Waste Disposal

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 Environmental impact of waste
1. Garbage can have real impacts on the environment when it is not properly
disposed of.
2. Rubbish and waste can cause air and water pollution. Rotting garbage is also
known to produce harmful gases that mix with the air and can cause breathing
problems in people
3. When waste ends up at the landfill, chemicals in the trash get into the soil,
contaminating it. This will hurt plants, along with animals and even humans who
come into contact with the soil.
4. Pollution runs into rivers and seeps into ground water. Flooding is caused by
garbage clogging drains, and the atmosphere can be poisoned by the toxic
discharge from trash
5. Some waste will eventually rot, but not all, and in the process it may smell or
generate methane gas, which is explosive and contributes to the greenhouse
effect.
6. Besides flies, other animals that thrive from the garbage in and around the
containers include rats, foxes and stray dogs. they increase the risk of you
contracting with salmonella, which causes typhoid fever, food poisoning, enteric
fever, gastroenteritis
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Terms and definitions

Refuse: It’s a term used to indicate what is

rejected or left as worthless .

 Garbage
 Sewage
 Storm water
 Subsoil water
 Sullage

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Garbage
• The term garbage indicated dry wastes
• It includes
Decayed Fruits
Grass
Leaves
Paper
Sweepings
Vegetables etc

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
• Sewage-It indicates liquid wastes from the
community.
• Sullage (waste water from household sinks, bath,
shower, kitchens )
• Storm water- It indicates the rain water of locality
• Subsoil water- Ground water that finds its entry
into sewers through leakage.
• Night soil- indicates human/animal excreta.
• Discharge from latrines, urinals
• Industrial waste

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• Sewer: the underground drains through which sewage passes
is called a sewer.
• Invert: the lowermost level or surface of a sewer is known as
an invert. In the construction of sewers , invert level is
carefully checked for its proper functioning.
• Sewerage: The entire science of collecting and carrying
sewage by water carriage system through sewers is called
sewerage.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Difference Between Sanitary Sewer
& Storm Water Drain
Sewers are laid at steeper gradients falling towards the outfall
point with circular pipe cross section. Storm water drains are
separately constructed as surface drains at suitable gradient,
either rectangular or trapezoidal section.

Sewers are designed to carry the maximum quantity of sanitary

sewage likely to be produced from the area contributing to the
particular sewer. Storm water drains are designed to carry the
maximum storm runoff that is likely to be produced by the
contributing catchment area from a rain of design frequency and
of duration equal to the time of concentration.

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Storm water drains are separately constructed as
surface drains at suitable gradient.

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Key Points in designing Sewer Drainage

1. The sewers provided should be adequate in size to avoid overflow and

possible health hazards.
2. For evaluating proper diameter of the sewer, correct estimation of sewage
discharge is necessary.
3. The flow velocity inside the sewer should neither be so large as to require
heavy excavation and high lift pumping, nor should be so small causing
deposition of the solid in the sewers. The velocity that would not permit
the solids to settle down and even scour the deposited particles of a given
size is called as self-cleansing velocity. This minimum velocity should at least
develop once in a day so as not to allow any deposition in the sewers.
4. The sewers should be laid at least 2 to 3 m deep to carry sewage from
basement.
5. The sewage in sewer should flow under gravity and is conveyed to the
point usually located in low-lying area, where the treatment plant is located.
6. Treatment plant should be designed taking into consideration the quality of
raw sewage expected and to meet the discharge standards.

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VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 SELF CLEANSING VELOCITY/ MINIMUM MAXIMUM VELOCITY OR NON-
VELOCITY
Vs SCOURING VELOCITY

The velocity that would not permit the The interior surface of the sewer pipe gets
solids to settle down and even scour the scored due to the continuous abrasion
deposited particles of a given size is called caused by suspended solids present in
as self-cleansing velocity. sewage. The scoring is pronounced at
This minimum velocity should at higher velocity than what can be
least develop once in a day so as not to tolerated by the pipe materials. This wear
allow any deposition in the sewers. and tear of the sewer pipes will reduce
Otherwise, if such deposition takes place, it the life span of the pipe and their carrying
will obstruct free flow causing further capacity.
deposition and finally leading to the In order to avoid this, it is necessary to
complete blocking of the sewers. By limit
maintaining SCV in sewers following can be the maximum velocity that will be
achieved: produced in sewer pipe at any time. This
• Adequate transportation of suspended max velocity is called Non-Scouring
solids, velocity.
• Keeping the sewer size under control; and Nonscouring velocity mainly depends
Preventing the sewage from upon the material of sewer
decomposition by moving it faster, thereby
•preventing evolution of foul gases.
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VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Collection and Conveyance
of Refuse
• In a sanitary project, Solid and liquid wastes are collected and conveyed at
suitable place for treatment and disposal.
• This is important for maintaining clean environment.
• Major portion of the cost of any sanitary project.
• Depending upon the type of waste two methods are used for collection,
conveyance and disposal of waste.

CONSERVANCY SYSTEM WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

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 CONSERVANCY SYSTEM/ DRY SYSTEM
• It is an old system/out of date for modern cities.
• Adopted in small towns, villages, undeveloped areas of big cities etc.
• In this system various types of wastes such as garbage , night soil etc are
collected separately in vessels and deposited in pools/pits and then
removed periodically.(once in 24 hrs)
• Night soil - Its collected in pans from lavatories , carried by labor in carts,
trucks etc for final disposal. Its normally buried in the ground to convert in
to manure.
• Garbage/dry refuse: Its collected separately in dustbins and conveyed
using hand carts or trucks etc. It may contain waste of combustible and
non combustible nature. They are sorted out and disposed of suitably.
• Sullage and storm water- Its collected and conveyed separately through
closed or open gutters/channels. Finally discharged in natural
rivers/streams.

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 Disadvantages/Demerits
• Hygiene and sanitary aspects- Sewage starts decomposing within 4 to 6
hrs, creating insanitary conditions around residential areas. Also leads to
fly nuisance.
• Transportation aspect- Night soil carts pass through main roads and
crowded localities. Its highly undesirable
• Labor aspect- This system is dependent upon sweepers.
• Building design aspect- In this system, lavatories are built outside the
house or away from main building. Hence a compact design is not
achieved
• Open drains- Storm water/sullage is carried in open drains laid in streets.
• Risk of epidemic- due to improper /careless disposal of night soil can lead
to outbreak of epidemic.
• Water/soil pollution- Liquid wastes from lavatories may soak into the
ground , may contaminate ground water due to percolation.
• Cost consideration- Its cheap in the beginning, but maintenance and
establishment costs are high.
• Land for disposal- Needs considerable land for disposal of sewage.
• Human aspect- Its humiliating to ask human beings to transport night soil
.
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM
• In this system, the collection, conveyance and disposal of various type of
wastes are carried out with the help of water.
• Water is used as a medium to convey the waste from its point of
origination to the point of disposal/treatment.
• Sufficient quantity of water is mixed with the waste, mixture behaves
more or less like water.
• It’s a modern method of conveyance of sewage.
• Initial cost of installation of this system is quite high ,If the financial
condition of an area is not good, it becomes difficult to adopt this system.

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 Advantages/merits
 Hygienic and sanitary aspect- This system is hygienic as the waste is
conveyed through closed conduits. Hence no bad smell .
 Epidemic aspect- This system is safe as flies have no access to sewage.
 Pollution aspect: sewage is conveyed through properly designed sewers,
hence no chance of soil/water contamination.
 Compact design- lavatories can be accommodated in any part of the
building and flushing system is adopted in this system. Hence it permits
compact design
 Labor aspect: labor needed for operation and maintenance is less.
 Treatment aspect: permits the use of modern methods of treatment of
the sewerage collected through the sewers. Treated waste water/sewage
can be safely disposed off without any health hazards.
 Land disposal requirement in this system is very less in comparison to C S
 Initial costs are very high, but running and Maintenance cost is less as less
labor is involved.

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 Systems of sewerage
1. Separate system
2. Combined system
3. Partially separate system

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Two set of sewers are used .
one for sewage and other for storm water.
Storm water discharged into lakes/rivers, Sewage carried to
treatment plant

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 Merits/demerits of separate system

Merits Demerits
• The load on treatment plant is • Cleaning of sewers is difficult due
less. As sewage flows in separate to small size of sewers.
pipe, hence the quantity to be • This system requires laying two
treated at sewage treatment sets of pipe, which may be
plant is small, resulting in difficult in congested area.
economy of treatment/small size • This system will require
sewers maintenance of two sets of
pipelines and hence maintenance
• This system may be less costly as cost is more.
only sanitary sewage is • Storm water sewer comes into
transported in closed conduit and operation during monsoon only. It
storm water can be collected and may become dumping place for
conveyed through open drains. garbage during summer/winter
leading to choking.

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•A common sewer is used to carry sewage and storm water together.
•Both taken to treatment plant.
•In countries like India where actual rainy days are very few, this system will face
the problem of maintaining self cleansing velocity in the sewers during dry
season, as the sewage discharge may be far lower as compared to the design
discharge after including storm water
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Combined system

Merits Demerits
• In an area where rainfall is spread • During extraordinary heavy
throughout a year, there is no need storms/rains overflowing of
of flushing of sewers, as self
sewers will spoil public hygiene.
cleansing velocity will be developed
due to more quantity because of • Not suitable for the area with
addition of storm water. small period of rainfall in a year,
• Easy to clean as the sewer size is self cleansing velocity may not
large develop in sewers, resulting in
• Storm water reduces the strength silting.
of sewage by dilution
• Due to combined sewage and
• Only one set of sewer is needed,
storm water, load on treatment
hence economical.
plant increases.
• In congested areas it is easy to lay
only one pipe rather than two pipes
as required in other systems.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Partially separate system
• In this system only one set of underground sewer is laid.
• The arrangement is made to permit early washings by rain into the sewers
carrying sewage.
• When the quantity of storm water exceeds a particular limit, it is collected
and conveyed in open drains to natural river and stream.
Advantages
• It combines the advantages of earlier discussed 2 systems
• Entry of storm water avoids silting in sewers.
• The problem of disposing of storm water from houses is made easy.
• Reasonable size of sewers is used.

Disadvantages
• The quantity of storm water admitted into sewers may increase the load
on treatment plant
• The velocity of flow is low in dry weather

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• The separate system requires laying of two sets of conduits whereas in combined
system only one bigger size conduit is required.
• Laying of two separate conduits may be difficult in the congested streets.
• In combined system sewers are liable for silting during non-monsoon season,
hence they are required to be laid at steeper gradients. Steeper gradients for the
sewers may require more number of pumping stations, particularly for flat terrain,
which may make the system costly.
• Large quantity of wastewater is required to be treated before discharge in case of
combined system. Hence, large capacity treatment plant is required.
• In separate system, only sewage is treated before it is discharged into natural
water body or used for irrigation. No treatment is generally given to the rainwater
collected before it is discharge in to natural water body.
• In case of separate system pumping is only required for sewage. Pumping can be
avoided for storm water lines, as they are not very deep and normally laid along
the natural slopes.
• In combined system large capacity pumping station is required to safely handle the
flow that is likely to be generated during highest design storm considered.
• Based on site conditions the economy of the system needs to be evaluated and
selection is made accordingly.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Network of sewers

BRANCH
HOUSE
LATERALS SEWER/SUB
SEWERS
MAINS

MAIN
SEWER/TRUNK
SEWER

TREATMENT
PLANT

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PATTERN OF COLLECTION OF SEWAGE DEPENDS ON

1. The topographical and hydrological features of the area.

2. The location and methods of treatment and disposal works.
3. The type of sewerage system employed, and
4. Extent of area to be served.

FOLLOWING PATTERNS ARE ADOPTED:

1. Fan pattern
2. Interceptor pattern
3. Perpendicular pattern
4. Radial pattern
5. Zonal pattern

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 Fan pattern
This pattern is suitable for a
city situated at one side of the
natural water body, such as
river.
The entire sewage flows to a
common point where one
treatment plant is located
The drawback in this pattern
is that larger diameter sewer is
required near to the treatment
plant as entire sewage is
collected at a common point.
with development of the city
the load on existing treatment
plant increases.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Interceptor
pattern
•Sewers are intercepted with
large size sewers .
•Large sized sewer laid along
the water course.
•Interceptor carries sewage
to a common point, where it
can be disposed off with or
without treatment,
depending upon the facilities
provided.
•If the quantity of storm
water is more, storm
regulators must be provided
at suitable points.

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 Perpendicular
pattern
•In this pattern, the main trunk sewers
are laid perpendicular to the natural
water course.
•It is suitable for separate system and
partially separate system for storm
water drains.
•This pattern is not suitable for
combined system, because treatment
plant is required to be installed at
many places; otherwise it will pollute
the water body where the sewage is
discharged

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 Radial pattern
In this pattern sewers are laid
radially outwards from the centre
of the city , hence this pattern is
called as radial pattern.
The drawback in this pattern is
more number of disposal works are
required

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Zonal pattern- In this pattern, city is divided into suitable
zones and a separate interceptor is provided for each zone.
This pattern is suitable for cities situated at sloping hills.
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 Material for sewers
Following factors should be considered before selecting material for
manufacturing sewer pipes:
• Resistance to corrosion
Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H2S. This gas in
contact with moisture can be converted into sulfuric acid. The formation
of acids can lead to the corrosion of sewer pipe .Hence , selection of
corrosion resistance material is must for long life of pipe.
• Resistance to abrasion
Sewage contain considerable amount of suspended solids, part of which
are inorganic solids such as sand or grit. These particles moving at high
velocity can cause wear and tear of sewer pipe internally. This abrasion
can reduce thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic efficiency of the sewer
by making the interior surface rough.

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• Strength and durability
The sewer pipe should have sufficient strength to withstand all the forces that are
likely to come on them. Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of
backfill material and traffic load, if any.. To withstand external load safely without
failure, sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is essential. In addition,
the material selected should be durable and should have sufficient resistance
against natural weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.
• Weight of the material
The material selected for sewer should be such that which will make pipe light in
weight. The lightweight pipes are easy for handling and transport.
• Imperviousness
To eliminate chances of sewage seepage from sewer to surrounding, the material
selected for pipe should be impervious.
• Economy and cost
Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.
• Hydraulically efficient
The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less frictional coefficient.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Asbestos cement sewer
• These are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibers, silica and cement.
Asbestos fibers are thoroughly mixed with cement to act as reinforcement.
• These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up
to 4.0 m.
• These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of
rainwater from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to
grounds, and for transport of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen
and bathroom.
Merits:
• These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
• Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
• Interior is smooth hence, can make excellent hydraulically efficient sewer.
Demerits
• These pipes are structurally not very strong.
• These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produce
H2S, in presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed leading to corrosion of pipe
material.

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Asbestos cement sewer

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 Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete
• Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes
are available up to 0.45 m diameter
and reinforcement cement pipes are
available up to 1.8 m diameter.
• These pipes can be cast in situ or
precast pipes.
• Precast pipes are better in quality
than the cast in situ pipes.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Advantages/disadvantages
Advantages of concrete pipes
• Strong in tension as well as compression.
• Resistant to erosion and abrasion.
• They can be made of any desired strength.
• Easily molded, and can be in situ or precast pipes.
• Economical for medium and large sizes.
• These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be
opened and backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers.
Disadvantages
• These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.
• The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion.
• The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit.

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 Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers

• These pipes are used for

house connections as well
as lateral sewers.
• The size of the pipe
available is 5 cm to 30 cm
internal diameter with
length 0.9 to 1.2 m.

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 Advantages/disadvantages
Advantages of stoneware sewers
• Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted water such as
sewage.
• Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically efficient.
• The pipes are highly impervious.
• Strong in compression.
• These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters
Disadvantages
• Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult to transport.
• These pipes cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are weak in
tension.
• These require large number of joints as the individual pipe length is small.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
Brick Sewers
•Used for construction of large
size combined sewer or
particularly for storm
water drains.
•The pipes are plastered from
outside to avoid entry of tree
roots and groundwater
through brick joints.
•These are lined from inside with
stone ware or ceramic block to
make them smooth and
hydraulically efficient. Lining also
makes the pipe resistant to
corrosion.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
Cast iron sewer
• These pipes are stronger and
capable to withstand greater
tensile, compressive, as well as
bending stresses.
• suitable for sewers under
heavy traffic load, such as
sewers below railways and
highways.
• 100% leak proof sewer line to
avoid groundwater
contamination
• less resistant to corrosion;
hence, generally lined from
inside with cement concrete,
coal tar paint, epoxy, etc.
• these are costly.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Steel sewer
• They can withstand internal
pressure, impact load and
vibrations much better than CI
pipes.
• used under the situations such as
pressure main sewers, under
water crossing, bridge crossing.
• They are susceptible to corrosion
and are not generally used for
partially flowing sewers.
• They are protected internally and
externally against the action of
corrosion.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Plastic sewers (PVC pipes)
• These are used for internal
drainage works in house.
• They offer smooth internal
surface.
• These are resistant to
corrosion, light weight and
economical in laying,
jointing and maintenance.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipes

• They are not brittle like AC pipes and other pipes and hence hard fall
during loading, unloading and handling do not cause any damage to the
pipes
• These are commonly used for conveyance of industrial wastewater.
• They offer all the advantages offered by PVC pipes
• PVC pipes offer very little flexibility and normally considered rigid;
whereas, HDPE pipes are flexible hence best suited for laying in hilly and
uneven terrain.
• These pipes are very light in weight. Due to light in weight, they are easy
for handling, this reduces transportation and installation cost.
• HDPE pipes are non corrosive and offer very smooth inside surface

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
Widely used where corrosion resistant pipes
are required. These pipes have better
strength, durability, high tensile strength, low
density and high corrosion resistance.
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
other materials

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 Shapes of sewers
• Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level, slopping
continuously towards the outfall. These are designed to flow under
gravity. Shapes other than circular are also used.

Other shapes used for sewers are

a. Standard Egg-shaped sewer
b. New egg-shaped sewer
c. Horse shoe shaped sewer
d. Parabolic shaped sewer
e. Semi-elliptical section
f. Rectangular shape section
g. U-shaped section
h. Semi-circular shaped sewer
i. Basket handled shape sewer

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 New/ Modified Egg shaped
a) Standard Egg Shaped Sewer
Sewer
Standard egg-shaped sewers, also called as ovoid shaped sewer,
and new or modified egg-shaped sewers are used in combined
sewers. These sewers can generate self cleansing velocity during
dry weather flow.
However the construction of this section is difficult due to less
stability than circular section.
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Horse shoe sewer section Semi-circular Section

• Horse shoe shaped sewers and semi-circular

sections are used for large sewers with heavy
discharge such as trunk and outfall sewers.

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 Rectangular Sewer

• Rectangular or trapezoidal section is used for

conveying storm water.
• Rectangular or box type section is stable and
easy to construct.

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 U-shaped section is used for larger sewers and
especially in open cuts.

U-shaped section

basket-Handle Section Parabolic section Semi-elliptical section

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Providing an adequate sewer system for an area is an art that requires careful
engineering.
It should be properly and skillfully planned and designed so as to transport the
entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses and up to the point of
disposal.
The sewer must be adequate in size or they will overflow and cause property
damage, danger to health and nuisance.

Adequacy in size of sewers calls for correct estimation of the amount of sewage
and use of hydraulics to determine proper size and grades of sewers, which will
permit reasonable velocity of flow.

This flow should neither be too large as to require heavy excavations and high lift
pumping nor should it be too small to cause deposition of solids in sewer bottom
with accompanying odours and stoppages

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Joints in sewers
• Joints are needed to form a continuous sewer line.
• Type of joint is decided upon
 Pipe material
 Internal pressure and external loading
• Requirements of a good joint
 Easy to construct
 Capable of resisting effects of acidic, alkaline and gaseous effects of
sewage.
 Construction should be such that tree roots cant penetrate through it.
 Should be flexible in order to withstand slight settlement of sewerline.
 Non absorbent and durable
 Water tight so that infiltration of ground water and exfiltration of sewage
is prevented.
 It should be cheap and economical.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Types of joints
Cement mortar joint
Collar joint
Flexible or bituminous joint
Mechanical joints
Open joints

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 Construction
Actual construction consists of the following works:

• Marking centre lines of sewers and locating the

positions of sewer appurtenances.
• Excavation of trenches including removal of road
pavement and disposal of excavated materials.
• Bracing and dewatering of trenches.
• Laying of pipe sewers and their jointing.
• Testing of sewer lines.
• Back filling of trenches.
• Check for obstruction.
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 Laying of Sewer Pipes
• Trial holes are made to check the nature of ground where sewer is to be
laid.(normally its known beforehand)
• Sewers are generally laid starting from their outfall ends towards their starting
points.
• It is common practice, to first locate the points where manholes are required
to be constructed as per drawing, i.e., L-section of sewer, and then laying the
sewer pipe straight between the two manholes.
• The central line of the sewer is marked on the ground and an offset line is also
marked parallel to the central line at suitable distance, about half the trench
width plus 0.6 m. This line can be drawn by fixing the pegs at 15 m intervals
and can be used for finding out center line of the sewer simply by offsetting.
• The trench of suitable width is excavated between the two manholes and the
sewer is laid between them. Further excavation is then carried out for laying
the pipes between the next consecutive manholes. Thus, the process is
continued till the entire sewers are laid out.
• If the sewer pipes are not to be embedded in concrete, such as for firm
grounds, then the bottom half portion of the trench is excavated to confirm
the shape of the pipe itself. In ordinary or softer grounds, sewers are laid
embedded in concrete.

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• The trench is excavated and
desired slope as per the
longitudinal section of the
sewer should be precisely
transferred to the trench
bottom.
• After bedding concrete is laid
in required alignment and
levels. The sewer pipes are
then lowered down into the
trench either manually or
with the help of
machines/cranes for bigger
pipe diameters.
• The sewer pipe lengths are
usually laid from the lowest
point with their sockets facing
up the gradient, on desired
bedding. Thus, the spigot end
of new pipe can be easily
inserted on the socket end of
the already laid pipe.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
The sewer pipes are not usually laid directly on the soil in the trenches.
Before actual laying the bottom of the trench is prepared to receive the pipe
such that the load is distributed uniformly.
It is always preferred to provide concrete bedding in the trench below the
sewer pipes.
In certain cases soil stabilization is done using gravel/crushed rock
In areas subject to subsidence, pipe sewer shall be laid on a timber platform
or concrete cradle supported on piles.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
Equipments used
• Boning rod- Boning rods are used to
set out horizontal lines or lines with
a constant slope. In particular they
are used for setting out canal
excavation works, but also for roads
construction
• Sight rails: horizontal boards
supported at both ends, which are
used to check the gradient of a pipe
in a trench; the rails are adjusted by
sighting a line having the desired
gradient; the rails then establish a
line from which the bottom of the
trench can be measured.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Testing of sewer line
Leakage
Improper Joints

Any Obstruction

Straightness

These defects if noticed are removed.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Various tests
• Smoke test- smoke filled air is forced through the
sewer line.
• Test for obstruction- A ball of suitable diameter(less
than sewer pipe) is rolled down from u/s side, if the
sewer is obstruction free, ball may be collected at
the d/s end
• Test for straightness of alignment. This can be tested
by placing a mirror at one end of the sewer line and a
lamp at the other end. If the pipe line is straight, full
circle of light will be observed.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Water test/leakage test
The sewers are tested after giving sufficient time for the joints to set for no leakage.

For this sewer pipe sections are tested between the manholes to manhole under a
test pressure of about 1.5 m water head.

To carry this, the downstream end of the sewer is plugged and water is filled in the
manhole at upper end.

The depth of water in manhole at u/s end is maintained at about 1.5m.

The sewer line is inspected and the joints which leak are repaired.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 BACKFILLING

• After the sewer line has been laid and tested, the
trenches are back filled. The earth should be laid
equally on either side with layer of 15 cm thickness.
Each layer should be properly watered and rammed.

VENTILATION

• Sewers should be properly ventilated to maintain

continuous flow and disposal of sewer gases.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Ventilation of sewers
• Explosions in sewer lines may occur and the manhole covers may
be blown into the air, if the sewers are not properly ventilated.
• Combustible gases are produced inside the sewers due to the
presence of gasoline, grease solvents, illuminating gas, methane gas
or naptha.
• Gasoline comes from the discharges of garages, filling station and
chemical industries. Miscellaneous chemicals such as calcium
carbide may also cause explosions inside the sewers.
• Workmen need to take various precautions during
inspection/maintenance of sewers.
 open the manhole covers at least one hour earlier
 first lower a burning candle inside the manhole to check the
presence of explosive gases.
 Only dry-cell torches or electric lamps should be used inside the
sewer line for light purpose
 Safety equipments are carried along like gas masks, Oxygen
Breathing Apparatus, portable lighting source.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH
 Cleaning and maintenance
• Bad workmanship and use of low specification material.
• Faulty design.
• Excessive superimposed load.
• Settlement due to loose foundation or made up ground.
• Too small cover at the top of sewer, which is insufficient to protect it from
the impact and other loads, which sewer has to bear.
• Undermining of sewer due to any reasons.
• Explosion inside the sewer due to improper ventilation of the explosive
gases inside the sewer.
• Deterioration of the sewer due to corrosive gases.
• Abrasion of sewer due to frictional movement of the solids present in the
sewage.
• Old age of the sewer.

VAKA/AP227/KREVO/2020-21BATCH