural dance based on a bid bird called
“Tuldo”.
Ifugao Festivals
With the aim of preserving the cultural practices as well as provide economic opportunities for
the Ifugao people through the promotion of tourism, local government units have supported
and organized cultural festivals. These festivals are within the context of the traditional rice
agricultural cycle (UNESCO 2008) as follows:
• Tungoh ad Hungduan. This festival is based on the term tungoh, which is a non-working
holiday and nobody should be working in their fields. The festival is attended by members of the
local community and features indigenous costumes, games, songs and dances. These yearly
festivities last for a week and usually held on the third week of April.
• Kulpi ad Asipulo. Kulpi, a traditional ritual is performed after the rice planting activities. It is a
ritual where the people offer and pray to the dead ancestors, gods and deities to bless the
plants for a good harvest. The festival, is a three-day cultural activity which features indigenous
games and performing arts. It is usually done in the month of April.
• Kulpi ad Lagawe. Similarly, in the municipality of Lagawe, they celebrate da Kulpi ad
Lagawe festival. It consists of ethnic-inspired dancing, float contests, indigenous games
and chants.
• Gotad ad Kiangan. In the indigenous practice, gotad is one of the phases of the uya-uy,
a prestige rite performed by an Ifugao Kadangyan. At present, it is a part of the town’s fiesta
which includes ethnic parade, liwliwa (chants), cultural dances, rice wine drinking and public
lunch.
• Gotad ad Hingyon. In Hingyon, the gotad is a part of a prestige celebration of an Ifugao couple
to be considered kadangyan. The Gotad ad Hingyon is a 3-day celebration that showcases
cultural parades, indigenous dances, songs and games.
• Igkhumtad ad Majawjaw. This is celebrated every year to showcase Ifugao talent, strength
and skills. Accordingly, this is based on the tale of Aliguyon, an Ifugao folk hero who has
displayed extraordinary skills in sports.
• Igkhumtad ad Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo celebrates a similar festival with Mayoyao. Ethno-
modern games, songs, dances and cultural performances are showcased.
• Ammung ad Alfonso Lista. This festival in Alfonso Lista, features ethnic games and performing
arts from the different ethnic groups. Ammung (a gathering of people) inspired the name for the
festival as the municipality is a melting pot of people from different cultural backgrounds.
• Keleng ad Tinoc. This is a 3-day festival which showcase the Ifugao-Kalanguya through their
ethnic dances, games and agro-industrial fair.
• Rambakan ad Lamut. Rambakan is an Ilokano term which implies festive. The festival
showcases ethnic games and cultural shows from the different ethnic groups.
• Imbayah Festival and Urpih ad Banaue. The term Imbayah, is an indigenous prestige rite
performed by the elite of Banaue to announce their ascendancy to the village
aristocracy. Urpih, on the other hand is a thanksgiving festival to celebrate the work completed
in the rice fields. The municipality alternately celebrates these two Ifugao festivities usually
during the third week of April. The 3-day cultural festival highlights ethnic games, sports and
traditional crafts.
• Gotad ad Ifugao. This is a provincial-wide cultural festival which culminates the celebration of
the festivals in each municipality. Main activities include the bullogan (cultural parade),
traditional sports, hudhud chanting, ethnic dances and songs, gong beating and culture-based
skills competition, among others. This coincide with the celebration of the Ifugao Foundation
Day, which is celebrated on June 18.
UNIT 2. WORLDVIEW
Overview
The Ifugaos have their own unique interpretation of the natural world and phenomena. Their
worldview is generally connected to how they view life, suffering and death. This view has
generally influenced the way of life of the Ifugaos. Their cosmic beliefs have impacted how
the Ifugao people till their lands, interact with others and their environment, and how they
interpret natural phenomenon and calamities. The knowledge systems and practices that have
evolved and passed down from generation to generation has been influenced by their cosmic
view.
Lesson 1. Cosmology, Values, Spirituality, Healings and Rituals
I. Introduction
In general, the indigenous value system, spirituality, healing and rituals of the Ifugaos are
related to their cosmic belief. Their belief to the several deities, to the spiritual beings living in
the earth world and their deceased ancestors have influenced their belief system, day-to-day
activities as well as their view of life, suffering and death.
Cosmology, Values, Spirituality, Healing, and Rituals
The cosmic belief of the early Ifugaos is considered polytheistic. They believe in many gods and
goddesses. This covers the worship of nature and ancestors. There are more than a thousand
named gods/deities which are often called out during rituals, especially by the
“Mumbaki”. This belief system is strong, especially among the early Ifugaos, and permeates
even to this 21st century society (with a significantly lower hold on the people).
Among the early written references related to Ifugao cosmology is by Beyer and Conklin
(1911) who recorded accounts of the Ifugaos that the great deities reside in the Sky World (Ad
Daya) and the Upper World (Ad Kabunian). The minor deities inhabit other realms. An Ifugao
Contemporary writer, Manuel Dulawan (2005) described the six realms of the Ifugao cosmos.
Four of the six realms are habitations of gods and deities. These are the Kabunyan (skyworld),
Dalom (Underworld), Daya or Pah-adan (Western World) and Lagud (Eastern world), and Pugaw
(earth world). The sixth is Kadungayan, the place where the linnawa or souls of the dead go after
being accorded the appropriate death rites. Some of the recorded gods and deities by various
authors and as described by Ifugao Elders, identified to be the most important ones are:
O Amalgo – chief of the Sun gods
O Ambulan – chief of the Moon gods
O Manahaut – the Deceiver
O Amkidul – Thunder god
O Amkolyog – Earthquake god
The gods/deities are clustered following a hierarchy according to Dulawan (2001) and may
belong to any but not limited to the following categories:
O Bagol – superior gods
O Maknongan – gods to whom the sacrifice is due and considered gods of reproduction and
controllers of man’s life
O Matungulan – gods to be appeased
O Nangga Idoh- evil gods
O Halupe – charmer gods
O Munkontad – charmer gods
O Pipinading ya bibiyo – earth spirits who dwell in big trees, rivers, mountains, etc.
Values
The Ifugaos put premium on the moral values to which each of the people should strive for. The
word “maphod” among the tuwali-ethnic group is translated in English as good. The following
are the common phrases that are often heard from any “nanomnoman”, meaning “wise” which
is a characteristic of a respected and designated elder in the community.
o Maphod an a-at/ ni-attan good background
o Maphod an Pangat good deeds
o Kiphodan common good/ general welfare
o Maphod an kitaguwan honest living
There are also things and/or deeds that should be avoided and should not be done by the
people. These are termed as “paniyo” or pani-o in the Ifugao-tuwali or taboo in English. These
are usually taught by the parents, elders or any of the community people. Examples of
paniyo are: fighting among relatives, opposite sex should not show interest to any married
person, etc.
Some Ifugao practices/values
• Baddang/Badang. This is a practice where the people (relatives or neighbors) come
together with the aim of helping someone or a family who needs help, in kind, cash or labor
without expecting pay or remuneration. The person/family will only provide the food and drinks
for the people. This baddang could include harvesting, preparations before/during/after
ceremonies or rituals, house building, among others. There is an unwritten rule that everyone
capable lend their helping hands and expect same help when they are also in need, albeit the
next generations.
• Dang-ah. This is similar with baddang but more focused on finishing a specific task in
a day. When an individual or family request for dang-ah, the able-bodied individuals go
voluntarily to help. Everyone can find something to do, as others may help in the
kitchen, etc.
• Ubbu/Ubfu. This is a give and take help where the people help each other finish someone’s
task but the number of days must be returned. Example, Bugan worked 2 days at the field of
Aginaya harvesting pAlay, if she wants labor, she will be paid with 2
days labor either by Bugan herself, or someone paid by Bugan.
Rituals
Rituals are part of the cosmic beliefs of the early Ifugaos. The rites performed usually cover the
life cycle of man (including
before birth and after death), health, politics, and agriculture (Gonzales, 2009).
The Baki is the Ifugao form of prayer and also the general term for sacrificial rituals to the
gods/deities and ancestors
(Getting to Know the Ifugao). An interesting part during the baki is the tonton, where the lineage
of ancestors is enumerated. This
gives opportunity to the family members to know their ancestry, their relatives by blood, which
result to closer bonding among families within the clan. The ‘priests’ or mumbaki play very
important roles in the Ifugao rituals. They are in charge of identifying appropriate rites as well as
their subsequent performance. Animals such as carabaos, pigs, chickens, and others specifically
identified by a mumbaki are
butchered. Ritual paraphernalia is also present during rituals. These include but are not limited
to bulul, hukup, etc.
Rituals among the early Ifugaos range from simple to elaborate series of rites which may take
months. These are characterized by the constant butchering of animals and rituals performed by
the mumbaki. Some of the rituals involving the life cycle of man and rice production are as
follows:
1. Imbango/ moma - this is a betrothal ritual and may even start at infancy
2. Bubun/tanig - marriage ceremony
3. Uya-uy - elaborate marriage feasts for the kadangyans
4. Hagabi - a prestige rite and the most expensive, highest, and final display of wealth. A
himmagabi attained the highest social status and is entitled to respect and privileges.
5. Burial rites – burial rites vary depending on the social status and/or cause of death. The burial
ritual for a kadangyan follows an elaborate series of rites. For a murdered victim, an elaborate
but unusually different ritual called the ‘munhim-ong’ is performed. Beyer and Conklin (1911)
documented the ritual at a time when limited external influences have impacted cultural
practices.
6. Punnuk – is an elaborate post-harvest ritual among the Hungduan people and is inscribed by
UNESCO in 2015 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. This
is performed on the concluding days of the harvest season and includes a series of activities
culminating in the tug-of-war competition at the river. Performance of ‘Baki’ is also part of the
activities. Beliefs in superstitions and taboos are also strong among the early Ifugaos. Some of
the common superstitions include; the red or black bird omen, kilkilang, and sneezing among
others. Examples of taboos may include not eating fish with meat, not sleeping on the roof by
brothers, sisters, or cousins of opposite sexes, not eating fish or edible snails after attending
a wake, [Link] the introduction of Christianity by missionaries in the past, the cosmic beliefs
in present-day Ifugao are highly diverse. The Ifugao people in terms of their cosmic belief can be
categorized as follows: those who adopted the totality of the new religion (e.g. Christianity),
those who hold onto the old Ifugao cosmic belief and would do nothing with the ‘Christian
beliefs and practices” and those who accept both or more (they go to church but still practice
rites dedicated to a deity/es). Cosmology at present is impacting the ways of life of the people,
and the Ifugao ‘culture’ in general. Christianity in Ifugao is among the top factors in the rapid
changes and reasons for the abandonment of indigenous knowledge systems and practices.
Christianity is monotheistic in nature with the belief in one God and most often than not,
believers regard other gods/goddesses as not belonging to the ‘good One’ but rather of the
other side. Moreover, Dugyon, EM C (2023) highlighted that the young Ifugao’s values and
lifestyles are impacted by globalization, technological advancement and development. She
furthered that the knowledge holders are usually the elderly and is vulnerable to extinction.
UNIT 3. TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURE
Overview
The Ifugaos are among the hardest-working and most inventive Filipinos. This is demonstrated
by their remarkable farming and craft-making abilities. As indicated by their continuous use in
Ifugao daily life, there is a healthy and lively interest in the Ifugao crafts that are still being
practiced. Ifugaos employ several symbols to create their distinctive textiles. These symbols are
traditional patterns handed down from predecessors. All significant parts of Ifugao life have
been influenced by the highly developed traditional belief system, including weaving, thus every
design serves a function, and the combinations of patterns reveal stories.
Lesson 1. Symbols and Textiles, Arts and Crafts
One of the most fascinating crafts in the Philippines is handweaving textiles, which has a huge
cultural impact. The Ifugao people have a very old heritage of weaving. They employ several
symbols to create their distinctive textiles. These symbols are traditional patterns handed down
from predecessors. It is so ancient that every stage of the weaving process, from cotton to cloth,
has been deified. The Ifugaos weave bags, blankets, skirts, loincloths, daily wear, and ceremonial
clothing, such as clothing for the afterlife and gifts for gods and dead ancestors (Martin et al.,
2020 and Aguilar, 2019).
Arts and crafts
Ifugao arts and crafts include a variety of a wide range of items, many of which are used
regularly. Among the examples are:
The Ifugaos are also popular in terms of their wood-carved products. Most of the wood-carved
products are displayed in handicrafts stores or museums. The Ifugaos’ wood carving skills are
related to the indigenous practice of the “muyong” system or community forest preservation
which the government has recognized and viewed as a practice that will allow wood carving as a
livelihood activity to be preserved (Agoot, L, 2022). However, at present, wood products are
generally for commercialization and personal displays.
Lesson 2. Land and Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management
I. Introduction
This lesson presents the Ifugao environment with a focus on land and water management,
forest and its biodiversity, and natural resource management. The various indigenous methods
for conserving biodiversity are discussed in this lesson. It goes on to explore how conservation is
accomplished using native traditions like the Muyung system, building rice terraces and
swiddens, and multi-story agroforestry systems. This lesson helps the students comprehend the
significance of ecological balance and improves their knowledge on environmental protection
and conservation.
Land Use Management
The Ifugao Rice Terraces, which were included to UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites in 1995,
are the best example of how the Ifugaos managed their use of land and water. The Ifugaos were
skilled at sustainably managing and utilizing the land. Their communities, forest areas, pond
fields, and grasslands are used in a way that sustains resources.
The following are some of the indigenous methods used by early Ifugaos to manage their
utilization of land and water (Alberto, Eheng & Valdez, 2021, p. 31):
1. Bobleh/Pfuglay/Babluy (Village Settlement Area)
2. Payoh (Pond Fields)
3. Habal/Umah (Swidden)
4. Muyung, alah, pinugu/pinuchu (Forest)
5. Pa’laban (pasture land)
6. Punbakiyan (Ritual site)
The significance of Muyung in the Ifugao ecosystem is embedded in the Ifugaos. It holds water in
reserve and releases it as needed. The main function of the water from the creeks, streams, and
rivers is to water the rice terraces aside from the daily use in households. With the direct
connection between the forest and water production, the Ifugaos see to it that the forests are
sustained. They realize that there is interconnectedness between the land and water and the
depletion of one will lead to consequences at his disadvantage. The sustainability of the
communal and private forests directly relates to water production.
Other methods in water management:
1. The halop method
2. The use of pituk (Iron rod)
3. The use of Pinaad (Ay) (torch)/Pakad (Tu)
4. The use of Bunwit, Pfongguet
Indigenous Biodiversity Conservation Practices
Ifugao indigenous biodiversity conservation practices (Gonzales et al, 2021, p. 105).
1. Muyung System
2. Rice terraces forest coupled agroforestry (Payoh-pinugo/hayyukung/hino-ub system).
3. Multi-storey Agroforestry System
Lesson 3. Engineering and Architecture
I. Introduction
The engineering and architectural prowess of the Ifugaos are evident in the
tangible heritages which are still relevant and functional in today’s society.
Ifugao Rice Terraces
The Ifugao people have contributed to the development of a stunning landscape that illustrates
the coexistence of people and the natural world. The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras
are a prime example of a more sophisticated, dynamic cultural landscape that dates back to the
pre-colonial Philippines by at least two millennia. The historically significant terraces span a
large region, but the inscribed property is made up of five clusters of the most remarkable and
complete terraces, which are spread over four municipalities: Bangaan and Batad in Banaue,
Hapao in Hungduan, Central Mayoyao in Mayoyao, and Nagacadan in Kiangan municipality
(UNESCO).
Indigenous House
Another heritage showing the ingenuity of the Ifugaos is their indigenous houses. The
indigenous house shows the ingenuity of the Ifugaos with its architectural design, engineering
principles and superb construction techniques and methods that could be made to last for
generations. The Ifugao native house is one of the most admired architectural designs having
employed an indigenous system of construction that is more complex than its seeming simplicity
(Ananayo, 2010). A typical Ifugao house is typhoon resistant and is built entirely with natural
materials. The Ifugao traditional house is preserved as a tangible representation of indigenous
cultural heritage, and cultural practices associated with its building and use are upheld.
UNIT 4: POLITICAL FEATURE
Overview
Ifugaos and other indigenous peoples of the Philippines were governed by customary laws for a
very long time before the arrival of the colonists who established civil government.
Although the Ifugaos historically lacked a formal political structure, they did create a complex
system of regulations based on taboos and customs that were also connected to their religion.
The Ifugao people are made up of various ethnolinguistic communities. They adhere to
essentially the same concept and standard of justice notwithstanding the differences between
every community.
This lesson covers the various Ifugao indigenous governance and laws, and administration of
justice practices. This will aid the students in gaining a deeper comprehension and appreciation
of the laws and justice system of the Ifugao people.
Lesson 1. Political Feature
I. Introduction
The Ifugao people have their own set of customary laws, codes of ethics, taboos, values, and
beliefs, as well as a justice system that governed their interactions with others on a personal,
familial, and communal level. They follow the teachings of their ancestors, known as tugun di a-
am-mod, and keep the paniyo in mind when interacting with their family and the community. In
most cases, a monkalun, a mediator, assisted families in carrying out legal proceedings within
and between themselves (Barton, 1919).
Indigenous Governance and Laws
Accordingly, Ifugao law is derived from two sources. The first is the paniyo or taboo. Paniyo is
the “evil way” or “bad way of doing”, which largely concerns the individual and is based on
“magic” (Barton, 1919 in NCCA, 2015). These taboos are ethical and religious in nature and were
occasionally created as superstitious beliefs; therefore, breaking them may be the cause of
some bad omens. The second is custom laws that embrace the laws on property, individual
rights, family laws, and penal laws. (Martin, M & et al, 2021, p. 185).
Some of the Ifugao laws include property laws on inherited properties, on the sale and purchase
of properties especially land or rice fields, and on other means of acquiring properties especially
when the owner is childless.
Administration of Justice
As mentioned, Ifugaos have prohibited acts and conduct of taboos or Paniyo related to gender-
family, religion, property, life, finance, and personhood.
It is expected of the Ifugao people to follow the tugun di a-amod, and to keep the paniyo in
mind when interacting with family and the community. If someone breaks the law or commits a
crime, the proper punishment will be meted out according to the gravity of the offense. Both
minor and major offenses have corresponding penalties. The customary law may me used to
define how the Ifugao people administer justice. Several instances include Awwit/Bal-lo, Haliw
(fines), and gibu. For the settlements of crimes against persons, life, and properties, both usually
consult a nanomnoman (elder) in the community to intervene in the settling of conflicts,
disputes, grievances, and crimes preferably in the presence of both parties.