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Relative Clauses and

Adjectival and Adverbial Phrases
The bold words tell which
car was cherry red.
A relative clause
begins with a relative
pronoun and answers the
question which one. The car that sped down the street
was cherry red.

The bold words tell which

An adjectival phrase car was cherry red.
begins with a preposition,
acts as an adjective, and
answers the question
which one.
The car with the loud engine
is cherry red.

An adverbial phrase begins

with a preposition, The cherry red car sped
acts as an adverb,
and answers the question
down the street.
how, when, where, or why.

The bold words tell where

the cherry red car sped.

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Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns.
They answer what kind, how many, or which one.
alert, beautiful, broken, calm, delicate, empty, famous, green, hilarious,
What kind? important, kind, new, rapid, serious, smooth, tense, unusual, witty, young

all, countless, couple, dozen, eight, enough, few, four, half, hundreds,
How many? little, lots, many, much, numerous, one, several, single, some

Which one? first, last, that, these, this, those

I ate cookies.

I ate chocolate chip cookies. What kind?

I ate three cookies. How many?

I ate these cookies. Which ones?

The adjectives describe the noun cookies.

Examples
What kind? What kind?

The furry cat sleeps on my soft blanket.

Which one? That bird talks! What

kind?

How many? Many flowers grew in the large garden.

The first kids sat down.

Which ones?

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Adverbs
Adverbs can describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
They answer how, when, where, or to what degree.

How bravely, carefully deeply, warmly, openly, fast

When always, daily, today, often, now, then, nightly

Where behind, inside, somewhere, anywhere, here, out

To What Degree almost, very, fully, absolutely, hardly, quite

What is an example of an
adverb that describes how the
girl climbed the wall?

quickly

Adverbs

How When Where To what degree?

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Antecedents
An antecedent is the noun replaced by a pronoun.

Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns

I, you, he, she, it, we, they me, you, him, her it, us, them

Josiah ate the pie.

Josiah was replaced Pie was replaced by
by he. Josiah is the it. The word pie is the
antecedent. antecedent it.
He ate it.

Did you know that the prefix

“ante” means before? so, the
antecedent is the noun that
comes before the pronoun that
replaces it.

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Articles
An article is a word that signals a noun.
The articles are a, an, and the.

a an the

A is used to refer to an An is used to refer to an The is used to refer to a

unspecified noun and comes unspecified noun and specific noun or a previously
before a noun that begins comes before a noun that mentioned noun.
with a consonant sound. begins with a vowel sound.
the Prime Minister
a book an author the sun
a grapevine an event the biography (that we read)
a lamp an igloo the road (to our cabin)
a porcupine an octopus the assignment
a zookeeper an umpire
The Prime Minister is visiting.
I like to read a book My dream is to be an author.
before bed. The sun is behind a cloud.
The birth of my brother is
A grapevine grows in an event I will never forget. The biography that we read
our backyard. was about Miriam Makeba.
We built an igloo on our
She bought a lamp for snow day. The road to our cabin is
her sister. closed for repairs.
He made an octopus out
A porcupine crosses of clay. My teacher gave us an
the road. assignment for homework.
I volunteer as an umpire The assignment is due
My uncle is a zookeeper. on Saturdays. on Monday.

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Capitalization & Punctuation

Capitalization Punctuation
❏ beginnings of sentences ❏ end sentences with a period
❏ proper nouns ❏ end sentences with a question
mark if asking a question
❏ I (always)
❏ end sentences with an
exclamation point if showing
emotion or excitement

❏ use commas in a series or to

separate clauses

When you write sentences, remember your SNEEQS!

S — The beginning of a sentence always needs a capital letter.
N — The proper names of people, places, and things always need a capital letter.
E — At the end of a sentence, there is usually a period.
E — When the sentence contains emotion or excitement, use an exclamation point at the end.
Q — When the sentence asks a question, use a question mark at the end.
S — Use a comma between a series of words and to separate clauses.

Let's see.
Did I use my
SNEEQS?

Yes, I did!
,
w e g o, let’s b ak e! We need milk
Before
?
, an d eg gs. W ill you help me, Jen
sugar
l.
w e can g o to In dependence Mal
Then

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Clauses and Sentences

A clause has a subject and a predicate. There are two
types of clauses: independent and dependent.

Independent clauses Dependent clauses cannot

can stand alone and are stand alone and begin with a
complete sentences. subordinating conjunction.

Ice cream is delicious

+ when it is hot outside.

A compound sentence is created when two independent clauses

are connected with a coordinating conjunction.

Use coordinating conjunctions (BOYFANS) to create compound sentences.

Compound sentences follow this format:
complete sentence + comma + coordinating conjunction + complete sentence

Coordinating Conjunction Purpose

(BOYFANS) When do I use this coordinating conjunction?

But to show contrast

Or to present an alternative

Yet to show contrast that logically follows the preceding idea

For to explain cause

And to add one idea to another

Nor to present an additional negative idea

So to indicate effect

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Collective Nouns
A noun names a person, A collective noun names a
place, thing, or idea. group of people or things
that act together.

Even though collective nouns refer to a group,

they are singular and take a singular verb.

Examples of collective nouns:

choir, jury, board, committee, flock, crew, hive,
pod, crowd, gang

The choir is singing.

The board was made up of citizens.
A jury of 12 people decides the outcome of a trial.

“Hive” is a collective noun that

refers to a group of bees.

“Bees” is plural, but we use the

singular verb “is” after “hive,”
not the plural verb “are.”

The hive of
bees is
busy.

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Commas
Use a comma to show a pause in the sentence.

Commas in a series Comma following a

prepositional phrase:
Place commas after words
when there are three or more If a sentence begins with a
items listed in a series. long prepositional phrase of four
or five words, a comma is helpful
to the reader.

Nico’s favorite sports are soccer, Down the steep and slick hill,
basketball, and tennis. the car zoomed.

Without commas, you might

send the wrong message! I like baking cats
and dogs.

I like baking, cats

and dogs.

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Commas
Use a comma to show a pause in the sentence.

Commas in a series Comma following a

prepositional phrase:
Place commas after words
when there are three or more If a sentence begins with a
items listed in a series. long prepositional phrase of four
or five words, a comma is helpful
to the reader.

Nico’s favorite sports are soccer, Down the steep and slick hill,
basketball, and tennis. the car zoomed.

Without commas, you might

send the wrong message! I like baking cats
and dogs.

I like baking, cats,

and dogs.

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Compound-Complex
Sentences
A compound-complex sentence combines two or more
independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

Both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are used.

BOYFANS EXAMPLES
but, or, yet, for, and, nor, so after, although, as, as soon as, even if,
even though, if, where

Subordinating Coordinating
Conjunction Conjunction

After the play ended, the actor took a bow, and he left the stage.

Dependent Independent Independent

Clause Clause Clause

I' ll bri
n g the
if dog ins
Compound-complex sentences h e b a rks, a ide
have both subordinating and
n d yo u
ca n fe
ed him
coordinating conjunctions. .

Look for those to figure

out if the clauses are dependent
or independent.

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Compound Predicate
A predicate tells what the subject does or is.
A compound predicate is two or more verbs joined by a
coordinating conjunction

Watered and weeded is

the compound conjunction.

And is a
Tom coordinating conjunction.
watered
and weeded
the
garden.

Coordinating Conjunctions
(BOYFANS)
Pandas chomp and chew
For classroom use only. Not for resale. All other rights reserved.

But bamboo shoots.

Or ★
Ella sang or hummed
Yet while working.

For

And ★ ★ Most compound subjects use

these coordinating conjunctions:
Nor ★ or, and, nor.
So

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Compound Subject
Compound subjects are two subjects joined by a
coordinating conjunction.

Tom and Ann is the

compound subject.

And is a coordinating
Tom and conjunction.
Ann planted
beans.

Coordinating Conjunctions
(BOYFANS)

But Bats nor moles see well.

Lakes or ponds can freeze.
Or ★
Lee and Luke are talented.
Yet

For

And ★ ★ Most compound subjects use

these coordinating conjunctions:
Nor ★ or, and, nor.
So

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Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs connect ideas and provide
a smooth transition.

Conjunctive
Purpose Examples
Adverbs

therefore
shows cause or Malik did not study. Accordingly, he did
then
effect not pass the test.
accordingly

however
compares or instead Malik does not like studying; instead,
contrasts also he likes to ride his bike.
similarly

certainly
Of course, Malik would rather do
emphasizes or of course
anything than study, so he would ride
illustrates for example
his bike, sleep, or climb trees.
for instance

before
Malik never used to study; now, he
shows time or now
knows it will help him be successful in
sequence next
the future.
in addition

Conjunctive adverbs
make my writing smoother and
my comprehension better.

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Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions (BOYFANS) combine words,
phrases, and sentences

Coordinating Conjunction Function:

(BOYFANS) What do conjunctions do?

But shows contrast

Or presents an alternative

Yet shows contrast that logically follows the preceding idea

For explains cause

And adds one idea to another

Nor presents an additional negative idea

So indicates effect

what is the function

of conjunctions?

Conjunctions connect
Harper likes ideas within and
running and across sentences!
biking!

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Demonstrative Pronouns &

Demonstrative Adjectives
A demonstrative pronoun A demonstrative adjective
replaces a noun. describes a noun and answers
which one?

Ice cream is delicious. I would like a bike.

That is delicious. I would like this bike.

Demonstrative pronouns and

demonstrative adjectives
point out something.

The words this and these point

out people or things close by.

The words that and those point out

people or things farther away.

Did you know?

The word demonstrative comes from
the Latin root for demonstrate.

demonstrate=
to point
out

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Independent & Dependent

Clauses
A clause has a subject and a predicate. There are two
types of clauses: independent and dependent.

Dependent clauses cannot

Independent clauses
stand alone and begin with a
can stand alone.
subordinating conjunction.

Ice cream is delicious

+ when it is hot outside.

A complex sentence is created when one independent clause is connected

with one dependent clause using a subordinating conjunction.

What do subordinating
Subordinating Conjunctions
conjunctions do?

rather than, whether to indicate a choice

although, even if, even though, if,

to indicate a condition
though, unless, while

where, wherever to indicate a location or place

as if, in order that, so, so that, that to explain a purpose or result

as, as much as, because, inasmuch

to explain a reason or cause
as, in order that, since, whereas

after, as, as soon as, before, once,

to indicate time
since, until, when, whenever, while

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Nouns
A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Person Place
boy cabin
officer auditorium
senator airport

Thing Idea
cupcake wisdom
sock slavery
camel envy

★ There can be more than one noun in a sentence. The subject noun
tells who or what the sentence is about and comes before the verb.
The direct object tells who or what and comes after the verb.

Sasha ate an apple.

Subject Noun Direct Object

Who or what Who or what
is the sentence comes after
about? the verb?

Sasha is who the sentence is about, so Sasha is the subject noun.

Apple is the other noun and comes after the verb.
Apple is the direct object.

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Verbals: Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and
acts as a noun in a sentence.
verb + -ing

A gerund can perform one of four functions in a sentence.

It can be any of the following:

the subect Since he was young, hiking has been Brian’s favorite hobby.

a direct object Brian loves hiking more than anything else.

a predicate nominative Brian’s favorite hobby is hiking.

an object of a preposition Everyone knows that Brian is committed to hiking.

Verbals are verbs in a

sentence that act as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.

• participles
There are
• gerunds
three kinds
• infinitives
of verbals.

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Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or thing.

everyone
could refer someone I am taller than Franklin, Kobe, or Travis.
to people anybody I am taller than everyone.
nobody

everything
could refer something Amy eats any meat or vegetables on her pizza.
to things anything Amy eats anything on her pizza.
nothing

each
many
could refer few The election was only for two people.
to people
or things both The election was only for a few.
all
none

What is a singular
indefinite pronoun that
refers to many people?

★ An indefinite pronoun that ends in

-one, -body, and -thing is singular.
everyone Other indefinite pronouns
are plural.

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Verbals
Verbals are verbs that function as other parts of speech.

Participles Gerunds Infinitives

Function as part of the Function as a noun Function as a noun,

verb or as an adjective adjective, or adverb

verb + -ing or -ed verb + -ing to + verb

Part of a perfect verb: Noun: Noun:

They had moved away. Mom’s cooking impressed To question is an effective
our company. strategy when reading a
Spiders have scurried difficult text.
across the ceiling. The judge called my
singing superb! Adjective:
Adjective: The car to own is the one
He scoured the printed Stretching increases that never needs repair.
page for clues. flexibility and reduces
stress. Adverb:
The children arrived with They returned to the hotel
the smell of the baking to change.
muffins.

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Interjections
Interjections show emotion or emphasis.
They usually stand alone and are followed by a comma,
period, or exclamation point.

Excitement or Amazement Wow! Hurray! Bravo! Awesome! Cheers!

Disgust or Disdain Ew! No thanks. Dang! Jeepers! Ugh.

Greeting or Attention Grabber Hey! Look! Listen! Hello! Behold! Ahem.

Pain or Mistake Oops. Ouch! Whoops! Doh!

Stalling or Thinking Um. Er. Well. Huh. Hmm.

Many interjections can convey sarcasm or verbal irony

in which there is a difference between what is said and what is meant.

With interjections, I can create

mood and develop voice in my personal
writing. I can express my absolute
enthusiasm, boredom, or disgust!

And behold, everyone will

know exactly how I feel!

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Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun asks a question,
starts with wh-, and replaces a noun that
is not yet known.
What do you want for lunch?
Sam asked which bus to take.
Who is at the door?
Whom did you call?
I don’t know whose shoes those are.

h i c h,
h a t ,w ,
w h o m
h o , w
w e
whos

Don't forget: Demonstrative

pronouns—that, those, this,
and these—point out or
demonstrate something.

Interrogative
comes from the
Latin root for
interrogate:
to ask
questions.

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Nouns & Verbs

Nouns name a person, place, thing, or idea. Verbs show action or state of being in a
sentence. Every sentence must have a verb.

Sample Sentences with Action Verbs

Person
boy The clock ticks.
officer
senator Spiders climb.

A tourist snorkeled.
Thing
cupcake An octopus floats.
sock
camel The hotel stands.

Sample Sentences with Verbs of Being

Place
boy The customer is unhappy.
officer
senator The hats were cozy.

The father seemed excited.

Idea
cupcake A window looked cracked.
sock
camel The baby feels light.

I underline the nouns Eat!

and circle the verbs!
Snake
s his
s.
Rona
is fr
om Mi
ami.

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Pronouns
A pronoun replaces a noun in a sentence.

Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns

I, you, he, she, it, we, they me, you, him, her it, us, them

Josiah ate the pie.

Josiah is the The pie is the
subject. Josiah direct object.
can be replaced The pie can be
by the subject He ate it. replaced by the
pronoun he. object pronoun it.

The pronouns you and it

can be subject
pronouns or object
pronouns. Read the
sentence carefully to
decide how the
pronouns are used.

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Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions (BOYFANS) combine words, phrases, and sentences

Coordinating Conjunctions (BOYFANS)

But Or Yet For And Nor So

Paired conjunctions combine two words, phrases, or sentences.

Paired Conjunction What do paired conjunctions do?

both ... and connect two related ideas

either ... or contrast two alternative ideas

neither ... nor connect two negative ideas

not only ... but also connect two related ideas

whether ... or connect two alternative ideas

what is the function

of conjunctions?

Conjunctions connect
ideas within and
Harper likes
across sentences!
both running
and
biking!

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Verbals: Participles
A participle is a verbal that ends in -ed or -ing and acts
as part of the verb or as an adjective in a sentence.
verb + -ed or -ing

A participle can perform one of two functions in a sentence.

It can be either of the following:

The cat is yawning.

part of the verb
The cat was finished with its nap.

The yawning cat stretched on the window sill.

an adjective
The exhausted cat took a nap.

Verbals are verbs in a

sentence that act as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.

• participles
There are
• gerunds
three kinds
• infinitives
of verbals.

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Verb Tenses: Perfect Tense

Verbs tenses tell when the action happens.
Perfect tense verbs show completed action and include a form of have.

Past Present Future

The dog had rested. The dog has rested. The dog will have rested.

Tense How Is It Formed? Shows Action ... Sample Sentence

had + past tense that was completed before She had picked
Past Perfect
form of verb something else happened apples.

has/have + past completed at present time or She has picked

Present Perfect
tense form of verb that continues at present apples.

will have + past that will be completed at some She will have picked
Future Perfect
tense form of verb point in the future apples.

The
perfect tense gives
us information about when
something happens.
Look for the forms of have to
find out!
Past
Present
Future

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Phrases & Clauses

Phrases are groups of A clause has a subject
words that cannot stand and a predicate. There
alone. A phrase is are two types of
missing a subject or a clauses: independent
predicate, or both. and dependent.

Examples of Phrases Independent clauses

above the clouds can stand alone.
the tall buildings
flew away

Dependent clauses cannot

stand alone and begin with a
subordinating conjunction.
Phrases in Sentences

The bird flew above the clouds.

The tall buildings looked stately.
Flowers bloom
and grow + when they have
proper sunlight.
The untied balloon flew away.
independent dependent
clause clause

Phrases and Clauses in Sentences

The falcon clutched the dove in its claws before it escaped.

independent clause phrase dependent clause

After we finish the game, Dad will pick us up in the parking lot.
dependent clause independent clause phrase

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Nouns
A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Singular vs. Plural Nouns

car cars
lion lions
fox foxes

From one book to Singular means one.

many books!
Plural means more than one.

★ To make nouns plural,

add -s to the end. For
nouns that end in s, x,
z, ch, or sh, add -es to
the end.

When you write sentences, remember your SNEEQS!

S — The beginning of a sentence always needs a capital letter.
N — The proper names of people, places, and things always need a capital letter.
E — At the end of a sentence, there is usually a period.
E — When the sentence contains emotion or excitement, use an exclamation point at the end.
Q — When the sentence asks a question, use a question mark at the end.
S — Use a comma between a series of words and to separate clauses.

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Possessive Nouns
A noun names a person, A noun can be
place, thing, or idea. singular or plural.

A possessive noun shows ownership.

Add an apostrophe and an -s.
If the noun ends in -s, just add an apostrophe.

The first sentence is all about

one dog because there is an 's.
The dog owns a bone.
The dog’s
bone is slimy.
The dogs’
tails were But, this sentence is all about
wagging.
more than one dog because there
is an ' after the s. The dogs
own tails.

Possessive
Noun How many owners are there?
Noun

singular dog dog’s There is one owner.

plural dogs dogs’ There is more than one owner.

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Pronouns
A pronoun replaces a noun in a sentence.

Subject Pronouns Possessive Pronouns

I, you, he, she, my, his, her, its, our, their, your
it, we, they (Absolute: mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, yours)

Mom brought Dad’s guitar to the party.

She brought his guitar.

Possessive pronouns act like adjectives

and answer the question whose. Th
poss e
They show ownership. es
pron sive
”his“ oun
repla
Dad ced
sente ’s in the
nce
show . ”His“
Dad s that
owns
guita the
r.

The candy
is mine. Did you know? Absolute
It's not possessive pronouns stand alone.
yours. They don’t modify a noun.

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Predicate Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns. beautiful, fluffy, countless,
They answer what kind, how many, several, first, confused
or which one.

Predicate adjectives are found in The elephants are enormous.

the predicate of a sentence. My dad seems ready.
They follow state of being verbs The chimp looks confused.
(is, was) or linking verbs (looks, seems). Is Elsa excited?

Action Verbs State of Being Verbs Linking Verbs

sleeps, walks, thinks, am, is, are, was, has, seems, appears,
swims, glows, covers being, were, have feels, tastes, proves,
turns, smells

subject linking adjective

verb Hot is the
predicate
adjective.

The coffee appears hot.

predicate

The adjective that comes after the verb is hot.

It describes the subject.
Appears hot links back to the subject.

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Predicate
A predicate tells what the subject does or is.

one word that tells flew

Simple Predicate what the subject washed
does or is shined

the verb and all the

flies across the sky
words after it that
Complete Predicate washing cars
tell what the subject
shined over the lake
does or is

The one word that tells what this

sentence is about is moon. So,
moon is the subject!

★
Shined is the one word that tells
what the subject does or is. So,
shined is the simple predicate!
The moon
★shined over
the lake.

Shined over the lake is the verb

and all the words after the verb.
So, those words are the complete
predicate!

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Predicate Nominatives
Predicate nominatives are nouns found in the predicate
of a sentence. They follow state of being verbs (is, was)
and rename the subject.

That player is the captain.

The barking animal is a guard dog.
Our principal is a great leader.

State of Being Verbs

am, is, are, was, has, being, were, have

subject verb of predicate

being nominative

Vivian is a police officer.

predicate

Vivian is
renamed
“officer.” The noun that comes after the
verb of being is officer.
Officer renames the subject.

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Prepositions
Prepositions show relationships.

about, above, after, along, behind, beside, between,

Common prepositions from, off, out, since, through, toward, under, until

Prepositional phrases answer where or when.

Where examples off the coast, behind the door, under the sea

When examples after lunch, since yesterday

The dog ran over the fence.

Who? Where or when?

What
action?

The word ”over“ is a preposition.

“Over the fence” is a group of words
that tells where the dog ran. “Over the
fence” is a prepositional phrase.

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Verb Tenses: Progressive Tense

Verbs tenses tell when the action happens.
Progressive tense verbs show repeated or continuous action
and include a form of to be and a verb ending in -ing.

Past Present Future

The dog was resting. The dog is resting. The dog will be resting.

Tense How Is It Formed? Sample Sentence

Past was/were + verb

She was picking apples.
Progressive ending in -ing

Present am/is/are + verb

She is picking apples.
Progressive ending in -ing

Future will be + verb

She will be picking apples.
Progressive ending in -ing

The progressive
tense gives us information
about when something happens
Look for the forms of to be to
find out!
Past
Present
Future

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Proper Nouns
A noun names a person, A noun can be
place, thing, or idea. common or proper.

The names of specific people, places,

and things are called proper nouns.
Proper nouns are always capitalized.

Person → Specific Person

boy → Adam
senator → Ms. Mullins

Place → Specific Place

ocean → Arctic Ocean
building → Big Ben

Person → Specific Thing

document → U.S. Constitution
cow → Bessie

Always capitalize the

names of specific people,
places, and things.

The Indian
Ocean

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Reflexive Pronouns
A pronoun replaces a noun in a sentence.
Reflexive pronouns refer back to the sentence subject.
Reflexive pronouns can be singular or plural.

singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself

plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

The boy made the lemonade himself.

Himself refers back to the sentence subject: the boy.

I is the subject of
the sentence.
Myself refers back to I.

I can
see
myself.

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Nouns
A noun names a person, place, thing or idea.

Regular Plural Nouns vs. Irregular Plural Nouns

Regular Plural Nouns: Irregular Plural Nouns:

add -s or -es does not add -s or -es or
it changes its spelling

car cars foot feet

fox foxes wolf wolves

How do you know a

plural noun is irregular?

When the word does

I hurt both not add -s or -es or it
my foots.
feet changes its spelling!

When you write sentences, remember your SNEEQS!

S — The beginning of a sentence always needs a capital letter.
N — The proper names of people, places, and things always need a capital letter.
E — At the end of a sentence, there is usually a period.
E — When the sentence contains emotion or excitement, use an exclamation point at the end.
Q — When the sentence asks a question, use a question mark at the end.
S — Use a comma between a series of words and to separate clauses.

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Relative Clauses
Relative clauses start with a relative pronoun and refer to the
noun before it. They add meaning to the sentence.

that which who whom whose

s?
Which kids have fewer cavitie
wh o br us h th ei r te eth ha ve fewer ca vities.
Kids
ep?
Which book would I like to ke
d I ke ep th e bo ok th at I bo rrowed last week?
Co ul

Which flashlight is broken?

e fla shlig ht, whic h I to ok from Dad, is broken.
Th

Remember, relative clauses

usually occur in the middle of
sentences and add information.

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Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun connects a clause or phrase
to a noun or pronoun.

that which who whom whose

A singer is someone A singer is someone

making music. who makes music.

Types of Pronouns Examples

Subject Pronouns
I want a salad.
I, you, he, she, it we, they

Object Pronouns
Give the keys to him.
me, you, him, her, it, us, them

Relative Pronouns A camera is something that

that, which, who, whom, whose takes pictures.

Relative pronouns are

different from other pronouns in
that they do not replace a noun
but instead describe a noun.
She is the
cat that
ran away.

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Restrictive Clauses
Restrictive clauses start with a relative pronoun and are
needed for meaning in the sentence.
Nonrestrictive clauses contain commas and are not needed.

that which who whom whose

Restric tive Clauses:

ician s wh o practi ce re gu lar ly perform better.
M us
ize was Marie Curie.
The scientist who wo n the pr
Nonrestric tive Clauses:
e fla shlig ht, whic h I to ok from Dad, is broken.
Th
ek, is my au nt.
Rachel, whom yo u met last we

Remember: Restrictive clauses

have information that tell you exactly
which one. Nonrestrictive clauses
are not needed and are set
off with commas.

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Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence has two or more independent clauses that do not have
appropriate punctuation or a conjunction to join them together.

Run-on Sentence Revise with Punctuation Revise with a Comma

Examples (period, semicolon, or colon) + Conjunction

The birds perched by The birds perched by the The birds perched by
the window they sang window. They sang a melody. the window, and the
a melody. or sang a melody.
The birds perched by the
window; they sang a melody.

Nurses are rated to Nurses are rated to be the most Nurses are rated to
be the mosted trusted trusted professionals. They are be the most trust
professionals they are vastly underpaid. professionals, yet they
vastly underpaid. or are vastly underpaid.
Nurses are rated to be the most
trusted professionals; they are
vastly underpaid.

FYI: You don't need a comma with a Coordinating Conjunction

(BOYFANS)
subordinating conjunction like because
when it's in the middle of a sentence! But

Or

Yet

For

And

Nor

So

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Simple, Compound, and

Complex Sentences
A simple sentence has one subject and one predicate.

Complete
Subject Predicate

Fruit is a healthy snack.

A compound sentence has two independent clauses

connected by a coordinating conjunction.

Independent Coordinating Independent

Clause Conjunction Clause

Fruit is a healthy snack, so I eat mangos every day.

A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least one

dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction usually joins the clauses.

Coordinating Independent
Conjunction Clause

When I am hungry, I choose fruit as a healthy snack.

Dependent
Clause

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Simple Sentences
subject predicate
Simple
tells who or what the
sentence is about
+ tells what the
subject does or is
= Sentence

Happy dogs swim in the pond.

Simple Simple Complete Complete

Subject Predicate Subject Predicate

one word more than

one word

dogs swim happy swim in

dogs the pond

When you write sentences, remember your SNEEQS!

S — The beginning of a sentence always needs a capital letter.
N — The proper names of people, places, and things always need a capital letter.
E — At the end of a sentence, there is usually a period.
E — When the sentence contains emotion or excitement, use an exclamation
point at the end.
Q — When the sentence asks a question, use a question mark at the end.
S — Use a comma between a series of words and to separate clauses.

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Subject
Subject (tells who or what the sentence is about)

bats
one word that tells who or
Simple Subject girl
what the sentence is about
lake

nocturnal bats
all the words that tell who or
Complete Subject the little girl
what the sentence is about
a beautiful lake

★
The one word that tells what
this sentence is about is lake.
So, lake is the simple subject!

All the words that tell who or

what this sentence is about
are a beautiful lake. So, those
words are the complete
subject!

A beautiful
★lake
glittered

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Pronouns
A pronoun replaces a noun in a sentence.

Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns

I, you, he, she, it, we, they me, you, him, her it, us, them

Josiah ate the pie.

Josiah is the The pie is the
subject. Josiah direct object.
can be replaced The pie can be
by the subject He ate it. replaced by the
pronoun he. object pronoun it.

The pronouns you and

it can be subject or
object pronouns. Read
the sentence carefully to
decide how they are used.

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Subject–Verb Agreement
In a sentence, the subject and verb must agree, or match, in number.
A singular subject A plural subject
takes a singular verb. takes a plural verb.

Subject Verb Example

(subjects underlined; verbs circled)

The pilot checks the controls.

Singular subject Singular He loves to eat rutabagas.
Her dog barks at the mailman.

The flight attendants are in the cabin.

Plural subject Plural We enjoy swimming in the lake.
Scholars meet at the conference.

”He” is a singular noun

and ”love” is a plural verb.
They don't match.

Using the singular form

of the verb makes the
sentence correct.
He love
to eat.

He loves
to eat.

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Conjunctions
Conjunctions join ideas within and across sentences (-junc is Latin for “join”).

but — shows contrast

Coordinating
or — presents an alternative
Conjunctions
(BOYFANS) combine yet — shows contrast that logically follows the preceding idea
words, phrases, and for — explains cause
sentences. and — adds one idea to another
nor — presents an additional negative idea
so — indicates effect

both … and — connect two related ideas

either … or — contrast two alternative ideas Paired Conjunctions
neither … nor — connect two negative ideas combine two words,
phrases, or sentences.
not only … but also — connect two related ideas
whether … or — connect two alternative ideas

Subordinating Conjunctions join two clauses.

rather than, whether to indicate a choice Under which condition?

although, even if,

even though, if,
to indicate a condition Under which condition?
in spite of, provided that,
though, unless, while
to indicate a location or
where, wherever Where?
place
as if, in order that, so, to explain a purpose or
Why?
so that, that result

as, as much as, because,

inasmuch as, in order to explain a reason or cause Why?
that, since, whereas
after, as, as soon as, to indicate time When?
before, once, since, until,
when, whenever, while

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Capitalization & Punctuation

Capitalization Punctuation
❏ beginnings of sentences ❏ End sentences with a period.
❏ proper nouns ❏ End sentences with a question mark if
❏ I (always) asking a question.

❏ End sentences with an exclamation

point if showing emotion or excitement.

❏ Use commas in a series or to

separate clauses.

❏ Use a colon to list items, emphasize

or introduce an idea, or connect two
complete sentences.

When you write sentences, remember your SNEEQS!

S — The beginning of a sentence always needs a capital letter.
N — The proper names of people, places, and things always need a capital letter.
E — At the end of a sentence, there is usually a period.
E — When the sentence contains emotion or excitement, use an exclamation point at the end.
Q — When the sentence asks a question, use a question mark at the end.
S — Use a comma between a series of words and to separate clauses.

Let's see.
Did I use my
SNEEQS?

,
Yes, I did!
re w e g o, let’s b ake! We need milk
Befo
n?
ar, an d eg g s. W ill you help me, Je
sug
l
w e can g o to In dependence Mal
Then
m s: ne w sneakers and a jacket.
to buy two ite

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Verb Tenses
Verbs tenses tell when the action happens.

Tense How is it formed? Shows Action... Sample Sentence

That currently or
Simple Present Usually add -s or -es She picks apples.
regularly happens

That has not

Simple Future Includes will She will pick apples.
happened yet

That already has

Simple Past Usually ends in -ed She picked apples.
happened

Past Present Future

The dog rested. The dog rests. The dog will rest.

Do you see what

the dog did, does,
and will do?

Past
Present
Future

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Verbs
Verbs show action or state of being in a sentence.
Every sentence must have a verb.
Sentences with Action Verbs Sentences with Verbs of Being
The clock ticks. The father seemed excited.
Spiders climb. A window looked cracked.
A tourist snorkeled. The hats were cozy.
An octopus floats. A customer is unhappy.
The hotel stands. The baby feels light.

When you write sentences, remember your SNEEQS!

S — The beginning of a sentence always needs a capital letter.
N — The proper names of people, places, and things always need a capital letter.
E — At the end of a sentence, there is usually a period.
E — When the sentence contains emotion or excitement, use an exclamation point at the end.
Q — When the sentence asks a question, use a question mark at the end.
S — Use a comma between a series of words and to separate clauses.

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