phe) Evolution Evolution is descent with modification from preexisting species. > Theory of spontaneous generation ‘This theory states that life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud, ete © Spallanzani’s experiment® : He boiled the meat and vegetables for more than an hour to prepare broth and placed them in an open and sealed flask. The maggots of housefly developed in the open flasks but did not appear in sealed flasks. This disapproved the theory of spontaneous creation. > Lowi iis Pasteur: Proposed that life comes only from pre-exi ing life (Biogenesis) > Theory of Chemical evolution * Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living organic ‘molecules and organic molecules formed from inorganic molecules (chemical evolution) © Oparin suggested that coacervates may have played a significant role in the evolution of cells. © Coacervate? is colloidal in nature, made up of an aggregate of macromolecules such as proteins, lipids and membrane, and contain enzymes. Coacervate droplets arise spontaneously under appropriate conditions and may have been the pre biological systems from which living organisms originated. Coacervates are to living cells in that they are capable of absorbing nutrition and growth, however, they cannot reproduce® * Miller and Urey experiment * Miller and Urey conducted an experiment simulating earths ancient condition to test chemical evolution theory of origin of life. Experiment used water, methane®, ammonia, hydrogen® (alert: oxygen was not used in this experiment) to simulate the earths ancient atmosphere. Water was heated at 800° C2, evaporated water was subjected to sparks to simulate lightning, atmosphere was subjected to condenser so that water could condense, at the end of one-week simple amino acids® like alanine, glycine, aspartic acids found in the system Experiment proved biomolecules can form in ancient earth like condition The first autotrophic organisms were the chemoautotrophs that never released oxygen The theory of recapitulation Haeckel’ proposed the theory of recapitulation also called the biogenetic law or embryological parallelism Which states ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny? it means that during embryonic development all the plants and animals pass through the similar stages, their ancestors went through in the long course of evolution Thus, in brief, it can be said that the embryonic development (ontogeny) is recapitulation of the ancestral history (phylogeny) or in other words, “ontogeny repeats phylogeny’ ‘* Example: tadpole larvae of frog® respire with gills, it represents that amphibians evolved from Fishes. ‘* _FRNA® (Ribosomal RNA) is used to study phylogeny due to the slow rates of evolution in gene of this RNA,> Theories on heredity et ee Darwin's theory of pangenesis? Darwin suggested that all cells in an organism are capable of shedding minute particles called gemmules, which are able to circulate throughout the body and finally migrate to reproductive organs. These particles are then transmitted to the next generation and are responsible for the transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring. If any cells of the parent undergo changes as a result of environmental change, they will consequently transmit modified gemmules to their offspring. Darwin's theory fails to explain how variations are transmitted from parents to offspring through genes. Darwin's theory of pangenesis Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characters Lamarck proposed that through selective use and disuse of organs®, organism could gain or lose characters. Further, he believed that those acquired characteristic could be inherited by offspring. He says, this is how species changed or evolved over time. He gave the examples of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by elongation of their necks. As they passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations, Giraffes, slowly, over the years, came to acquire long necks Theory of inheritance of acquired characters Theory of conti cf penal Put forth by Weismann, This theory states that environmental factors affect somatic cells and not germ cells, Heritable characters are transmitted only by germ cellsin the gonads (ovaries and testes), not by somatic cells. This theory rejects Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characters Theory of continuity of germplasm > Neo Darwinism / Modern theory/synthetic theory of evolution @ This theory integrates the genetic variability and natural selection as the basis of evolution ‘e Causes of genetic variability: mutation, recombination, hybridization, genetic drift > Malthus theory? ‘@ Malthus examined the relationship between population growth and resources He stated that “population growth is potentially exponential while the growth of the food supply isiQuantity Population. Production. of food Pee nse Laue = To understand Hard) iy-Weinberg law lets have a quick view of some terminologies isa gene that codes for color of eye Gene itis a part of DNA that codes for protein e.g. let's say 8’ ‘Allele Human cells carry two copies ofeach chromosome received from mother and fathet Pence human eats have two versions of each gene. These different versions ofa gene ae called alleles c., say allele of gene for color of eyes are Band b that codes for Down, and blue color of eye Dominant | Dominant alleles show their effect even ifthe individual has ‘only one copy of the allele allele Eo, Brown eye allele isa dominant allele it means ifthe genetic ‘makeup of individual is Bb then | individual will have brown eye | Recessive Recessive alleles show their effect only ifthe individual has two copies of the allele [alleles Eg, Individual will show blue color eyes ihe cores two copies of the blue eye’ allele (bb) Heterozygous | An individual who carries two different alleles for a particular gene e.g. Bb Homozygous _| An individual who carries two of the s2™e alleles for a certain gene eg. BB or bb allele (b) in Females Bo) |b@ BB (P?) | Bb (pq) Bb (pq) | Bb (q’) ifapercentage of dominant allele (B) and recessive: Population is p and q respectively ‘Then Hardy-Weinberg law states that p + 4 Hence p + q)"= 12, hence p?+ 2pq +. = : P¥is percentage of homozygous dominant (86) individuals 2pqis the f ‘ous individuals (Bb) percentage of heterozygou: ave Gl individuals is the percentage of homozygous Feces: Letssolvea problem fon is 9%, 2 percentage of blue eyesin a given Populate what percent of individual is eterozygate or the O1Ou of eyes? Explanation: {aspartate Blue eyes phenotype means bb Is 2 se genotype on (03) = 42 %8b Blue eyes = 9% hence bb = 9% Ea he = = i heterozygous (8b) ee of Hence percent of centage or frequency OF; i guats is 42% recessive allele bis q, then bb is q?Key Points: Hardy Weinberg Principle ¢ Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain, ‘const generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences *2Rtfroy ¢ Hardy-Weinberg equation is a mathematical equation that can be used to calculate the genetic Variations population at equilibrium sy _—— Hardy Weinberg equilibrium Disturbance in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium Five conditions are required in order for a Below mentioned five conditions disturbs Ha, Population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg Weinberg equilibrium that leads to evolution, equilibrium: 1) Alarge breeding population® 1) Gene flow 2) Random mating? 2) Genetic drift 3) No change in allelic frequency due to mutation 3) Mutation 4) No immigration or emigration 4) Genetic recombination 5) No natural selection 5) Natural selection P+q=1 P+ 2pq +a" ™ Evolution BB Bb bb inber ‘equilibrium 1) Gene migration or gene flow: ‘© Gene flow is the spread of genes through populations as effected by movements of individual eg. seeds spores, interbreeding of migrating individuals with members of local population® etc. Gene flow ensures that all populations of a given species share a common gene pool. ie. it reduces difference between populations. The interruption of gene flow between populations leads to the formation of new species. ‘© Random mating increases genetic variations in a population. Gene Flow Exchange of genes over chromosome — Crossing over Population A) — Passing of the genes from one generation to the other —» Heredity | ie Se Exchange of genes between populations ~> Gene flow. J 2) Genetic drift: Random® variation in gene frequencies particularly in small? (alert: notin large population) p that occur by chance® rather than by natural selection is called genetic drift. The theory of genetic d wveloped by Seawall Wright cao Sifts “aso called as Seawall wright Effect or scattering of variability Sear time, genetic drift can make once rare alleles common, or eliminate alleles altogether.Founder Effect ‘oup of population split off from large Jonand starts a new colony. Sometimes the s inallele frequency Is SO different in the new change i apulation that they become diferent mpl of POF iginal drifted population becomes {the effect is called founder effect, (XS x CS) 9) small group of population split off from large population and starts a new colony Founder Effect 2 species founders a” 8 « Unlike natural selection, genetic i Bottle Neck Phenomenon Itis the reduction in populations size (e.g. due to natural disaster) resultin 19 in a great ri genetic variation. SS OG reduction in size of population e.g. due to Natural disaster, resulting ina great reduction in genetic variation Bottle Neck Effect drift does not depend on an allele'’s beneficial or harmful effects. * cenetic drift may result in loss of a beneficial allele or fixation of a harmful allelein a population. 3) Mutation «Mutations are alterations of genetic materi al, The idea of mutations was brought forth by Hugo de Vries. ‘The plant on which de Vries had experimented was Oenothera lamarckiana® (Evening primrose) ¢- The mutation observed by de Vries in Oenothera Lamarckian was chromosomal number variant. . According to Darwin, evolution took place caused speciation and hence called it saltation Mutation would be for organism. random! Evolution resulted from mutation ‘due to small gradual variations® while DeVries believed mutations (single-step large mutation) * Esther and Joshua Lederberg performed an experiment that showed mutati Mutations are random means whether a particular mutation happens or Not is Ge ” Mutations which are c mon than other variation, the process is called Natural election, hence ions are random and not directed. unrelated to how useful that beneficial for survival and reproduction become itis said, Natural selection is NOT from variation Evolution resulted B olution occurred in single large step tation (saltation) Mutations are random®, directionless® Evolution was gradual’ I and. continuous®, Variations are smal , and discontinuous? directional Genet, etic . oiN combination wriation® rs a tic varia luring cell division and it is the most common ‘mechanism of gen5) Natural selection ‘e According to Darwin, the orgat competition «As stated by Darwin tho: is called survival of fittest. These prog is called natural selection. i ataromentens Fitness according to Darwi oat ren ey cocepes of Oar ian am descent and natural selectio ° eae descent is defined as a process by which new ee ae fom single common, Example of branching descent is convergent evolution of Austra pals and placents)o” ene Common examples of Natural selection - Industrial melanism® and pesticide resistance, Da « evolution s due to competition within the species ni . ronment, leave more progeny than i better fit in an environ se who are will survive more and hence are sel, ie fenies, therefore, 1) Industrial melanism : ‘Peppered moth existed in two forms, a . tight ‘color enable moth to lie camouflaged against lichen growth on the bark of trees © Ina normal environment, the dark species tended not to last long, as it’s visibility against the light would lead to it being more easily spotted by predators ¢ After Industrial Revolution, increased sulfur dioxide killed off all the lichens® and tress got covered by black smoke. Light colored moths resting on a tree now stood out against the black background and were more likely to be eaten, Now black moth escaped unnoticed and managed to survive. © Originally rare in the population of normally light-colored moths, the frequency of the melanic black form increased in polluted areas due to recurring random mutation®. This change in color has come to be known as “industrial melanism.” Thus, industrial melanism supports evolution by natural selection light-coloured and melanic (black) ide resistance Pesticide resistant insect has the ability to survive as they have resistant lected _ ab genes so they are sek known as natural selection. Other insect lacking these genes will be killed by pele % 3) Growth of some bacteria in streptomycin containing medium * Normaly bacteria cannot survive in antibiatic-containing medium but if it does so ft must have x resistance against that antibiotic. These are well adapted to grow in streptomycin containing thus are more evolved, So due to natur: i ate al selection only the more evolved and better adapted sp 4) Darwin’s finches Out to make new species, © Difference between Genetic drift and Natur oa ral selection Genetic drift Natural selection Random, non-directional process Not at NaRaSea se nrandom, directional process aSaae laptive evolution cere Increases genetic variations | Saar iy aoc eeeSpeciation \d distinct species in the course of evolution. jon pecies must become reproductively isolated fgont® OCU ferent species are unable tointerbreed and produce healthy, fertile offspring due tobariers oe ductive isolation. E.g. Cat can't interbreed with Dog. eg tC pansms OF FEPIO ‘ ; aime Speciation Allopatric Speciation atric speciation (allo: other, patri . Alormar geographic speciation involves ancestral species shares same geographical area but Ea separation of populations cannot interbreed because of reproductive isolation ¥ apparent species and subsequent thus evolve independently to forms new species fot on that forms new species @ Causes: Presence of barriers lke difference in behavior, ie ean timing of mating, cell division errors etc. 3 Separated © Example of sympatric speciation: Plant evolution - hence reproductively Polyploidy:Itisthe presence ofextrasetof chromosomes & 2 isoated) Species evolve due to errors in cell division, seen in plants. Polyploid rec independently to form plant reproduce to form new polyploid plant and thus speciation new species gets separated into new species. Divergent Evolution « Diergent evolution is the process whereby groups from the same common ancestor evolve and accumulate Quick check ‘Two species of different genealogy (ancestor 5 ) come to re result of adaptation, the phenomenon is termed as pe rs cach otis_ Ciel SUR oIve similar features even though they are in different part of | Convergent =a ergent evolution ed eset 85 ne penomeno? wo rphologically and evolve int ——_— es changes more to many species t ~ Aspe shenomencn |S called f0 adapt to new | Adaptive radiation ee > common ancestor diverge and becomes dstinct___| Divergent evolu {ose once sar tO 2 60 ans vestigiaor wns which were som times funect age are the O°92 1 wer nal in humans (or maybe an ; : : y other organisms) but duri These fof evolution ther uty gradually decine tsa tie) sateen prcereinal vero dimentary organs istoral and vesuote fe and disuse of organs or 1 orginal organs show that how a species evolved from their ancestors according to the us organs oan 5 form appendix®, wisdom teeth (3rd molar)® + &9 n Ea Mest etc (alert: ait is not a vestigial organ) mammary gland in males®, body hairs, cocey, Ear > Paleontology rae remains ofa prehistoric plant or animal ‘embedded in rock is called fossils Paleontology is the study of fossils the age of fossil can be estimated by remainin Hletron Spin resonance is most accurate met Organisms which have undergone very ttle Ginkgo, cycas®, Horsetails ~ Equisetum® are sor The preserved fossil remains of Archaeopteryx shows reptiles gave rise to birds 19 quantity of radioactive carbon ("*C) in relevant rocks hod used for dating of fossils fe called living fossil hange since they first evolved are me of the examples of living fossils during Jurassic period Petra crco ans in all their phy wis the closest relative of the present-day humans, The bar .d chimpanzee is remarkably sit wan occurred in Africa®, central Asia, chin fed? over a period of time |, social and cultural relationship inding pattern in the ind development of hum: «Anthropology: a study of origin at ‘+ Among the primates, chimpanze autosome numbers 3 and 6 of man an‘ « Fossils evidence indicates that origin of a m: + Asman evolved, his brain capacity increast ja and India. Hairy, more ape like, walked liked gorilla stor of ape and man Existed 15 million years a9 Considered as a common ance int, more man like Dryopithecus (eatiest fossil ape) a ie seat Erect, small canines prese! (earliest hominid fossil) ‘Australopithecu: = Cranial capacit /.450 6c a man) used oe for hunting, had man like teeth and lumbar curve, fully erect, er eae Cranial capacity: 700 cc Known os Handy man, did not eat meat Cranial capacity: 900 ¢© ‘ite meat, large supra orbital idge Cranial capacity: 1300-1600 cc, large owt “with heavy teeth, used hides as clothes tO protect body, cave dwellet ural customs frst civilized man : /s thous (Jaws do not project “of today's man, face was orthoane more intelligent than today’s mar : 00 cc as oom of the world, backbone W ith 4 curves, most intelli | Cranial capaci Migrated from A| Note: Tricks are to help you memori | 1, Homo habilis: first tool maker —> 2. Homo erectus: ate meat > he used t 3. Neanderthal man: first civilized — Net | 4, Cro-Magnon man: painting — Cro- Magnon Sequence: Rama! went to Austral erect‘ on tool and went to Netherlan Modern man. ize important points, tricks are not meant to rey He had a habit of making tools through day and nighe 0 eat meat in erect (standing) position herlands is the first civilized country began drawing painting of Crow, lia? where he developed habit? of making tools, he 1°, got civilized and turned into modern man® 1-Ramapithecus, 2- Australopithecus, 3-Homo habilis 4- Homo erectus, 5- Neanderthal man Present fcr Stood ion: Evolution Experimental disapproval of the theory of spontaneous creation Spallanzani's experi geometrical progression than food supply Life comes only from pre-existing life (Biogenesis) Louis Pasteur Theory of Chemical evolution Oparin and Haldane The theory of recapitulation (ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny) Haeckel Theory of pangenesis Darwin Theory of inheritance of acquired characters Lamarck Theory of continuity of germplasm August Weismann Change in frequency of allele leads to evolution Hardy Weinberg prit The theory of genetic drift Seawall Wright Evolution occurred in single large step mutation (saltation) Hugo de Vries Essay on population that stated human population tends to multiply by | Malthus