Student Manual

Florida
Hazardous
Materials
Training
Operations Level
Student Manual

Based on: NFPA 472 - Standard for Competence of Responders to

Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Incidents and
NFPA 1072 – Standards for Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass
Destruction Emergency Response Personnel Professional
Qualifications 2017 Edition
OSHA CFR 29, 1910.120, Hazardous Materials Waste Operations
and Emergency Response.

Developed for Florida SERC.

[Link]

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Acknowledgements

Produced at the request of:

State of Florida Division of Emergency Management
Under the Direction of
The Florida State Emergency Response Commission (SERC)

Developed by:
Emergency Response Educators and Consultants, Inc.

Contract Manager
Rob Detrick

Instructional and Student Materials

The Instructional and Student Materials for this course are available on-line
as a computer download from the State Emergency Response Commission
Web Site located at:

The files available from this site include:

• Student Manual for Operations Level Core and All Mission Specific (11 total)
• Instructor Manual
• Exercise Guide
• PPT Presentations (Section 1, Section 2-4, All Mission Specific [11 total])
• DVDs of the video materials can be obtained from the Florida Division of
Emergency Management
Additional resources needed to adequately teach this course:

• Emergency Response Guidebook

• NIOSH Pocket Guide
• Chart and Easel
• Pen/Pencil and Note Paper

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History of the Florida Operations Level Hazardous Materials Training

Program
This is the third edition of the Florida Operations Level Hazardous Material Training
program. The original program was developed from 1996-1998 and was designed to
meet the requirements of OSHA 29 CFR 1910,120, National Fire Protection
Association’s (NFPA) Standard 472, Professional Competencies for Responding to
Hazardous Materials Incidents.
In 2008 the second edition of the Florida Operations Level Hazardous Materials
Training Program was developed. Much had been learned about hazardous materials
response including new threats from acts of terrorism. As a result, the program was
rewritten to address both the updates to the NFPA standard and the emerging threats of
illicit activities. These new training guidelines reflected the organizational methods
advocated by the NFPA by developing Operations Level Core Competencies for all
responders to hazardous materials incidents and then developing Operations Level
Mission Specific Competencies to meet the needs of the various professional roles
within the state of Florida’s emergency response community.
In 2020 the third edition of the program was written. With the newly reorganized NFPA
472; Standard for Competence of Responders to Hazardous Materials/Weapons of
Mass Destruction Incidents 2018 edition and the newly written NFPA 1072; Standards
for Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Emergency Response
Personnel Professional Qualifications 2017 edition, a total reorganization and rewrite
was in order. These include:
Operations Level Core Competencies are competencies required of all emergency
responders at this level. Any employee called to respond to a scene involving a
hazardous material or WMDs emergency, must be trained to these initial core
competencies.
Operations Level Mission Specific Competencies are optional and are provided so that
the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) can match the expected tasks and duties of its
personnel with the competencies required to perform those tasks.
Target Audience
Although the target audience has been identified as predominately fire service-based
responders, other public and private sector response personnel are included. Examples
of additional target audience populations include law enforcement, public works,
industrial fire brigades, and private sector response team members who operate at the
defensive level of response.
Prerequisites
Documented training at the hazardous materials awareness level.

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Program Goals
Upon successful completion of the Core Training Program, the responder shall be
capable of assessing the basic hazards and risks associated with incident response,
determining appropriate protective measures, initiating defensive control operations for
which they are properly equipped, and providing support functions necessary for any
subsequent offensive operations by Technician Level Responders. Goals include:
• Analyzing the hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks associated with the incident
• Develop a plan of action to address, using defensive actions, the hazardous
materials emergency, including calling for additional resources.
• Implement the plan based on the knowledge of the incident and activation of the
Incident Management System.
• Evaluate the response to ensure that the plan is functioning to mitigate the event.

Methods of Instruction
The method of instruction will include classroom presentation, group and individual
tabletop activities, and PPE demonstration and practice.
The Hazardous Material Operations program is developed for both industry and
emergency response personnel. Completion of these standards ensures that personnel
“…who, as part of their normal duties, are required to respond to the site of a chemical
release or site of a weapons of mass destruction incident to provide defensive operations.
They may be a firefighter, law enforcement officer, a member of an industrial response
team, or a specially trained member of a company given the job in an effort to take quick
action in the event of a spill or release. The Operations Level Responder will take all of
the actions expected of an Awareness Trained Responder then, from a safe distance,
take steps to contain the release, evacuate persons in danger, and identify the need to
call for higher trained responders that are properly trained. In addition, the completion of
this program serves as added proof of documented training for industry and emergency
response personnel, the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) under Florida Law, and the
organization they represent as accepted best practice. Personnel trained to these
standards and competencies help make Florida a great place to live and do business
while ensuring a safe, trained, and competent response to a hazardous materials incident.

Completing the Knowledge and Skills Competencies

Successful completion of this program and associated tasks indicates the student has
completed all required training and demonstrated competency in each section.
Completion of this program and the Florida SERC Awareness Competency Check-off, is
confirmed by the instructor’s signature by each applicable section within the document. It
is understood that numerous instructors may be used to conduct the course and provide
competency assessment. Each will be required to sign off in the Awareness Competency
Check-off to document successful completion of the training program.

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Course Units
The course is divided into four units following the NFPA 472 Standard. The following
timeline is recommended as a guideline for presentation of the course materials.

Course Timeline
Day One Day Three
Overview and Introduction Part 3: Predicting the likely behavior of a
Defining an Incident vs Emergency material and its container
Core Competencies of an Operations Level Activity #3 – Assessing Damage and Vulnerabilities
Responder Part 4: Estimating Potential Harm
Mission Specific Competencies for Operations Activity #4 – Evaluating Signs and Symptoms
Level Responder Section Two: Planning the Response
Activity #1 – Identify Level of Capabilities and Part 1: Describing response objectives
Mission Specific Competencies Video – Role of the Operations Level
Section One: Analyze the Incident Responder
Part 1: Surveying the Hazardous Activity #5 – Risk Based Responses
Materials/WMD Incident
Video - Containers
Day Two Day Four
Labels and markings Part 2: Identify action options
Hazardous Materials Hazards Part 3: Determining suitability of personal
Terrorist and Human-Made Events protective equipment (PPE)
Part 2: Collecting Hazard and Response Part 4: Identifying emergency decontamination
Information issues
Activity #2 – Assessing Physical and Chemical Section Three – Implementing the Planned
Properties Response
Video – Chemical Reactions Activity #6 – Determining Incident Objectives
Part 1: Establishing Scene Control
Part 2: Preserving evidence
Part 3: Initiating the Incident Command
System
Activity #7 – Developing a Command Structure
Activity #8 – Determining Incident Levels
Part 4: Using Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE)
Section Four – Evaluating Progress
Activity #9 – Obtaining Hazard Materials Information

Complete Activity #1

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Table of Contents
History of the Florida Operations Level Hazardous Materials Training Program. 3
Target Audience ..................................................................................................................... 3
Prerequisites ........................................................................................................................... 3
Program Goals ........................................................................................................................ 4
Methods of Instruction .......................................................................................................... 4
Completing the Knowledge and Skills Competencies ................................................. 4
Course Units ............................................................................................................................ 5
Activity #1
Introduction to the Program.................................................................................................... 8
Section One: Analyzing the Incident .................................................................................. 10
Part 1: Surveying the Hazardous Materials/WMD Incident ....................................... 10
Emergency Response Guidebook ............................................................................... 11
Safety Data Sheets (SDS) ............................................................................................... 11
NIOSH Pocket Guide ........................................................................................................ 11
Four Components of a Hazardous Materials Incident ............................................ 11
Situational Awareness..................................................................................................... 12
Causes of Hazardous Materials Incidents ................................................................. 12
Video - Containers
Containers .......................................................................................................................... 14
Limited Use Non-Bulk Containers................................................................................ 22
NFPA Marking System..................................................................................................... 28
Labels and Markings........................................................................................................ 28
Hazardous Materials Hazards........................................................................................ 29
Terrorist and Human-Made Events .............................................................................. 30
Other Terrorist Activities/Devices ................................................................................ 31
Part 2: Collecting Hazard and Response Information ................................................ 34
Hazard Classes.................................................................................................................. 34
Safety Data Sheets (SDS) ............................................................................................... 36
Other Facility Documents ............................................................................................... 36
Help from Outside Sources............................................................................................ 37
Shipping Papers................................................................................................................ 37
Activity #2
Video - Chemical Reactions
Part 3: Predicting the Likely Behavior of a Material and its Container .................. 38
Chemical & Physical Properties ................................................................................... 38
Contamination and Exposure........................................................................................ 46
Container Stressors ......................................................................................................... 47
Activity #3
Dispersion Patterns ......................................................................................................... 49

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Vulnerabilities and Risk Assessments ....................................................................... 49

Part 4: Estimating Potential Harm ................................................................................... 53
Resources ........................................................................................................................... 53
Activity #4
Protective Measures for Radiation Emergencies .................................................... 54
Health Effects..................................................................................................................... 55
Activity #5
Section Two – Planning the Response .............................................................................. 65
Video - Roles of the Operations Level Responder
Part 1: Describing Response Objectives ....................................................................... 65
HazMat Goals ..................................................................................................................... 65
Priorities and Steps to Manage the Incident ............................................................. 65
Response Objectives ....................................................................................................... 66
Risk vs Benefit................................................................................................................... 66
Determining if Rescue is Possible ............................................................................... 66
Part 2: Identify Action Options ......................................................................................... 66
Identify Options ................................................................................................................. 67
Prioritizing Victims ........................................................................................................... 67
Part 3: Determining Suitability of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ............. 67
HazMat PPE ........................................................................................................................ 67
Part 4: Identifying Emergency Decontamination Issues ........................................... 71
How Contamination Occurs ........................................................................................... 71
Types of Contamination.................................................................................................. 71
Methods of Decontamination ........................................................................................ 72
Section Three – Implementing the Planned Response.................................................. 75
Part 1: Establishing Scene Control ................................................................................. 75
Establishing Zones........................................................................................................... 76
Activity #6
Part 3: Initiating the Incident Command System ......................................................... 77
Implementing the ICS ...................................................................................................... 77
Activity #7
Activity #8
Part 4: Using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .................................................. 82
Activity #9
Section Four – Evaluating Progress ................................................................................... 84
Part 1: Evaluating the Status of the Planned Response and ................................... 84
Part 2: Communicating the Status of the Planned Response .................................. 84
Termination of the incident ............................................................................................ 84

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This Operations Level training program is laid out to match the current version of NFPA 472. The
competencies to these sections are found in the SERC Competency documents on the Florida
SERC Website. The NFPA standard follows the long used
acronym of APIE.
Analyze – Section One, Analyzing the Incident
Plan – Section Two, Planning the Response
Implement – Section Three, Implementing the Planned
Response
Evaluate – Section Four, Evaluating Progress

Introduction to the Program

The target audience for this training program is anyone whose
job may include responding to the occurrence of a hazardous
materials emergency. Of course, this would include fire
department personnel and law enforcement. But it may also
include public works, industrial responders, private sector
responders, and others. The program will review the materials
necessary to become competent with the requirements found in
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 and NFPA 471. In addition, there are
optional components called Mission Specific Competencies that
require additional education and training to accomplish
proficiency in these areas.
First response Operations Level Responders are those who, as part of their normal duties, are
required to respond to the site of a chemical release to provide
defensive operations. They may be a firefighter, law
enforcement officer, a member of an industrial response team,
or a specially trained member of a company given the job in an
effort to take quick action in the event of a spill or release. The
Operations Level Responder will take all of the actions expected
of an Awareness Trained Responder then, from a safe distance,
take steps to contain the release, evacuate persons in danger,
and identify the need to call for higher trained responders.
OSHA defines a hazardous material emergency as “an
occurrence that results in or is likely to result in an uncontrolled
release of a hazardous substance”. An emergency would
require an emergency response from specially trained
employees outside of the immediate release area. Such as an
in-house hazardous materials team. Or it would require a
response from agencies outside of the company such as a
public safety hazardous materials team.
There is a difference between what constitutes an incidental
chemical spill and a hazardous materials emergency. An incidental spill can generally be
controlled by employees in the immediate area of the release or by maintenance personnel.
These spills or releases can be absorbed, neutralized, or controlled by closing or tightening a
valve with very limited or no risk to the employee.

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Take for example a hospital laboratory using small

quantities of formaldehyde. A container of
formaldehyde is knocked over on the bench and floor.
Because this is not an uncommon occurrence in the
laboratory the employee responds by placing
absorbent on the materials. Maintenance then
completes the cleanup by picking up the absorbent
and placing it in a chemical disposal container. This is not an emergency and dealt with using
hospital policies and procedures. This same scenario takes place in many other companies
where chemicals are used, stored, sold, and manufactured. Using their own policies to quickly
deal with the spill or leak without risk to employees and without activating an emergency response.
This training program will address all of the core competencies
required under NFPA 472 and NFPA 1072. As such all
competencies related to OSHA CFR 29, 1910.120 are also
addressed. To enroll in this program the Awareness Level
occupancies must already be completed but are reviewed in this
program.

Mission Specific Competencies are additional competencies

included at the end of the Core Operations Level Responder
training program. These can be selected based on need. These
are advanced skills above the level of a core Operations Level
Responder. The training programs for these competencies are
available through the SERC training programs section on their
website.
Once a hazardous materials
incident exists, then all requirements of Hazwoper must be
complied with. Your companies or agencies emergency
response plan will guide your actions in accordance with OSHA
and NFPA 472 recommendations. In this category there are 2
broad actions that can be taken: defensive and offensive.
Defensive actions are those actions that can be taken by
personnel to control the event and do not place the responder at
risk. Most of the Operations Level Responder roles fall into this
category. They involve actions to minimize the impact of the release while avoiding exposure.
In order to take defensive actions you must:
• Be trained to the Operations Level
• Wear a minimum of full firefighter protective clothing and SCBA (this level must be
appropriate for the hazard).
• Avoid direct contact with the product
• Avoid areas of high concentrations of vapors and gases that can injure the skin
If you meet these requirements, then you can take defensive actions such as:
• Defensive fire control of fire involving hazardous materials
• Defensive spill control like booming, damming, or diking

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• Defensive leak control using remote shut-off

• Perform decontamination
Other actions such as leak control measures involving plugging and patching, chemical
neutralization, wearing specialized chemical protective clothing, and working in high
concentrations of vapors and gases are considered offensive actions. In years past, these
actions were delegated to Technician Level Responders; however, that has changed. If your
employer defines some of these offensive actions to Operations Level Responders, then they
need to train employees in the offensive operations. Personnel will also have to be trained in
specialized PPE, technical decontamination, and specialized equipment needed to perform the
actions.
Regardless of the incident, you need to know what your role is. If your employer is in compliance
with OSHA regulations, they will have developed or adopted emergency response plans that meet
the safety requirements of the OSHA standard. It is your responsibility to understand these plans
and your role.
This program will review the issues related to
intentional hazardous materials events. With
these types of event your response and overall
preplans may change. First of all, law
enforcement may have jurisdiction over the
scene. There will also be the need to preserve
evidence of the crime or perform sampling for
evidence or laboratory testing. With these illicit
activities we should also be aware that the
criminals may be targeting the emergency response units or emergency
responders. Plans should be in place to deal with these illicit events. These intentional or illicit
events may involve a large number of victims and the normal standard of care may be altered to
deal with them and the situation. It is important that agencies have plans to deal with incidents
such as bombings, chemical attacks, and radiological dispersion devices including mass casualty
events requiring mass decontamination.

Section One: Analyzing the Incident

Part 1: Surveying the Hazardous Materials/WMD Incident
There are many means at your disposal to survey the areas in your city or county that use, store,
or manufacture chemicals. If you work in emergency response you should be taking time to visit
each of these areas. It is important to have a general idea of layout, quantity, and types of
chemicals located in your response territory. Taking this a step further many emergency response
agencies conduct preplans for chemical response. Preplanning is a vital part of ensuring a
proficient and safe response when an incident does take place. In addition, it is critical to be able
to quickly access information concerning chemicals involved in the incident.
To handle a hazardous materials incident efficiently and safely you need to obtain as much
information as possible. Gaining information concerning what kinds of hazards they present,
routes of entry into the body, and chemical and physical properties. Without this critical
information you cannot develop your strategic goals or tactical methods because you do not know
enough about the chemical to protect yourself and your crew. Keep in mind that if the level of
protections is greater than structural firefighting gear, you must be trained in the use of that
protective equipment. In addition, remember that an Operations Level Responder is only able to

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perform defensive operations unless you have been specifically trained in an aspect of offensive
response and have the equipment to do so.
Detailed information concerning the chemical can be obtained from several means. This includes
the: Emergency Response Guidebook, NIOSH Pocket Guide, and Safety Data Sheets.
Emergency Response Guidebook
The Emergency Response Guidebook can be an extremely useful resource.
Before you can use it, however, you need to obtain information such as
shipping papers, ID numbers, and placards. The more information you obtain,
the safer your response will be. During the Awareness training program, you
should have learned the details of using the Emergency Response Guidebook.
The use of this book is a basic skill that should have been mastered prior to
beginning Operational Response training.
Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
Safety Data Sheets are located anywhere chemicals are used or stored. In
addition, you may find Safety Data Sheet in transport attached to the Shipping
Papers. Again, a detailed review of the SDS was done during the Awareness
training program so you should already have a working knowledge of these
informational sheets that provide critical information to the Operational
Responder.
NIOSH Pocket Guide
The NIOSH Pocket Guide is small enough to fit on a truck easily and is a good
source for synonyms and the chemical physical properties. To use this book
properly, you need to become familiar with the abbreviations in the front of
the book. Most of the information in the book will be confusing until you
get used to using it and learn the abbreviations used. One of the books
shortcomings is the limited number of chemicals it contains. Once you
learn to use the book it will become a valuable asset during an emergency
response involving hazardous materials.
The NIOSH Pocket Guide recommends the specific types of materials to use on a spill and
specific type of chemical protective gear.

Four Components of a Hazardous Materials Incident

Analyzing the incident involves many steps. This is an easy way
to remember the recognition and identification of the incident
components. Product, Container, Environment, and the Cause of
the Event all need to be considered during the recognition and
identification stage.

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Information about the product:

• Physical properties of the material – how will it physically act
in the environment?
• Chemical properties of the material – how will it chemically
act? Is it flammable, toxic, reactive, or radioactive?
• How much product is involved?

Information about the container:

• What type of container is involved?
• What is the condition of the container?
• What is the likelihood of failure or worsening of its container?

Information about the

environment:
• Where is the leak occurring?
• What people, places, or things are vulnerable?
• What are the environmental conditions and how will it affect
the incident?

Situational Awareness
Operations Level Responders need to develop a level of situational awareness. This skill allows
a responder to both analyze the present situation and predict the future of the situation. There
have been many books written on the subject but here are a few points that are part of this skill.
1. Evaluate all aspects of the event
2. Predict future events
3. Identify elements of the event
4. Trust your feelings
5. Be aware of time
6. Continually assess the situation
7. Monitor what others are doing
Causes of Hazardous Materials Incidents
There are many reasons that hazardous material incidents occur.
These generally can be broken down into causes and are
generally identified during after action reports.
Accidents – an unplanned event that may have undesirable
consequences. The occurrence of such an event may have
unrecognized risks contributing to its cause.
Negligence – A failure to exercise appropriate or ethical expectations during specified
circumstances.

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Intentional – Those acts that are intentionally done and human-made emergencies. Whether
they are acted out by a disgruntled employee, industrial sabotage, or as a domestic or
international act of terrorism, these can be extremely dangerous for first responders.
The easiest way to remember the hazards caused by a hazardous
materials incident is the acronym TEAM-CPR. These hazards
include thermal, etiological, asphyxiation, mechanical/electrical,
chemical, psychological, and radiological. An Operational Level
Responder needs to understand the cause of an incident and the
hazards presented by the incident in order to make tactical
decisions concerning how to safety respond in a defensive mode.
In addition to understanding the
cause and hazards, the responder must also recognize what is in
danger after an incident takes place. When an incident takes
place, these vulnerabilities must be evaluated, and plans made to
reduce the impact from the incident. Later in the program,
evacuation or sheltering in place and victim rescue will be
discussed and planned for. Protecting places, things, and
infrastructure must be preplanned to be handled efficiently and
safely. There are a number of planning documents that can be
accessed to be prepared for a response that goes beyond
affecting just people.
Preplanning must take place prior to an incident occurring. The
Local Emergency Planning Committee (LEPC) maintains several
documents that can assist an emergency response agency in
planning for an event. These include the commodity flow plan,
Information gained from site visits and E-Plan reports, and the
regional emergency response plan. In addition to these
documents, many facilities maintain their own emergency
response plan and response agencies conduct inspections and
write emergency response preplans. Using these sources of
information can assist a responder in a safe and efficient response to a hazardous materials
incident.
After preplanning, the hazard risk assessment will continue using
the information that becomes available as the incident unfolds.
This includes any information from the call taker in the dispatch
center. Many times, the dispatcher can obtain the name of the
chemical, the amount releasing, and how the incident occurred.
This is vital information to get during the response. If you are
familiar with the incident location, you can begin to gather
thoughts on occupancy and
location. Upon arrival you can
immediately assess the scene for placards, container shape and
size, other colors and markings, and ask for facility documents that
may assist in decisions about the response. Using your senses
may help. Smell, sight, and sound may all play a part in the
decision making process.

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Upon arrival look for other clues such as clouds or plumes, liquids on the ground, fire, or other
obvious processes taking place. Maintaining good situational awareness is vital as an active
hazardous materials incident is dynamic and ever changing.

Containers
Containers are a critical part of the size-up component of Hazard/Risk assessment. This section
will cover containers and their associated hazards. The section is arranged into these general
areas:
• Pressure Containers
• Cryogenic Containers
• Liquid Holding Containers
• Low Pressure and Non-Pressure Containers
• Non-Bulk Containers
• Solid Material Containers
• Mixed Load Containers
• Radioactive Containers
Pressure Containers
Pressure containers are found in industry, bulk storage facilities,
and in transportation. Each of these areas will be evaluated for the
type of containers that are under pressure and storing or
transporting hazardous materials. This is a list of the containers
that will be reviewed in this section.

Bulk fixed facilities storage containers can range from several

hundred gallons to hundreds or thousands of gallons. Many times,
these liquefied gases are measured by weight as the pressure
remains consistent from a full container to an almost empty one
because the pressure is maintained by the vapor pressure. These
storage containers have pressure relief devices if the pressure
increases above the threshold. The pressure relief device reduces
the chance of a tank rupture but, in a fire situation where the
container is being heated at a rapid pace, the pressure relief device
can be overwhelmed and a sudden, catastrophic failure of the contain can take place. If the
chemical is flammable this sudden release is called a BLEVE. BLEVE is an acronym for Boiling,
Liquid, Expanding, Vapor, Explosion. This is a very dangerous occurrence and often leads to
the death of both first responders and any bystanders.

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Like fixed facilities, rail pressure tank cars carry flammable and
nonflammable liquefied gases. They are also used to carry
poisonous compressed/liquefied gases. These cars range in
pressure from 100 psi to 699 psi depending on the commodity being
carried. They carry between 4,000 and 45,000 gallons of the
product. These cars are recognizable because of the strong
housing at the top of the car. Inside of this housing are the valves,
thermometer well, gauging devices, and any other fittings needed
on the car. The housing is usually about 24” high and 30-36” in diameter. The housing protects
the valving and other critical fittings in the case of a derailment. Many of these pressure cars
have shields on the front and back above the coupling to prevent the tank from being punctured
by the coupling of the cars on either end. Generally, if the car is transporting flammable gases or
anhydrous ammonia, the car has been manufactured with the plates or, they were retrofitted with
them as a safety precaution.
Vehicle mounted pressure containers are found on MC-330 and
MC-331. These tanker trucks have a number of characteristics
that set them apart from other tank trucks. These are the features
easily seen to identify these tank trucks:
• Circular cross section
• Rounded ends
• Single shell of carbon steel construction
• All valves, gauges, and piping are protected against
damage from rollover under the tank. But can be damaged by smaller vehicles wedging
under the tank.
• Most are painted white to reduce the temperature and reflect the sun’s ultraviolet rays.
• Operating pressure is 100-500 psi.
• The contents are liquefied gases kept in the liquid state under pressure
• The capacity is from 2,500 gallons for a bobtail (MC-330) up to 11,500 gallons for a
highway transport truck (MC-331)
• Usually transport Propane (LPG), Chlorine, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Butane.
High pressure Tube Trailers are used to transport gases that cannot be easily liquefied with
pressure application. DOT does not classify tube trailers as cargo
tanks. Instead, these are modified trailers made up of 2-20 high
pressure cylinders cascaded together and permanently mounted
on a semi-trailer. They have specific characterizations that make
them easy to identify.
• Each cylinder is a separate container
• Each has its own fusible plug for fire situations
• The control panel in the rear of the trailer controls off-
loading of each cylinder individually
• Pressures are from 4,000-6,000 psi
• There are usually 9-12 cylinders (tubes) per trailer but can be from 2-20 cylinders and are
9-48” in diameter
• Generally transport helium, nitrogen, and argon.

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Pressurized Intermodal Containers

Pressurized Intermodal Tank Containers Pressurized tank containers are marked DOT Spec.
51/IMO Type 5 Tank Containers. This type of container has an internal pressure of 100 psi to 500
psi with a 1,000 gallon capacity. The tank itself may be as large as 6 feet in diameter and 20 feet
long. Data plates are attached to the frame rail. Fittings are on the top, end, or the bottom.
Gauging devices are rotary, open, or closed devices. Pressurized tank containers have safety
relief valves, excess flow valves, emergency remote shut-off devices, and fusible links and nuts.
Cargo includes products such as LP gas or anhydrous ammonia.
Ton Cylinders
The Department of Transportation (DOT) 106A, commonly referred
to as a Ton Tank or Container. These ton tanks are referred to as
horizontal drums or horizontal pressure vessel and are commonly
used for the transportation of hazardous gases and liquids. They
carry from 180 to 320 gallons of liquid product at pressures up to
1,000 psi. A fusible plug safety relief device is located in the head
of the tank. Most commonly these are seen transporting liquefied
chlorine gas. Other chemicals include:

• Other Class 2 gases

• Class 4 pyrophoric (dangerous when wet) materials
• Class 6 toxic or infectious liquids
• Commodities such as Chlorine, Ammonia, Refrigerants, Dinitrogen Tetroxide, Sulfur
Dioxide, Phosgene, etc.

Y-Cylinders
“Y” cylinders use what is referred to a “C” configuration. This is
similar to a tank with a gooseneck but, the inlet is located in the
same direction as the outlet. The product flows into the dip tube
internally and out the valve outlet in a flow path shaped like the letter
C.

Compressed Gas Cylinders

Compressed gas cylinders have many identifying characteristics
beyond their required labels. In fact, labels may be difficult to
identify or read from a distance. Some other identifying
characteristics for example are:
• Short and wide cylinders are generally used for low pressure
materials
• Tall and thin cylinders are used for high pressure materials
• Cylinders with a seam (welded seam) running up the sides
or around the cylinder are not used for high pressure materials.
Most cylinders have a pressure relief device.
• Safety relief valve
• Disc
• Fusible plug

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DOT marking near the top of a cylinder shows:

• DOT specifications
• Pressure rating
• Test Date
In addition, most companies providing medical gases use a color-coding system recommended
by the Compressed Gas Association.
Propane Cylinders
The visible parts of a propane tank play a role in the usability and
serviceability. These parts are attached using threaded fittings.
They consist of:
• Fill Valve
• Relief Valve
• Service Valve – On smaller cylinders, the fill valve and
service valve are the same. On larger cylinders these are
separate valves. Service valves are attached to the
appliance using the gas.
• Fixed Liquid Level Gauge – not found on small portable cylinders. Instead, these cylinders
are weighed to establish how full/empty they are.
• Float Gauge – Visible indication of the propane volume in the tank (dial gauge).
• Vapor Return Valve – Connection used during propane delivery. Used to remove excess
tank pressure.
• Liquid Withdrawal Valve – Located on large cylinders to remove liquid propane from the
cylinder.
Propane tanks come in many different sizes and are manufactured by many companies. They
are manufactured to the specifications identified by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME). Below are the safety and compliance items that are easily identified on every
propane cylinder:
• Manufacturers Nameplate – Containers without nameplates are not permitted to be filled
• Tank Paint Color – Propane tanks are required to be painted a reflective color (light color).
• Regulator Position – Propane regulator must be covered and protected or pointed
vertically down.
• Level placement – Tank must be placed above the soil and on level ground
Underground tanks have some specialized design features to allow the storage of propane
beneath the surface of the ground. Propane cylinders designed for above ground use cannot be
legally installed underground.
Generally, the valving is the same for below grade and surface tanks, the placement of valves is
different. The relief valve and liquid withdrawal valve is located inside of the dome on an
underground tank to provide protection by the dome walls and cover. Because these underground
propane tanks are exposed to different conditions, certain protective measures must be in place.
A natural electrical current is found in the ground and in ground water. The electrical current has
an adverse effect on metal objects. The adverse effect is called electrolysis and will cause
disintegration of the metal walls and leaking of the tank. To prevent this, all underground propane
tanks are protected with a cathode. A cathode is sacrificial metal used to attract the current and
direct the electrolysis away from the propane tank.

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Cryogenic Containers
• Bulk fixed facilities
• Liquid rail tank cars
• Liquid cargo tanks trailers
• Intermodal
• Cylinders
• Dewars
Cryogenic liquefied refrigerated gases (those with a boiling point
below -155oF) are stored and carried under a low pressure of 25
psi or lower. The products stored and carried in cryogenic containers occurs naturally as gases.
They are liquefied through refrigeration rather than through pressurization. Gases such as argon,
hydrogen, ethylene, nitrogen, and oxygen are the most often chemicals stored or transported in
a cryogenic form.
Fixed facility cryogenic containers resemble dome-roof tanks
because of their shape which is tall, not as wide, and have a
rounded roof. These tanks are heavily insulated and are held up
off of the ground with legs rather than being placed directly on the
ground. They are used to store liquefied oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbon dioxide. Many times, there are radiator style radiators
located under or to the side of the tank. It is not unusual to see
these tanks periodically vent creating a white cloud. This is normal
operation.
Cryogenic liquid tank cars are constructed of two tanks. One is
inside of the other. The inner tank is constructed of stainless or
nickel steel. The inner tank containing the product, is supported
within the outer tank. The interstitial space between the two tanks
is filled with insulation material and kept under a vacuum. This is
to keep the product cold. These rail cars are designed to keep the
refrigerated gases in the liquid form for up to 30 days. Safety
devices include:
• Safety relief valves
• Safety vents.
These devices and loading and off-loading fittings are located in enclosures at either end of the
tank. This rail car has no external plumbing and no manway cover/dome on the roof.
Cryogenic Cargo Tank Trailers, MC-338 are relatively easy to
identify because of their unique shape, size, and characteristics.
These include:
• Cylindrical shape with a control box on the rear of the tank.
• Control box has a door or doors to open for loading and off-
loading
• These are actually 2 cylinders; one on the inside for the
product and one on the outside for protection
• Interstitial space between the cylinders has insulation and a vacuum to assist in keeping
the product cold

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• It is normal to see escaping vapors from a vent on the roof. Occasional releases of gases
are critical to the function of keeping the product cold.
• Pressures range from 23.5-500 psi. Normally a low pressure.
• Normally transport liquid oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide
Intermodal Cryogenic Containers are a smaller version of the
MC-338. All of the features of the cargo tank trailer are found on
these intermodal containers. Like the tank trailer, occasional vapor
release is a normal function of these containers. These are also low
pressure that will range from 23.5-500 psi. But are most often found
at the lower part of the range.

Dewars are portable cryogenic containers. They range from

small carriable cylinders to larger roll around and semi-permanently
mounted cylinders. They generally store liquid oxygen, nitrogen,
and helium. These are also 2 cylinder units with a vacuum space
between the 2 cylinders. These units may provide the gas directly
to its intended use or it may be used to fill smaller bottles used for
a process.
Liquid – Holding Containers
The DOT defines bulk storage containers with no intermediate form
of containment and a volume of greater than:
• 118.9 gallons (450 liters) for a liquid
• 881.9 pounds (400 kilograms) for a solid
• 1,000 pounds (453.6 kilograms, water capacity) for gases

Fixed Site Liquid Containers

There are many different shape and size containers for storing
hazardous materials at a facility. Identifying the type of container
and the possible chemicals stored in them takes practice and
knowledge about these tanks. This is typically a Technician skill,
but this section will provide a brief overview of these tank styles and
types of chemicals found in them.
• Vertical Flat-Roof Tank- these tanks are wider than they
are tall. They are often found grouped together in “tank
farms”. These tanks generally contain large quantities of flammable or combustible
liquids. Occasionally they are used for corrosives or non-hazardous materials.
• Vertical Cone-Roof Tanks – these tanks resemble the flat-
roof tanks with the exception of the slightly pointed, cone
shaped roof. These tanks are used for flammable,
combustible, and corrosive liquids
• Open Floating Roof Tanks appear very similar to the flat-
roof tank except that their roofs float on top of the product
found in the tank. These tanks are designed to reduce the

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vapor space above the product, so they are used most often for flammable liquids such
as gasoline.
• Covered Floating-Roof Tanks are vertical tanks with a fixed cone-shaped roof and an
interior floating roof. Large vents in the side of the tanks differentiate it from a vertical
cone-roof tank. These are used for the storage of flammable and combustible liquids.
• Dome Roof Tanks are distinctive as they are taller than they are wide and have a large
dome roof. The dome is designed to manage changing vapor pressures. These tanks
also store flammable and combustible liquids and non-hazardous materials.
• Horizontal Tanks can be pressurized or non-pressure tanks. Non pressurized
horizontal tanks have flat ends while pressure horizontal tanks have rounded ends. They
are set up off of the ground on concrete stands or metal legs. The pressurized horizontal
tanks are used for Propane, Anhydrous Ammonia, Chlorine, Butane, Sulfur Dioxide, and
Hydrogen Chloride. Non-pressure horizontal tanks store flammable and combustible
liquids, corrosives, poisons, and solvent. During a fire,
these tanks can become unstable creating a greater risk of
catastrophe.
• Spherical Tanks are easy to identify because of their ball
shaped design. They are usually painted white or another
reflective color. If a pressure relief valve is present at the
top of the tank, they are probably storing methane, propane,
LPG, or other compressed gases. They can also store
cryogenic liquids such as hydrogen, nitrogen, or oxygen.
DOT – 111 General Service Tank Car (low pressure tank car or non-pressure tank car)
Low Pressure Tank Cars (also called non-pressure tank cars) are
called the DOT-111, general service tank car. These cars are
circular with elliptical or convex ends. They are typically made of
7/16” plate carbon steel, aluminum alloy, or nickel plate steel and
have a maximum capacity of 34,500 gallons. These cars carry low
pressure commodities (below 25psi/40psi at 105oF to 115oF). Used
to transport flammable and combustible liquids, flammable solids,
oxidizers and organic peroxides, liquid poisons, and corrosives as
well as non-hazardous materials. Occasionally, these cars are separated into multiple tanks each
with its own set of fittings under individual domes. Each tank may carry a different product. Obtain
placard information or consist to determine the contents of each.

MC-306 (DOT 406) Non (low) Pressure Bulk Liquid Cargo Tank
The MC 306 has a maximum operating pressure of 3psi while the
DOT 406 operates up to 4psi. These cargo tank trucks are easy to
identify because of their elliptical shape with flat or nearly flat ends.
They are primarily constructed of aluminum although the military
has several versions made of steel. They are generally divided into
multiple compartments with separate manways for each
compartment. The rollover protection on the roof obscures the
vision of the manways and protects them in the case of a rollover.
There is an emergency shutoff on the driver’s side and front of the
tank. The average capacity of a MC 306 or DOT 406 is about 9,000 gallons. These trucks
generally carry hydrocarbons such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.

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Low-pressure Bulk Liquid Cargo Tank (DOT 407)

The DOT 407 is a low-pressure tank truck that has a maximum
working pressure of 40 psi at 70oF. They have a characteristic
horseshoe shape when view it from behind. The ends are flat or
slightly rounded. If they are insulated, the ribs of the tank are
covered with stainless steel. Between the tank and the external
covering (interstitial space) is heavily insulated. The manway is
usually found in the center of the top of the tank. If the tank is divided
into compartments, each individual tank will have a separate
manway. The discharge valves are in the center on the bottom of each tank. Like the 406, there
is an emergency shutoff on the driver’s side at the front of the tank trailer. The average capacity
of these tanks is 6,000 gallons. They are used to transport solvents, poisons, and many food
products.
MC-312 (DOT 412) Corrosive Cargo Tank
The DOT 412 Corrosive Tank Trailers are rated for low pressure
with an operating pressure of 5-25psi. The exterior of the tank is
strengthened with external rings that are generally visible. Some
corrosive tanks have an exterior cover that hides the stiffening rings.
The tanks are generally of smaller diameter than the DOT 406 or
407 because corrosives are generally much heavier with high
specific gravity. These tanks are lined with plastic or rubber material
because most of the corrosives will react with unprotected metal
containers. Manways are found at the top rear of the tank and discharge valves are at the bottom.
If there are multiple compartments, then each will have a separate manway for filling and separate
discharge at the bottom. The average capacity of a DOT 412 or MC 312 is between 4,000-6,000
gallons. These are constructed to carry acids, alkalis (bases), or other high weight liquid
materials.
Non-Pressure Intermodal Tanks
Non-pressurized tank containers are marked as IM101/IMO Type 1
Tank Containers or IM102/IMO Type 2 Tank Containers. These
tanks load from the top and off-load from the bottom. They have
emergency remote shut-off valves, fusible links, and
pressure/vacuum relief devices depending on the product that they
are carrying.
IM101/IMO Type 1 Tank Containers are the most common
intermodal container for hazardous materials. The working
pressure (pressure relief device) is set between 24 psi to 100 psi depending on the chemical. The
capacity of Type 1 tank containers is between 5,000-6,300 gallons. These tanks are used for
both hazardous and non-hazardous materials.
IM102/IMO Type 2 Tank Containers have a working pressure
(pressure relief device) set between 14.5 psi to 24.4 psi. They are
equipped to carry between 5,000 to 6,300 gallons. These
containers carry a variety of materials including pesticides, resins,
flammable solvents, and whiskey.

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Limited Use Non-Bulk Containers

There are a few containers which are in limited use and/or have specific uses.
Drums come in a great variety of sizes, and may be constructed of
metal, fiberboard, or plastic. Other than compressed gases and
etiologic agents, drums may contain any type of hazardous material
including powders, liquids, pastes, and slurries. There are two
types of drums: open head and tight head drums. The open head
has a full head or cover that can be removed completely. The tight
head drum has two openings, a 2” standard pipe and a 0.75”
standard pipe.
Carboys are used primarily for hazardous materials. These containers are made of plastic or
glass and packaged in cushioned/insulated boxes constructed of
wood or cardboard. These containers are used primarily for
corrosives and hold approximately 13-20 gallons or more.
Cylinders store a variety of compressed gases. They also may
store flammable or combustible liquids, corrosive materials, and
poisons. Beyond the labels that are usually the best way to identify
the chemical, these containers have some identifying characteristic
that can be recognized. For example:
• short, broad cylinders are generally used for low pressure materials
• tall, thin cylinders are usually used for high pressure materials
• cylinders that have a seam running up the side are not used for high pressure materials
Most cylinders have a pressure relief device such as a safety relief valve, disc, or fusible plug. In
addition, DOT specification marking near the top of the cylinder shows pressure rating, and test
date.
Solid – Holding Containers
Solids are stored and transported in a number of different
containers. Bulk facilities store solids in bins, containers, holding
areas, and simply on the ground. It depends on the chemical and
its use. Railways transport solids in gondola cars and coal cars.
Highway carriers transport solids in bulk cargo trailers of various
designs and both railways, ships, and highway trailers transport
solids in intermodal containers. All will be reviewed in this section.

Bulk Fixed Facility

It is always interesting to see how bulk hazardous materials are
stored at fixed facilities, especially manufacturing plants.
Hazardous materials can be found in all kinds of containers holding
tanks, holding areas, and even piled on the ground inside of a
building. Fertilizer plants are notorious for pushing large quantities
of granular materials into portioned off parts of a warehouse where
they are scooped up to fill bags or fill cargo trucks. The only way
to understand what kind of bulk storage exists in your response
area is to visit the sites.

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Railway gondola and coal cars

A gondola car is an open topped rail car used for transporting bulk
solid materials. The low sides are excellent for carrying
solid/granular or lumped cargo, but they also work well for high-
density cargos such as steel plates, piping, or other heavy
materials. Some of these gondola cars have the ability to pivot to
allow dumping of the commodity. Coal can be hauled in a gondola
car but more often coal is transported in a high-sided hopper car.
Using these higher sides allowed the rail car to haul larger
quantities of coal.
Dry-Bulk Cargo Carriers
Dry Bulk Trailers are designed for the transportation of sand,
limestone, cement, fertilizers, and other dry bulk products. These
trailers have the capacity of over 1,000 cubic feet of product. They
are designed to have pneumatic off-loading capability. They
typically operate on about 15 psi. The average length is 40-45 feet
and are constructed of steel.

Dry Bulk Intermodal Tanks

Intermodal tanks are generally 20 feet in length and 8 feet wide.
Height varies from 8 to 9.5 feet. Tanks used in the US are not
longer than 20 feet. Sea-land containers are 35 feet long.
Containers use two types of frame construction, box type and
beam type. The box type encloses the tank with framework. The
beam type has frame structure only at the ends. Refrigerated units
can clip on to the nose or front end of the container. Tanks may be
lined, electric or steam heated, and insulated. Containers may be
identified with a number of different markings because they travel
worldwide. Containers usually carry country, size, specification, DOT exemption, AAR600, and
type of container markings. Most tanks are built according to the pressure vessel standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. There are three basic types of intermodals: non-
pressure, pressure, and specialized.
Bags, Bottles, and Boxes
Plastic bags, multi-layered paper bags, and paper bags lined or
layered with plastic may contain dry corrosives, blasting agents,
explosives, flammable solids, oxidizers, organic peroxides,
poisons, or ORMs. Bags typically hold 100 pounds of product and
are often stacked on pallets. Wooden and fiberboard boxes are
usually used as cases for smaller,
Flexible and Rigid Intermediate
inner containers. Wooden boxes Solid Bulk Containers
may be used for every class of (FIBC/RIBC)

hazardous material except FIBC

RIBC

compressed gases. Fiberboard boxes may be used for everything

except compressed gases and poisons. A box can be the primary
container or an outside package for other non-bulk packages.
Multi-cell packages usually contain polystyrene form fitted to a
54

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particular container. DOT limits the capacity to no more than six bottles and a maximum of four
liters.
Flexible intermediate Bulk Container (FIBC) and Rigid Intermediate Solid Bulk Containers
(RIBC) are industrial containers made of flexible fabric or solid rigid materials that are designed
for storing and transporting dry, flowable products, such as sand, fertilizer, and granules of
plastic.
Mixed Load Container
Mixed loads always present a hazard to
responders. Mixed loads may not
reach the threshold for specific
placarding and only have to display a
dangerous placard. Mixed loads also
have the added danger of an
emergency taking place with chemicals
mixing because of an incident. Mixed chemicals can have any
number of reactions that can make a dangerous situation even
worse. They can also hinder the response because determining the dangers of the mixed
chemicals will take time and expertise that may not be available on the scene. These are some
of the transport containers that carry mixed loads of hazardous materials.
Boxcars and Gondola Cars There are a number of non-tank rail
cars in use today, many which transport hazardous materials.
These rail cars include boxcars, gondola cars, hopper cars, and
flatcars (including containers on flatcars and trailers on flatcars).
These rail cars usually transport bulk quantities of dry materials.
Boxcars may carry hazardous materials in drums, wooden crates,
bags, fiber drums, cartons, or cases. Because these rail cars do
not possess any specific features to handle hazardous materials,
they all look similar. Placards may be the only way to determine
the nature of their contents. Luckily, there are a few rail cars with distinct features. Calcium
carbide, for example, is transported by rail in a flat car with vertical bins with conical tops.
Tractor trailers may carry many different chemicals in one load. If any individual chemical does
not reach the threshold of 1001 pounds it does not need to have
an individual placard. Instead, the mixed load will be marked with
a Dangerous Placard. In some cases, as seen in this photo, there
may be a group of chemicals marked with a Dangerous Placard
and in addition the threshold for the corrosive and oxidizer
chemical was met and individual placards are posted for each of
those. As mentioned earlier, these can be very dangerous
shipments when involved in an incident and the chemical reactions
can be unpredictable.

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Shipping freight containers can be exactly the same as the

tractor trailer mentioned previously. If chemicals do not reach the
threshold amount for an individual placard the mixed load may be
placarded with a Dangerous Placard. Unfortunately, there can be
a mixed load of less than 1001 pounds of chemicals and not
require any placarding at all. Every freight container should be
considered to contain hazardous materials until it can be proven
otherwise.

Radioactive Shipping Containers and Packaging

Radioactive materials are those that generate radiation in the form
of energy released from the decay of atoms, called radioactive
decay. Typically, radioactive decay of atoms generates ionizing
radiation in the form of alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma
rays. Substances that are radioactive can pose a hazard if not
properly stored, handled, and shipped. For this reason, there are
strict Federal regulations that govern the processes and
procedures for the packaging and transportation of these materials
to avoid exposing the public at large, workers in the transportation industry, or others in
specialized roles that handle this material to potential radiation hazards.
Radioactive shipping containers and packaging can be classified as one of four principal types,
the use of which is determined by the nature and form of the material being shipped and the level
of radioactivity associated with that material. These primary types of packaging are:
• Excepted packages
• Industrial packaging
• Type A packages
• Type B packages

Excepted packages
The term excepted packages refer to those forms of packaging that
are exempt from meeting the requirements for specification
packaging and labeling, and most of the marking and shipping
paper requirements as well. Excepted packages are used to ship
limited quantities of radioactive material whose levels of
radioactivity are such that the risks are deemed low in the event of
an accidental release during transport. Examples of the types of
materials that can be shipped in excepted packages include smoke
detectors (which have a low level of alpha particle emissions from
americium-241, whose half-life is 432.2 years). Contents may also include depleted uranium or
natural thorium. The excepted packages are required to have a UN identification number marked
on the package using the 4-digit UN identification number.

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Industrial Packaging
When the material being packaged and shipped poses low risk or
hazard primarily because the level of the radiation emitted is low,
the material can be packaged in what are called industrial
packages, also referred to as strong tight containers. The intention
of this type of packaging is to provide a normal level of protection to
the contents during typical conditions of handling and shipping.
Examples of low-risk items that can be shipped using industrial
packages include clothing that has a slight level of radioactive
contamination or laboratory samples of low-level radioactivity.

Industrial packaging is further classified as being of three types:

• Type 1 (IP-1)
• Type 2 (IP-2)
• Type 3 (IP-3)

For industrial packaging to be classified as Type 1 (IP-1), it must meet a set of general
requirements. These are the common requirements for all industrial packaging levels. The specific
requirements call for the package be designed such that:
• It can be easily handled and secured during transport
• There is a minimum safety factor of three on any lifting attachment on the structural part
of the package
• The external surfaces are void of protrusions and shall be easy to decontaminate
• The outer packaging shall avoid having pockets or crevices wherein water can collect
• No added elements to the package will impact the overall safety of the package
• Fasteners and closing devices shall not be impacted by the accelerations, vibration
stresses, or resonances expected from normal conditions of transport
• Materials used in the packaging shall be compatible physically and chemically with the
materials contained in the package and the irradiation to which they can be subjected
• Any valves in the package are protected against unauthorized operation

For the industrial packaging to qualify as Type 2 (IP-2), the packaging must meet the general
requirements of Type 1 as shown above and must additionally demonstrate the ability to withstand
a series of defined tests and must prevent:
• The loss or dispersal of the radioactive contents
• A noted significant increase in the level of radioactivity that is detected or recorded at the
external surface of the package when compared with the levels before the tests were
performed

Similarly, Type 3 (IP-3) packaging must meet all the requirements

associated with Type 1 and Type 2 industrial packaging, but in
addition, must be designed so that:
• The exterior of the package has an identifiable tamper
feature, such as a seal, that can be used to visually
indicate while such feature remains intact that the
package has not been opened.
• The smallest permissible dimension of the package is a
minimum of 10 cm (4 inches).

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• The temperature of the shipped or storage package is maintained within the range of -0oC
(-40oF) to 70oC (158oF), with specific attention paid to liquid contents and to package
degradation.
• The packaging utilizes a containment system that features a positive fastening device to
prevent the packaging from being opened unintentionally or from internal pressure build-
up during transport operations.
• For each component of the containment system, the potential for radiolytic decomposition
and the resulting generation of gas by a chemical reaction is accounted for.
• The package containment system is demonstrated to retain its radioactive contents should
there be a reduction in ambient pressure to 25kPa (3.6 psi).
• Each valve present excepting a pressure relief valve will be equipped with an enclosure
that is designed to retain any leakage.
• Any radiation shielding that is used which encloses a component of the containment
system will be designed as such to prevent the unintentional or accidental escape of that
component from the shield.
• The failure of any tie-down attachment included as a structural part of the packaging shall
not impact the package’s ability to perform and meet any of its other requirements.
• The Type 3 testing of the package will prevent both the loss and dispersal of the
radioactive contents as well as a noted significant increase in the level of radioactivity that
is detected or recorded at the external surface of the package when compared with the
levels before the tests were performed.

While industrial packaging is suitable for the shipment of radioactive materials with Low Specific
Activity (LSA), higher activity levels require the use of either Type A or Type B packages.

Type A Packages
Type A packages are required to demonstrate through a series of
tests the ability to maintain their integrity without the release of their
contents. They must also provide suitable protection for the
materials and incorporate specific shielding that is maintained
during the shipment. Type A is used to transport radioactive
materials with relatively high specific activity levels. Examples of
the types of materials that can use Type A packaging include
radiopharmaceuticals, which are radioactive materials employed
for medical use, and other qualified industrial materials.

Type B Packages
Materials whose activity levels are too high for shipment in Type
A packages must be shipped using Type B packages. These
materials are generally those whose release would pose a
significant radiation hazard to the
public or represent a significant
hazard to the environment. An
example of the material that might
be shipped in Type B packages
includes spent fuel rods
recovered from nuclear power reactors. The level of testing
performed on Type B packaging is designed to not only simulate
conditions likely to be experienced during normal transport but

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goes beyond that to simulate more severe accident conditions that would subject the container to
higher levels of stresses which might cause a breach of containment. There are also higher
radiation shielding requirements associated with the Type B packages.

In addition to recognizing the storage tanks as a pressure tank, non-pressure tank, or cryogenic
tank there are other clues an Operations Level Responder can look for. All hazardous materials
tanks are required to be marked with the chemical ID number (UN#). This is present in a number
of different forms but the most common is a stencil that has the UN number and the name of the
chemical written on the tank. If only the number can be seen the ERG can be used to determine
the initial response guidelines. In addition, many facilities will be marked with the NFPA 704
diamond identifying the hazards (not the chemical name).
NFPA Marking System
The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 704 Marking System
is a standard system for the identification of the hazards of
materials found in a facility. The standard (law) requiring its use is
maintained by the National Fire Protection Association. This
system was first developed in 1960 and revised several times
since then. The standard defines the "Safety Square" or "Fire
Diamond" used by emergency personnel to quickly and easily
identify the risks posed by hazardous materials. This helps
determine what, if any, special equipment should be used,
procedures followed, or precautions taken during the initial stages of an emergency response.
The NFPA Marking System is taught in the Awareness Level program and is here for review
purposes.
Labels and Markings
Pipeline Markers
Pipeline Transportation Pipelines primarily carry liquid petroleum
products and natural and manufactured gases. Since they are
buried some 30 to 36 inches underground, they are not easy to
locate. However, pipeline markers are placed over buried
pipelines at railroad crossings, most public road crossings
(though this is not possible in urban settings), and along the
course of the pipeline. Markings for petroleum pipelines are
usually placed on poles extending up from the ground. They
usually include the word “Warning” and contain information on the
type of product carried through the pipeline and the name and telephone number of the carrier.
Markings for gas pipelines, on the other hand, are not
standardized and may be located on poles or placed flat on the
ground. The type of information provided on these markings
varies greatly. The environmental impact in a pipeline incident is
high. Thousands of gallons of product can flow from a pipeline
before it is noticed and shut down. Preplanning and an overall
knowledge of your jurisdiction will help you become familiar with
the location of pipelines running through your community. Pipeline
companies will distribute maps of their pipelines and will respond
to a leak. You will need to keep a resource book with emergency
phone numbers for your department and dispatch.

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Pesticide Labels
Pesticide labels are required by the EPA to have specific label
information involving the product in the container. First, it is
required to have a signal word. Signal words are found on
pesticide product labels and describe the acute (short-term)
toxicity of the product. The signal words are:
• DANGER-means that the pesticide product is highly toxic
by at least one route of entry. It may be corrosive, causing
irreversible damage to skin or eyes or it may be highly
toxic if eaten, absorbed through the skin, or inhaled. In these cases, the word “POISON”
must also be displayed on the front panel of the product.
• WARNING- indicates the pesticide product is moderately toxic if eaten, absorbed through
the skin, inhaled, or it causes moderate eye or skin irritation.
• CAUTION- means the pesticide product is slightly toxic if eaten, absorbed through the
skin, inhaled, or it causes slight eye or skin irritation.
The only pesticides that are not required to display a signal word are those that fall into the lowest
toxicity category by all routes of entry.
The label must also have a prominent ingredient statement that contains the names and the
percentage of each active ingredient and the total percentage of inert or other ingredients in the
container.
The EPA Registration Number and the establishment number are required on all pesticide
products. The purpose of an identification number is to provide a unique product number for
regular registrations, distributor registrations, special local needs registrations, and experimental
use permits. These numbers can be referenced by an emergency responder in a pesticide data
base.
Radioactive Labels
Because of the general fear and possible danger of radiated
materials, labels are very prescriptive. Each label on a container
of radiation materials must contain the following:
• The type and category of the radiation source
• The contents of the container
• The expected activity of the radiation both inside and
outside of the packaging
• The transportation index and critical safety index for the
material.
Hazardous Materials Hazards
The hazards overviewed at the beginning of Section One included
those noted in the acronym TEAM-CPR. Danger from a hazardous
materials incident may be much broader than just an exposure to
the chemical itself. In some circumstances other hazards may be
present created by the release of the chemical. Here are some
examples of the other hazards that may be present on typical
hazmat incidents.

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• Thermal – exposure to extreme hot or cold

• Etiological – exposure to infectious pathogens
• Asphyxiation – removal of oxygen from the environment being worked in
• Mechanical/electrical – machinery and power sources in the area of the release
• Chemical – exposure to the chemical and physical properties of the released chemical
• Psychological – this is especially a factor where people have died or there is extreme
danger
• Radiological – this is an unseen danger involving the release of radioactive materials
If an incident is suspected of being intentional in nature either from an industrial crime or from an
act of terrorism, the danger of the incident will become much greater. You can use the TRACM
acronym as a guide to determine the hazards. Thermal dangers include hazards produced by
both heat and cold. In a fire or explosion, the generation of heat may be dramatic. In addition,
heat may be created through chemical reactions. Etiological dangers may be presented if the
incident involved the spreading of infectious or toxic agents. Viruses, bacteria, rickettsia, and
biological toxins are all examples. Asphyxiation may result from both simple asphyxiates that
displace oxygen or from chemical asphyxiates that interfere with the body’s ability to transport or
use oxygen. Mechanical dangers include any type of physical danger that may cause trauma.
Shockwaves, blast pressures, and even fragmentation can all cause mechanical/physical harm.
Chemical hazards are caused from both toxic and corrosive materials that may be used to
intentionally cause harm. Chlorine, blister agents, and blood agents (cyanides) are all good
examples. Radiologic dangers include alpha and beta particles that can cause a contamination
to anyone exposed. Gamma radiation exposure does not cause a
contamination hazard, but the damage may be unseen and create
life threatening illnesses that appear later. In the case of a terrorist
event the responder must also consider that a secondary device
may be placed in order to injure or kill first responders. In addition,
booby traps or additional armed persons may still be on the scene.
Extra care needs to be taken once the event is determined to be
intentional. In addition, the event then becomes under the overall
control of law enforcement. Hazmat will become a branch of the
overall activities.
Terrorist and Human-Made Events
Intentional – Illegal activities creating circumstances involving the
release or spill of hazardous materials. These circumstances
have special concern for emergency responders at all levels.
Care needs to be taken because of the chance of a secondary
device (release or bomb), special decontamination needed,
firefighting activities, and specialized patient care.

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Indicators of Biological Criminal Activity

Biological agent use by a terrorist or illegal group is greatly
different than the use of chemical agents. Biological agents may
be preferred because the effects from an exposure to a biological
agent may not occur for days after the exposure. Some of the
indicators of their use would be an outbreak of an unusual disease
over a small geographical location. Also, finding patients with
disease that is normally seasonal, but it is occurring out of season.
Unusual diseases that have not been experienced in that
geographical area before but are occurring at a very unusual rate
of occurrence.
Difference Between Chemical and Biological Incidents
There are many differences between a chemical and biological
incident. Most are listed on this slide. The reason a terrorist would
use a biological weapon is largely because it can be deployed
without notice, illnesses do not occur for days, and it is difficult to
figure out where the exposure took place. All of these items allow
the perpetrator to get away only to do it again. With bombs, armed
assaults, and even chemical weapons, the results are immediate
allowing investigators to begin locating the perpetrator. It is not
that easy should a biological weapon be used.
Indicators of Radiological Criminal Activities
The threat from a terrorist event using radiological agents is
focused around a few possibilities.
First, using radiation source materials to contaminate a public area
or governmental building. Even low-level radiation would cause
great anxiety from the public and would serve to keep people away
from an area. Generally, the public has little understanding of
radiation so even a small event would cause unrealistic responses
from those who do not understand radiation.
The second would be to place radiation with a conventional bomb. An explosion would cause the
radiological material to be spread over a geographic area and again cause the public to stay
away. Depending on the material, the clean-up from an event like this could be difficult and
expensive.
The third would be the detonation of a nuclear bomb. This is considered to be a low chance
activity. Developing a true nuclear weapon is highly technical and very expensive. Unless the
terrorist activity was sponsored by a county with nuclear capability, it is highly unlikely this would
occur.
Other Terrorist Activities/Devices
Incendiary Bombs
Incendiary bombs are flammable devices that are used to create fire in structures. They can be
thrown or placed and detonated by a variety of means. These devices are designed to create a
large volume of fire and heat that will allow fire to spread quickly and create mass casualties. One
strategy that has been discussed is placing devices at the exits of a building with a high number
of occupants. This blocks the exits with fire that quickly fills the room and kills the occupants. In

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addition, placing secondary devices designed to explode sometime after the first with the goal of
injuring or killing first responders always has to be considered.
Other Explosives (conventional bombs)
Bombs have long been the number one weapon used by terrorists. They are easy to assemble
and detonate. They range from military plastic explosives to a homemade bomb using chemicals
bought at a hardware store. In 2013, the Boston Marathon was attacked using two pressure
cooker bombs. The terrorists placed homemade explosives into typical kitchen pressure cookers.
They were able to trigger the explosives using remote control units
taken from toy trucks. The technology to create these bombs
came from an internet magazine called “Inspire”. The bomb used
to blow up the Alfred P. Murrah Federal building in Oklahoma City
was made from Ammonium Nitrite (fertilizer) and fuel oil. The
Oklahoma City bomb was triggered from a lit fuse. Several
witnesses reported smelling a gunpowder type odor prior to the
truck exploding causing a collapse of the building.
Chemical Weapons
Chemicals have been used in numerous terrorist attacks. Many commonly used industrial
chemicals can be used as antipersonnel weapons. Chlorine, cyanide, anhydrous ammonia, and
phosgene are used in industry and can be stolen or purchased and used against the public. In
addition, some military chemicals can be produced in a clandestine laboratory and used against
the public. This is what occurred in Tokyo in 1995 when Sarin nerve agent was clandestinely
produced and used by the Aum Shinrikyo against the public in the Tokyo subway. Chemical
weapons can be broken down into a group of categories:
• Neurotoxins (military nerve agents), organophosphate-based chemicals
• Chemical asphyxiants (military blood agents), cyanide-based chemicals
• Respiratory irritants (military choking agents), chlorine-based chemicals
• Skin irritants (military blister agents), alkylating chemicals
• Antipersonnel agents (riot control agents), capsicum-based chemicals
Infectious Etiological Agents
Infectious etiological agents, also called biological weapons, are defined as a substance that are
capable of causing disease. Examples of these biological agents are Hepatitis and HIV.
Combination Devices
Combination Devices are built to produce even more casualties and more widespread destruction.
The most common of these are called “dirty bombs”. Dirty bombs involve the use of conventional
explosives with source radiation attached to it. The intent is to cause destruction through the
explosion and also to contaminate the area with radiation. If a bomb causes extensive damage
to a building but is also contaminated with high level radiation, it could be 50 years before the site
could be built on again. And the radiation could move in the cloud of debris and dust affecting
many more victims with radiation-related illnesses.
Riot Control Agents
Although the subject of riot control agents has been presented in this program, here is a detailed
review of this chemical family. Riot control agents are not used in an effort to kill victims. Instead,
it is used to incapacitate them and cause panic among large groups. Generally, these agents
cause temporary extreme pain and discomfort. There are two basic types of riot control agents.

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They are:
• Cloracetephenone (CN)
• Oleoresin capsicum (OC)
Both of these agents work immediately causing extreme eye and skin irritation and coughing. The
effects from the chemical generally lasts about 30 minutes. These chemical agents are made
from a pepper extract, giving them the name “pepper spray”. Irrigating eyes with either of these
chemicals in them provides only momentary relief from the pain. Because the pepper spray is
non-water soluble, it cannot be removed from the eyes or skin with water alone. Whole milk can
be used to irrigate the eyes and relieve the pain much faster than water alone.
Illicit Laboratories (Clandestine Laboratories)
If terrorists choose to use one of the weapons identified above,
then understand that they are probably manufacturing them near
the point of use. In the 1970s and 1980s if you spoke of
clandestine labs, you were probably talking about drug labs.
Today, clandestine labs can be producing bombs, biological
agents, chemicals, weapons of all kinds, and other items that are
illegal and create great hazards when being produced.
Responders need to ensure that their response considers these
dangers and immediate calls for law enforcement response.
Indicators of criminal activity (secondary devices)
Booby traps of all kinds have been found at illicit/clandestine
laboratories. These include secondary devices that are meant to
hinder investigations and injure or kill emergency responders. Any
explosion that is suspected of being intentional may have a
secondary device. Emergency responders need to practice a safe,
planned, and sometimes slower response than they are used to
during a naturally occurring emergency/accident. In any
atmosphere of threats, riots, civil unrest, or political unrest
responders need to exercise extreme caution when approaching
scenes of suspected illegal origin.
Actions Necessary if Suspected Criminal/Terrorist Event
Of course, any suspected illicit activity requires immediate law
enforcement response. If the criminal activity is to the extent that
there are, or will be, multiple injuries or damage to buildings or
infrastructure, emergency management must be involved. In
addition, the Incident Management System must be activated,
and the entire planning process started. This is to maintain
control over the event, ensure responder safety, and also provide
a route to include state and
federal response into the
command structure. Terrorist events are complex and require a
unified approach to command that will include numerous
agencies.
When illegal activity causes the release of a chemical or biological
weapon, emergency responders are at great risk. The typical
indicators, such as a release at a facility or a transportation

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incident may not occur. Instead, these incidents may occur where hazardous materials are not
usually found. When responders are dispatched to one of these events an opportunity for
exposure or secondary exposure may increase. Once discovered, immediate emergency
decontamination must take place to keep the responders as safe as possible.

Part 2: Collecting Hazard and Response Information

Hazard Classes
Learning placards and hazard classes are an awareness level
skill. Placard information in this section is provided in the
Operations program for two reasons. First, for review purposes
as it is always good to review the hazard classes. Second, the
additional operations skills are identifying toxic properties of each
of these hazard classes. So, along with reviewing the hazard
classes, the toxic properties found in each of these categories will
be presented.
Hazard Class 1
The toxic properties found in the Hazard Class 1 explosives
include nitrites and nitrates. Exposure to these chemicals cause
vasodilation and decreased blood pressure. Extended exposure
decreases the concentration of hemoglobin because
nitrites/nitrates convert hemoglobin to a compound called
methemoglobin. These chemicals are also an irritant and can
cause respiratory irritation, skin swelling, and eye burning and
pain.
Hazard Class 2
Hazard Class 2 contain gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Neither of these gases are considered extremely hazardous. But
oxygen enriched atmospheres are very hazardous in the event of
a fire. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and displaces oxygen
causing asphyxiating atmospheres. Ammonia and Chlorine are
both in this category. Both are strong respiratory irritants causing
bronchial swelling (swelling of the airways) causing asthma-type
symptoms and/or leaking of the alveoli allowing fluid from the
blood to enter the airways. This category also includes the
halogenated acid gases. For example, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen
bromide. All three are extremely toxic causing burning of the skin, eyes, and respiratory system.
Hydrogen fluoride exposure also causes severe cardiac issues and rapid death if the exposure is
in high enough concentration.
Hazard Class 3
Most flammable and combustible liquids are hydrocarbons or
hydrocarbon derivatives. Hydrocarbons are strong central
nervous system depressants. Exposure causes low blood
pressure, slow breathing, low core temperature, and lethargy.
Exposure can also cause cardiac sensitivity and dysrhythmias.
Hydrocarbons are a respiratory irritant and suspected of causing
human cancer. Benzene, a very common hydrocarbon found in
many fuels and in smoke from fires, is a commonly known
carcinogen.

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Hazard Class 4
Flammable solids such as lithium, potassium, and sodium when
reacting with water cause irritation of tissue. Skin, eyes, and
mucous membranes become inflamed and swollen. In the lungs
swelling of the bronchials cause difficulty breathing and wheezing.
Some of the nitrogen compounds found in this class cause liver,
kidney, cardiac, and central nervous system effects.

Hazard Class 5
Hazard Class 5 contain many different chemicals including
organic peroxides. Organic peroxides are strong irritants that can
burn the eyes, skin, and lungs. Chemical burns in the lungs cause
the alveoli to leak and produce pulmonary edema. Swelling of the
bronchioles causes constriction of the airways and severe
shortness of breath that can be life threatening. In this class you
will also find ammonium, that is classified as a carcinogen.
Hazard Class 6
Of course, the toxic properties of this class are obvious. These
are labeled in this way because of the poisonous nature of these
chemicals to the human body. Also in this class are infectious
substances. Keep in mind that this is not biohazardous waste but
instead known living pathogens that are in transit. Extreme
caution needs to be taken when these chemicals are involved in
an incident.

Hazard Class 7
Hazard Class 7: Radioactive materials have the ability to alter DNA
structure in an exposed victim. This can create short term, long
term, and chronic problems. High doses of radioactivity cause
radiation illness because so many of the cells of the internal organs
are damaged. It is unlikely that someone who displays immediate
symptoms of radiation exposure will live. Many radiation injuries
are not displayed immediately and may take days/weeks to show
symptoms or real damage and reproductive changes that take
place often last a lifetime because of the changes to the DNA
structure.
Hazard Class 8
Hazard Class 8: Corrosives have the ability to cause severe
damage to tissue when in contact with skin, eyes, respiratory
system, or gastrointestinal system if accidently ingested. This
category includes both acids and alkalis (bases). Acids coagulate
tissue causing significant damage on the surface and immediate
pain. Immediate pain causes victims to do anything possible to
remove the chemical. Alkalis cause liquefaction of the tissue and
delayed pain. When pain is delayed it takes longer for a victim to

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remove the chemical and it is more difficult to remove as it penetrates the top of the tissue and
moves through the liquefied tissue.
Hazard Class 9
Hazard Class 9; Miscellaneous materials includes a number of
chemicals that are hazardous during transport but are not covered
in one of the other 8 hazard classes. These include noxious
materials, anesthetics, and hazardous waste such as waste
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). Also in this class is HOT tar, HOT
asphalt, and HOT sulfur.
Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
Safety Data Sheets are chemical information sheets. They contain
both simplified information and more complex information for those
responsible for hazmat response. These SDSs must be
maintained and in easy access to all employees who work around
hazardous chemicals. The sheets have been standardized to
present information in a succinct manner that is easy to read. There
is a possibility of 16 categories on a SDS sheet. Not all categories
are required but the critical information must be present to inform
and guide employees and emergency responders if a hazardous materials accident occurs. The
categories are listed in the order that they must be presented on the actual sheet. Emergency
responders should ask for the sheets if they respond to an incident involving the spilling or release
of a hazardous material. SDSs are very specific and only deal with the chemical that is named.
The first two sections are self-explanatory. These contain the name of the chemical, the
manufacturer, and an emergency contact number. The synonyms are also listed as well as the
hazardous ingredients. If the material is considered a trade secret the ingredients will not be
listed. The SDS will show the hazard class of each ingredient instead. The Chemical Abstract
Service number will also be shown for each ingredient. This is the social security number for that
specific chemical and can be used to identify the material.

Other Facility Documents

There is a great deal of additional information found in a SDS
concerning flammability/combustibility, health effects from an
exposure, chemical properties, accidental release measures, etc.
The Operations Level Responder can use some of this information
for determining exposure issues, evacuation and isolation
parameters, and identification of additional hazards.

Emergency Response Plan (ERP)

The purpose of an Emergency Response Plan is to provide organizations direction for managing
a hazardous materials incident and to support a safe response, minimizing hazards to health or
the environment. The ERP provides guidance if there is a leak, spill, or release and it is the
responders’ job to begin mitigation efforts and determine what additional resources may be
needed to stabilize the incident. An Emergency Response Plan is also called an Emergency
Action Plan (EAP). There is no real difference between either plan.

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In some states and organizations an ERP or EAP is required for accreditation. Hospitals, for
example, are required to have an Emergency Action Plan approved by local Emergency
Management. They are provided with a detailed outline that must be completed that will provide
complete guidance from the onset of an incident to the complete mitigation.

Help from Outside Sources

Chemtrec
Chemtrec was established in 1971 by the American Chemistry
Council (ACC). It is an around-the-clock service available to
firefighters, law enforcement officials, and other emergency
responders who need immediate critical response information for
an emergency incident involving chemicals. They provide:
• Immediate access to medical experts and toxicologists who
can provide advice and emergency medical treatment
assistance to on-scene medical professionals treating
victims of chemical exposure.
• Operate 24/7
• Takes calls from anywhere in the world
• Ability to translate 240+ languages
• Immediate access to a library of over six million safety data sheets (SDS)
Canutec and SETIQ
Canutec is the Canadian Transport Emergency Center. It is Canada’s version of Chemtrec with
many of the same capabilities.
SETIQ is an acronym (for lack of a better term) for Mexican Emergency Transportation System
for the chemical industry. It is a service of the National Association of Chemical Industries (ANIQ).
It is the Mexican version of Chemtrec with similar capabilities.
Shipping Papers
If a chemical is being transported by truck, rail, ship, pipeline
(although not true shipping papers), or air there needs to be a
means of identifying the chemical while in transit. Each mode of
transportation for a chemical is required to have a shipping paper
accompany the chemical. Although the shipping papers have
different names depending on the mode of transportation, they
contain needed information about the chemical. In addition, there
may be a SDS for each chemical being transported attached to the
shipping papers so emergency responders can get immediate and pertinent information. It is
important to know where to go to get the shipping papers during an emergency incident. During
the incident may not be the ideal time to attempt to find out where they are kept. In addition, the
holder of the documents may have been hurt or not available to ask. This slide identifies the
areas where shipping papers are found. These papers may be a critical part of the command
decision making process.

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Depending on where you are located, many counties have a

Department of Environmental Protection. Where these are active,
the representatives will come to the scene and work in the Command
Post. They will either be coordinated through a Liaison Officer or will
become a Deputy Incident Commander. However, they are situated
in the command structure, they will become an invaluable asset. In
addition to the county response, many states operate a statewide,
government response from a Department of Environmental
Protection. These state employees may also respond to the scene and provide valuable
information through the command system. Preplanning, drills, and exercises are a great way to
get to know these responders. As has been said for many years; “you don’t want to meet a critical
responder from these organizations for the first time on an emergency scene!” It is always better
to develop the relationship prior to the bell going off.

Complete Activity #2

Part 3: Predicting the Likely Behavior of a Material and its Container

Predicting the likely behavior of a material and its container is a skill that may be invaluable on an
emergency incident scene. This skill can be learned by understanding some basic chemical and
physical properties. In addition, it will take a responder with strong situational awareness skills to
understand when the incident is getting worse or when it is time to review operations and withdraw
responders because the danger is increasing and efforts are not progressing.

Chemical & Physical Properties

In this section the chemical and physical properties of chemical will
be presented. Each of these terms will be defined and examples
of each will be provided. Learning these terms will allow a
responder to predict, with some understanding of the event, what
will happen next on the scene and when it is NOT necessary or
prudent to approach the scene. Like a firefighter must understand
fire behavior to be safe performing at their jobs, a hazmat
responder must understand chemical behavior to stay safe during
a response.

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The physical properties of a hazardous materials are those

characteristics that you can see. This includes the state of matter
(solid, liquid, or a gas), color, odor, the degree at which a solid will
melt or a liquid will boil. Solubility in water and the vapor pressure
are also physical properties.
Chemical properties are those characteristics that describe the
ability to change. Reactivity, corrosivity, flammability, pH, and
toxicity are all chemical properties.
Together, these characteristics of a hazardous material determine the overall properties of the
chemical.
Boiling Point
The temperature in which a liquid is quickly changed into a vapor.
Remember the lower the boiling temperature the higher the vapor
pressure and vice versa.
Vapor Pressure

Boiling Point
Chemical Reactivity
When two or more chemical are mixed and form a third chemical it
goes through a chemical reaction. This chemical reaction either
give off heat (exothermic reaction) or absorb heat (endothermic
reaction). Chemical reactions are unpredictable and can be
affected by atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, and other
environmental conditions. These chemical reactions can be mild
such as baking soda and vinegar (acidic acid), causing an
endothermic reaction, or can be violent like adding sodium
hydroxide (a strong alkali), to hydrochloric acid (a strong acid)
causing an exothermic reaction.
Corrosivity (pH)
The pH scale is used to determine if a material is an acid or a base.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Materials with a pH of 0 to 7
are considered to be acidic, material from 7 to 14 are considered
to be bases. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. Pure water has a
pH of 7 and is neutral while human blood has a pH of 7.4. The pH
scale is a logarithmic scale therefore the change of pH from 7 to 6
represents a small change is acidity while a change from 4 to 3 is
much greater. The pH of a substance can be determined using
Litmus Paper or pH test strips.

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Flammable (Explosive) Range

Lower Explosive (Flammable) Limit (LEL) and Upper Explosive
(Flammable) Limit (UEL) refer to the concentration of a flammable
liquid (in its vapor form) or a flammable gas in air. Below the LEL,
the mixture is too lean to ignite. Above the UEL, the mixture is too
rich to ignite. Between the LEL and UEL, the mixture is said to be
explosive or flammable.
Temperature affects the
flammability range of substances
As the temperature increases, more of the liquid is vaporized and
the flash point is reached. It is important to keep in mind that
adding air to the mixture (by ventilating an enclosed space, for
example) will bring the concentration back into the flammable (or
explosive) range.
Flash Point
The flash point is the lowest temperature that a material will
produce enough vapors to ignite if provided an ignition source. At
the flash point the vapors will flash but not continue to burn. This
is often confused with the ignition temperature which requires a
slightly higher temperature. The ignition temperature is the
lowest temperature that a material gives off enough vapors that it
will continue to burn once an ignition source is removed.
Autoignition Temperature
Autoignition temperature is the temperature that a liquid reaches
that the material will self-ignite and continue to burn. Also called
the spontaneous ignition temperature. Although, these terms can
be confusing an Operations Level Responder needs to understand
the difference. Remember that the US DOT defines a flammable
liquid as a liquid with a flash point below 140oF. The lower the flash
point, the higher the flammability.

Product Type Liquid Vapor Pressure Flash Point (F)

Diesel Combustible liquid 0.4 mm/hg 126-205oF
Kerosene Combustible liquid 2.12 mm/hg 100-162oF
Octane Flammable liquid 11.7 mm/hg 56oF
Gasoline Flammable liquid Up to 300 mm/hg -36oF
Propane Flammable gas 1313 mm/hg @ -20oF -76 to -156oF
BLEVE
When flammable gases are stored under pressure as liquid
products, they become particularly hazardous when fire occurs.
When heated and the pressure overcomes the capability of the
pressure relief device an explosion is imminent. This explosion is
called a BLEVE. Or a Boiling, Liquid, Expanding, Vapor,
Explosion. A BLEVE is an uncontrolled fire and explosion of vapor
as it ignites from a ruptured container of liquefied flammable gas.
When heated the liquid inside the container begins to boil and
vaporize. The vapors that are creating pressure is initially released

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through the pressure relief device. When the production of vapors/gases inside the container
overwhelm the relief device the container weakens and eventually ruptures causing the BLEVE.
Boil Over
A boil over occurs after a fire has heated the flammable or
combustible liquid in a tank. As the fire progresses it continually
heats the fuel below. When water is added to the tank, usually
during firefighting efforts, the water sinks to the bottom (due to a
higher specific gravity). Fuels and solvents have a specific gravity
of less than one allowing water to sink to the bottom. When the
fuel temperature reaches the boiling point of water, the water boils
producing high volumes of vapors pushing the fuel over the edges
of the tank and expanding the fire exponentially.
Other Flammable Hazards
There are some other nomenclature concerning flammability/ combustibility that you need to be
familiar with.
• A pyrophoric substance is a material that spontaneously
ignites in air at or below 129oF (for a gas) or within 5
minutes after coming into contact with air (for liquids and
solids). Iron sulfide, white phosphorus, and plutonium and
uranium when powdered or sliced into thin pieces.
• Hydrophoric materials are those that spontaneously react
and combust when in contact with water. These chemical
materials are usually listed as a flammable solid and may
boil out of its container if heated.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the weight of a liquid as compared to the weight
of water. Water is given a value of 1. Its specific gravity is
considered to be 1. A substance that has a specific gravity of less
than 1 is lighter than water and will float on top of water. A chemical
with a specific gravity of greater than 1 will sink in water. For
example, acids are much heavier than water and will sink. With this
information you can determine what kind of control measure need
to be taken to control the runoff of the product. In a flowing stream
of water an overflow dam is used to trap chemicals that have a
specific gravity of greater than one allowing the water to flow over the top. In contrast, an
underflow dam is used to allow water to flow under the product while trapping the chemical on
top. This is the process used when fuel is dumped into the water and floating booms are used to
contain the spill.

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Vapor Density
Vapor density is the weight of a gas or vapors as compared to air.
The vapor density of air is 1. Any gas or vapor with a vapor density
of greater than one will go to the ground and create hazards
around the leak. The vapors/gases can spread over large
distances and create hazards over wide areas. A gas or vapor that
is lighter than air, with a vapor density of less than 1, tends to rise
in the atmosphere and create a much smaller danger area. For
example, propane is heavier than air and a significant leak can
cause a hazard area hundreds of feet away from the initial leak. If
it finds an ignition source, the fire can quickly return to the origin quickly and often results in an
explosion at the site. Natural gas, generally made up of methane and ethane, is lighter than air.
A leak of natural gas creates a flammable atmosphere in relatively close proximity to the leak as
it is rising and dispersing in the atmosphere. Vapor density is important in below grade confined
spaces. Gases and vapors that are heavier than air such as propane, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide can accumulate in low areas of these confined spaces. These gases can
displace oxygen or create a poisonous atmosphere. Entry into confined spaces should never be
done without a self-contained breathing apparatus. Entry without airway protection will lead to
unconsciousness and death because of either simple or chemical asphyxiation. This can also
occur in low-lying areas where gases/vapors that are heavier than air can accumulate.
Water Solubility
Solubility is the ability of a substance to dissolve in water. It refers
to the degree that one substance will mix completely with another
substance. This mixture is called a solution. The substance of the
solution that represents the greatest amount is called the solvent.
A chemical can have a specific gravity of greater than one and
when poured into water will sink to the bottom. When that chemical
is also water soluble, a bit of agitation such as a current from a
moving stream, will quickly mix it into the water. The term “water
miscible” means that the liquid is infinitely soluble in water. Dish
soap is a great example. When dish soap is poured into a sink of water it immediately goes to
the bottom of the water, but with a little agitation, it mixes into the water. An insoluble chemical
will not mix into water. Instead, it will go to the bottom or float on top. Pouring oil into water is a
great example. The oil immediately rises to the top and no amount of agitation will make it mix
into the water. Soap will actually encapsulate the oil for a short time making it seem to be water
soluble but will eventually separate. That is why soap is used to clean dishes with oil material
(cooking oil, butter, or animal fat). Soap is also an excellent decontamination solution to cleaning
chemicals that are not water soluble (insoluble).
Vapor Pressure
All liquid substances exert pressure against the atmosphere. The
quicker a liquid evaporates the higher the vapor pressure is. The
vapor pressure of a material determines its volatility or its ability to
give off vapors. If the vapor pressure is higher than the
atmospheric pressure (atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7
psi (also called 760 mm/hg [torr]), then the substance exists as a
gas. It is important to know that these vapor pressure numbers are
determined in a laboratory under strict conditions including a
temperature of 68oF and 14.696 psi of actual atmospheric pressure

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(also called Normal Temperature and Pressure [NTP]). Elevated temperatures or elevated areas
above sea level can significantly affect the vapor production of a liquid.
For example, diesel fuel has a very low vapor pressure. In fact,
because it evaporates so slowly that it is impossible to ignite at
normal temperature because it does not give off enough vapors.
But when it is heated it begins giving off more vapors (because the
temperature is increasing its vapor pressure) and can easily be
ignited. On a hot day in Florida where the highway surface
temperature reaches 170oF to 180oF spilled diesel fuel will create
a much greater hazard than when it is spilled during the cooler
months. During the summer, diesel spilled on the highway will act
much like gasoline that has a much higher vapor pressure.
The significance of vapor pressure is that the higher the vapor pressure is, the more vapors are
given off and the more easily it is to be exposed to the material and the higher the chance of a
container failure. Looking at these higher vapor pressure chemicals from a contamination view,
these chemicals are much easier to decontaminate. High vapor pressure chemicals present a
greater risk for respiratory exposure than low vapor pressure chemicals that pose a great risk of
contamination.
Particle Size
Particle size plays an important role in respiratory exposure. The
larger the particle is, the better job the natural filtration of the
respiratory system will function. Take for example dust particles
like those seen in projector light or other bright lights. The nose
and oral cavity have no problem capturing these larger particles
and filtering them out of the air entering the lungs. The smaller the
particle is the more dangerous it becomes. The body has a
number of processes that help filter the air entering the lungs, but
very small particles can bypass these processes and enter the fine
bronchioles and alveoli. Once there, unless the body can break down or absorb the particle, it is
there for the rest of a person’s life. These very small particles include asbestos, carbon, and silica
(from sand). Asbestos was a very prevalent building product so unprotected firefighters are
exposed if they are not wearing an SCBA. Carbon is a product of smoke and very fine silica is
found in sand blasting and building collapses. All of these leave fine particles that can lead, some
20 years later, to cancer.
Persistence
Persistence is the ability of a chemical or biological agent to last in
the environment. Many chemical and all biological agents tend to
disintegrate during the heat of the day or during a rain shower.
Persistence is the ability of a chemical or biological agent to last
and stay intact even in untoward environmental conditions.

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Physical State
Hazardous Materials come in all physical states. They are found as
solids (ammonium nitrate), liquids (most corrosives), or gases
(carbon monoxide). It is not so much the normal physical state of
the hazardous material that makes it dangerous but the conditions
they are present in. For example: a solid can be a powder or dust
and be inhaled causing respiratory injury. A liquid can be a vapor
again being inhaled or affecting the skin and eyes. A gas can create
an atmosphere that is poisonous if entering the area without PPE.
Polymerization
Polymerization is used in industry to make and form products like
plastics. The process of combining a group of chemicals (2 or
more), each called a monomer, to form a larger chemical unit called
a polymer. By combining monomers, a chain reaction takes place
forming links in the polymer chain. It is important to note that the
process of polymerization cannot only be flammable but also
explosive.

Expansion Ratio
Expansion ratios are a real concern when considering the spread of
the hazard. Compressed gas, especially those in a liquefied form,
will expand exponentially when released from their container. A
large release that takes place after a container failure can cause
great issues. In the discussion earlier concerning a BLEVE it is easy
to see the devastation that can take place from the sudden release
of a flammable liquefied gas as it ignites. For example, a tank car
carrying 40,000 gallons of a liquefied gas can release hundreds of
thousands of cubic feet of vapor/gas. Now reduce that with air to the flammable range and the
release can produce a flammable cloud (plume) that covers a very large geographic area. For
example:
• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) has an expansion ratio of 600:1. LNG is usually a mixture of
methane/ethane.
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) has an expansion ratio of 250:1. LPG is usually a mixture
of propane-butane.
Radiation
Radiation comes in a number of different forms. Typically, there
are two categories of radiation: ionizing radiation and non-ionizing
radiation. Ionizing radiation is very powerful. It has the ability to
detach electrons from atoms and molecules, thereby ionizing that
atom or molecule.

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Non-ionizing radiation is electromagnetic radiation that does not carry sufficient energy to ionize
atoms or molecules. It does cause some of the same health issues as ionizing radiation such as
cancer and DNA changes. Non-ionizing radiation comes from ultraviolet light, visible light,
infrared radiation, microwaves, radios and TVs, and power transmission lines.
Radiation Hazards
Ionizing radiation comes from numerous places. Radioactive
gases in the home, medical tests, cosmic rays, gamma rays from
the ground to name a few. We are constantly bombarded with both
ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
The types (alpha, beta, gamma, x-ray, and neutron) and dosages
of radiation will be discussed in the Toxidrome section of this
program.

Smoke Toxicity
Smoke is a byproduct of combustion. Combustion involves
breaking down materials through the process of fire releasing toxic
products that are very hazardous. Byproducts include carbon
monoxide, ammonia, cyanides, hydrofluoric acid, and carbon
dioxide. The thought that a typical fire is a hazardous materials
incident is very true. Firefighters take
steps to reduce the hazards produced
from fire. These steps include the use
of turn-out gear and a positive pressure SCBA. In addition, most
departments today conduct some level of decontamination of the
firefighters while on the scene, change or wash the gear after fighting
a fire, and require firefighters to shower and change clothing after a
fire. All of these efforts are proof that fire departments are now
recognizing that every fire is a hazardous materials emergency.
Smoke inhalation is probably one of the most
common hazardous materials exposures. Not
only are the particles of the smoke clogging the
external respiratory system (specifically carbon)
there are many irritating and toxic gases
wreaking havoc to the body systems. Upper
airways become irritated and begin to swell shut,
carbon monoxide reduce the ability of the blood
to transport oxygen, and cyanides prevent the

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cells from using oxygen. That is just the smoke part without a consideration of the damage
created by exposure to extreme heat and fire. These are critical patients that need aggressive
treatment to fight this exposure.
Biological Agents
Generally, biological agents include a group of infectious pathogens
or biological toxins. These are bacteria, fungi, viruses, rickettsia
agents, and biological toxins. Some of the most common found in the
arsenal used for biological warfare/terrorism would be anthrax
(bacillus anthracis), Plague (Yersinia Pestis), Ricin, SEB
(Staphylococcal enterotoxin B), and VEE (Venezuelan Equine
Encephalitis). These biological agents can be spread as solids,
liquids, gases, aerosols, and vapors. Most biological weapons were
developed to be dispersed by aerosol methods. Aerosol dispensers range from handheld
industrial sprayers to airplanes. These methods allow the agent to affect the eyes and skin by
direct exposure and the respiratory system by breathing in the aerosol. Biological agents, to
produce the optimal effect, are the size of one to five microns and can remain suspended in the
air for hours. When inhaled they can affect all levels of the external respiratory system.
Contamination and Exposure
Contamination takes place when a chemical makes contact with the
body, clothing, equipment, items in the environment, or PPE being
worn by someone. Remnants of the chemical adhere to the items
and are then transported on these items. Secondary contamination
takes place when a contaminated item is touched or touches
something else passing the chemical to a second item.
Decontamination is provided to reduce or remove the
contamination. This effort prevents secondary contamination.
The difference between exposure and contamination can be difficult
to understand. When you are contaminated, you have been
exposed but you can be exposed and not be contaminated.
Remember that when contamination takes place the chemical or
biological agent is stuck to you. You are physically carrying around
the chemical or biological agent with you. To render a person safe
from contamination they must be decontaminated having the
chemical or biological agent removed. Exposure means that your
body has been in the presence of a chemical. So, if you have contamination on your body, you
are being exposed to the chemical. Some chemicals have the ability
to create an exposure without causing contamination. For
example: if you were to enter a closed garage where a car has been
left running. The carbon monoxide levels are very high. You are
protecting your body by wearing a SCBA knowing that carbon
monoxide enters through your respiratory system. When you leave
the garage, you are no longer exposed to the carbon monoxide as
it does not stick to the body or to equipment and decontamination
for the carbon monoxide exposure is not necessary. All gases have these properties. If a
responder is exposed to a true gas, no contamination takes place…only exposure. Gamma
radiation is very similar. If you are exposed to gamma radiation, you are exposed but not
contaminated. Alpha and beta particles are different. If you are exposed to these particles, then
you are carrying them around with you and need to be decontaminated to be safe.

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The critical difference between the words infectious and contagious

is that an infectious disease is caused by a pathogen that has the
ability to enter the body and multiply causing an infection.
Contagious diseases are pathogens that can be spread from person
to person and create an infection. Not all infectious diseases are
contagious, but all contagious diseases are infectious. Seems very
confusing but remember that you can have an infection with no
danger of spreading it to another person. In simpler terms,
something contagious is also infectious but, something that is infectious, is not always contagious.
The toxic effects of a chemical exposure can come from a single
large exposure or from a longer duration exposure (days, weeks,
and years). An acute exposure can have effects that are both
immediate and/or long term. Carbon Monoxide, for example,
caused immediate headache, weakness, dizziness, and nausea.
Days or weeks later there has been experience with brain
impairment such as confusion, lack of coordination, and behavioral
changes. As mentioned before, an exposure to asbestos may not
have any acute symptoms but the exposure may cause an illness
20 years later.
Often the effects suffered from an acute exposure are different from the effects of a chronic
exposure. A great example of this is the exposure to Benzene. The short-term effects are from
the central nervous system depression. Slurred speech, slow heart rate, slow breathing, and low
core temperature. A chronic exposure to low levels may not produce the drunkenness caused by
acute high dose exposure but, instead leukemia has been associated with chronic benzene
exposure.
Container Stressors
When chemical containers fail it is usually based on one of three
things: thermal, chemical, and mechanical. Chemical containers,
whether they are fixed site, on a rail car, or a truck, fire will
significantly affect the container. Typically, if extreme heat or fire
is allowed to continue to impinge on the container, it will eventually
fail.
Thermal Stress
A good example of Thermal Stress occurred in Lake County. A fire that began at Blue Rhino
propane distributors in Lake County Florida continued to extend because of continued container
failure and BLEVEs. The fire became large very quickly and as the fire grew, so did the danger
to the hundreds of propane containers located at the site. As a result, the fire burned for a few
days, cause serious injuries to a couple of employees, and overwhelmed the local fire department.
Chemical Stress
A good example of Chemical Stress took place in Volusia County on I-4 eastbound. A corrosive
tanker hauling hydrofluoric acid from Texas to the Space Coast suddenly broke in half as it was
heading northeast on Interstate 4 toward Daytona. The rear wheels and the rear of the tank broke
off as it was traveling in the center lane of the highway. The center wheels and rear of the tank
rolled into the median luckily not hitting any other vehicle. The truck and the rest of the tank
proceeded down the center lane and eventually came to a stop after dumping 6,500 gallons of
HF down the highway. The cause of the failure was a leak in the container coating allowing the
HF to reach the metal where it corroded to the point of failure.

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Mechanical Stress
A good example of Mechanical Stress is when tanker trucks roll over as we have seen on the
news so many times involving gasoline tankers. The damage caused by the rollover causes the
tank to leak. In downtown Orlando, a gasoline tanker truck driving on Interstate 4 swerved to miss
a ladder as the came off of the pickup truck ahead. The sudden turn caused the truck and trailer
to roll on its left side on top of a guardrail. The guardrail tore the tank from the front of the tank to
the rear spilling out almost 8,000 gallons of gasoline.
Causes of Container Incidents
Incidents that take place at bulk facilities, manufacturing, or in
transport are generally related to one of these three factors:
accidental, negligence, or intentional from illegal, sabotage, or
terrorist event. Generally, when a root cause analysis takes place
and an after action report is developed the cause is related to one
of these items. A gap analysis should be developed to identify the
gap in policy or procedures that allowed the circumstances causing
the event and new policies and
procedures developed to address
the issue. This can be related to a lack of training, improper
equipment, faulty equipment, or lack of security. Understanding
that just identifying the cause is not enough, there must be
corrective actions put in place to avoid a repeat of the event.
Containers can be damaged a number of ways. If they are involved
in a traffic crash or train derailment the damage they receive by
being struck or rolled over is
mechanical. Mechanical damage can lead to leaking of the product
to, in the case of a pressurized container, sudden releases of
hazardous chemicals. Fire, on the other hand, can impinge of the
outside of a container raising the temperature of the chemical found
in the container. Once the container is pressurized from the
expansion of the chemical from the heat, the container will fail
causing a deadly explosion or a BLEVE (Boiling liquid expanding
vapor explosion).
Failures can be classified into several categories:
• Disintegration of the container from environmental conditions or reaction from the
chemical on the container materials.
• Run-away cracking. Containers under pressure can develop small cracks and while under
pressure these small cracks can run-away, cracking the container and causing container
failure.
• Openings in closures. A common area for an accidental release is a failure of the closure
device (cover). These are usually not dramatic failures but slower and steady leaks that
become larger over time.
• Punctures are damage cause by some mechanical means. Punctures occur when
something strikes the vessel and causes a hole through the tank causing a leak.
• Splits and tears usually occur because of mechanical damage that just occurred or
occurred in the past.
Release types include:
• Detonation because of an explosive of flammable product igniting.

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• A violent rupture occurs with vessels under pressure.

• Rapid relief occurs when a large opening suddenly occurs from a split, crack, or puncture
• Spill or leak is the release of the product without a total failure of the container.

Complete Activity #3
Dispersion Patterns
When a chemical is released, there are several routes that the
chemical will travel away from the scene of the release. The route
or dispersion pattern depends on a number of factors. Weather,
wind, and chemical physical properties all affect how the chemical
will move. For example, the vapor density of the chemical released
will affect it movement. Those gases with a vapor density of <1 will
tend to rise and not create an issue downwind. Gases/vapors that
are heavier than air tend to create a downwind plume. If by chance
there is no wind, the plume will be developed around the
site of the release and build a mushroom type of plume
also called a hemispherical plume. The plume is usually
cone shaped with the point of the cone at the origin of
the leak. Those chemicals gases that were in a liquid
form or stored as a cryogenic gas will tend to create
large clouds. The sudden release of very cold vapors
cause the moisture in the air to form a cloud. Clouds
are visible even if the chemical has no color. Both the
plume and cloud are affected by the wind. Keep in mind
that wind direction is affected by buildings, trees, and hills.
If the chemical is a liquid, it will flow downhill and into ditches, lakes, streams, and larger bodies
of water. It is then important to determine the specific gravity and solubility of the chemical.
Insoluble chemicals with specific gravity of < 1 will float making recovery of the chemical easier
and more complete. Soluble chemicals may become impossible to recover and those with a
specific gravity of > 1 can be difficult depending on the body of water. On uneven ground the
pool will take on an irregular shape. A responder responding to a surface spill should focus on
preventing the chemical from entering waterways or stormdrains.
Vulnerabilities and Risk Assessments
Every responder needs to be aware of vulnerabilities or risks
associated with a hazardous materials release. Of course, at the
top of the list is people. The first priority of every incident is life
safety; people in the general proximity of the location. Other risks
include places, things, and critical infrastructure. In some
acronyms this is referred to as “property”. In addition to these
vulnerabilities is also the environment. The responder must
consider where the spill or leak is going and will it endanger the
environment. The acronym that identifies priorities that will be
discussed later in the program is LIPE which stands for Life Safety, Incident Stabilization, Property
Conservation, and Environmental Preservation.

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Vulnerability assessment is also a hazard/risk assessment and should include the following:
• Identify locations of potential for a hazardous material incident that could cause harm to
life, property, or the environment.
o Analyze the risk and probability of an incident occurring. This information can be
gained from previous emergency events at that location, pre-incident planning
visits, chemical reporting documents, or simply a visit to the location on routine
area familiarization. This will assist you in determining what risk and incident would
present to emergency responders, civilians, property, and the environment.
• Gaining information on:
o Transport routes and frequency of
transports
o Specific risks to people and property in
vulnerable areas
o Past experience with the material and the
facility
o Controls and safeguard mechanisms
currently in place
o Consider the location in respect to the
population and facilities located within the
susceptible area
• After the site visit, estimate the residential population, the number of workers on the site,
nearby recreational facilities, and other high population nearby areas.
• Note highways and waterways that could be affected if a release takes place.
Performing this hazardous analysis/vulnerability assessment will help identify possible scenarios
for various incidents at the location. It will assist in determining what actions are appropriate for
you and your department should an incident occur. In addition, you can determine the resources
needed to assist in mitigation of an event at the location.
Once an event takes place an Operations Level Responder needs
to make several determinations to proceed with an operational
plan. To do this, these questions must be answered to the best of
your ability:
• Where is the event? How much of the facility or location
is involved? Are people in immediate danger? Are there
injuries?
• Where will it go? What are the possibilities for this event
in the near future?
• Who or what will it affect? As the incident moves forward, what is predicted to happen?
Plan for the worse and hope for the best. It is better to be ahead of the incident with your
planning rather than playing catch up with it.

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In addition to evaluating the physical form of the chemical weather

can, and will, play a part in how the incident will affect the
environment, such as temperature when the temperature causes
chemical’s vapor pressure goes up. Therefore, chemicals that are
usually not a great hazard because they vaporize slowly, become
a vapor hazard and possibility a flammability hazard once they are
heated. Diesel fuel is a good example. Diesel is usually difficult
to ignite because it must be heated to produce enough vapors but
spill it on a hot highway and it begins to act more like a flammable
liquid rather than a combustible.
It is not reasonable or expected that an Operations Level
Responder be knowledgeable on all of the aspects of chemical and
physical properties that may change based on the environment. It
is expected that the Operations Level Responder knows who to
call for assistance. Local and regional hazardous materials
response teams with Technician Level Responders are the next
step if the incident is beyond the control of an Operations Level
Responder.

Of course, the hazard risk assessment should take place well

before an incident occurs. This is generally called preplanning. It
can begin with a safety plan that is developed at a facility. These
safety plans identify the role of employees if an incident involving a
chemical takes place. From there many hazardous materials
response teams develop preplans for response to facilities,
highways, or other areas where hazardous material incidents occur.
In addition, there should be plans developed by emergency
management, Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPC), and access to online databases
and plume modeling for vapor and gas releases such as E-Plan. All of these tools are used to
identify and define the community hazard and risk assessment.
When a dispatch/call center answers a call for help involving a
hazardous material they are trained to ask specific questions in an
attempt to gain as much information as possible for the responders.
In addition, the responders also take into consideration a number
of factors. This entire process is called size-up. Size-up for a
hazardous materials event contains many factors and is somewhat
of a complex activity. This program will cover each of these clues
and how to assess them as the incident progresses. They include:
• Occupancy and location
• Placards and labels
• Container shape and size
• Colors and markings
• Shipping papers and facility documents
• Your senses of sight, smell, taste, etc.
• What caused the event

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As discussed earlier, size-up is a continual process and involves

the use of situational awareness. A trained Operations Level
Responder learns to look for clues early in the event and continue
the evaluation process until the situation is mitigated. Using all of
the information gained while enroute to the event that may include:
• Dispatch information
• Preplans
• Knowledge of the site
• Accessed online data
• Senses
Then taking the on-scene information that may include:
• Witnesses
• Facility documents
• Shipping papers
• Containers
• Placards/markings
• Environmental conditions
Develop a Hazard/Risk assessment before any offensive actions are taken.
When dealing with a chemical release you can determine if the
release is a gas/vapor, liquid, or solid. Then you must determine if
it is moving into the air, water, or the ground. When a chemical hits
the ground, it will either stay on the surface or be absorbed into the
ground creating contamination below the surface of the ground.
This chart provides some basic guidance where these chemical
forms can affect.

Estimating Duration
Predicting the time of an event is critical to determine the resources
needed from onset to termination of the event. The term short-
term usually refers to a hazardous materials/WMD event that will
last less than one operational period (usually thought of as 12
hours). If the incident goes longer than one operational period it is
considered to be a medium-term event. If the incident goes
through multiple operational periods it is considered to be a long-
term event. Long-term events can go on for weeks or longer.

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Part 4: Estimating Potential Harm

Resources
Determining the size of a dangerous area created by a hazardous
materials event is a challenge for a Technician Level Responder.
It is even more so for an Operations Level Responder. There are
advanced plume modeling computer based programs that, through
the use of complex calculations, can predict the endangered area
based on wind direction, humidity, vapor density of the chemical,
temperature, and other factors. An Operations Level Responder
is not trained to that level and not expected to utilize these complex
tools to predict the size of the cloud or plume of chemical. Instead,
the best and most reliable tool to use to determine where the cloud/plume might go is to use the
Emergency Response Guidebook. Once you locate the chemical, the guide pages will provide
the initial isolation/evacuation distances. If the chemical is a Table 1 material, then the green
pages will provide the distances based on a small or large spill.
Although this was discussed when vulnerabilities were being
presented it is worth presenting again. This can be used to identify
the type of exposures you may have in the endangered area. The
Emergency Response Guide provides the initial area of protection.
Once that area is established the responder must identify the
vulnerabilities in that hazard area. These vulnerabilities may
include:
• People
• Places
• Things
• Critical Infrastructure
• Environmental Exposure
As mentioned earlier, there are a number of areas to go for help in
determining the concentrations in an endangered area. These
include:
• Printed and computer based chemical plume monitoring and
determine evacuation areas
• Chemtrec
• Cameo
• Use of entry teams equipped with monitors
These are not typical Operations Level Core Competencies.
Remember, when an incident involving hazardous materials takes
place the type of danger/hazards are TEAM-CPR or Thermal,
Etiological, Asphyxiation, Mechanical/Electrical, Chemical,
Psychological, and Radiological. The incident will contain at least
one of these hazards and more often than not, two or more may be
involved.

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Complete Activity #4

Protective Measures for Radiation Emergencies

Radioactivity is generated when certain materials emit energy due
to the instability of the nucleus of an atom. Unstable radioactive
atoms have extra energy in the nucleus and seek to get rid of the
excess energy and return to a stable state by emitting alpha or beta
particles or gamma rays from the nucleus. When these particles
of energy or rays of energy contact matter they cause the matter to
ionize, changing the atomic makeup of the matter. When these
changes affect atoms in living matter, such as body cells, they
become damaged.
Radiation protection is the science and practice of protecting people and the environment from
the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. This is a serious topic in nuclear power plants and in
industry or in medical centers. Radiation protection can be divided into three groups:
1. Occupational radiation protections. This is the protection of workers where their exposure
is directly related to the requirement of their job.
2. Medical radiation protection, which is the protection of patients exposed to radiation as
part of their diagnosis or treatment
3. Public radiation protection, which is the protection of individual members of the public and
of the population in general.
Protection consists of three principles:
1. Limiting Time – The amount of radiation exposure depends directly on the time people
spend near the source of radiation. The dose of radiation can be reduced by limiting
exposure time.
2. Distance – The amount of radiation exposure depends on the distance from the source of
the radiation. Just like heat produced from a fire, the closer you stand the more intense
the heat. The general rule is; if you half the distance to the source you quadruple the
exposure, if you double the distance, you cut the exposure by four.
3. Shielding – Finally, if time and distance do not provide sufficient radiation protection, or
because of the circumstance cannot be accomplished, then shielding must be used.
Radiation shielding usually consists of barriers of lead, concrete, or water.
When the incident involves illicit activities, the responder needs to
be aware of the added threats from a possible secondary device,
armed resistance, use of other weapons, booby traps and
secondary contamination. Responders will need to keep these
thoughts in their evaluation of the incidents. Situational awareness
hopefully will provide clues to the event being criminal before
action is taken that may risk responders.

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Health Effects
Exposures to hazardous materials can not only cause immediate
health issue but also long lasting health related illnesses. An
exposure to carbon monoxide will provide immediate symptoms of
hypoxia that, as long as the exposure was not significant, will
subside when removed from the environment and provided
oxygen. An exposure to asbestos may not cause immediate
symptoms. In fact, it may be years before symptoms arise. But
many who had exposures to asbestos become ill with asbestosis
and mesothelioma cancer, 20 years after the exposure. Health
effects, chronic and acute exposures, and illness will be discussed in detail in another area of this
training program.
Key Terms
Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or mixture
can damage an organism. Toxicity may refer to the effect on an
entire organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, or the
substructure of an organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an
organ such as the liver (hepatotoxicity).
Poisons are substances that cause death, injury, or harm to
organs, usually by chemical reactions or other activity on the
molecular level.
The field of medicine distinguish a poison from a toxin in that toxins are poisons produced by
organisms in nature.
A toxicant is any toxic substance and are usually considered to be human-made. In contrast, a
toxin is a poison produced naturally by an organism (e.g., plant, animal, insect). The different
types of toxicants can be found in the air, soil, water, or food.
Routes of Exposure
When chemical exposures take place, they gain access into the
body through several means. These are called routes of entry or
routes of exposure.
Inhalation
The first and the most
efficient is through the
process of inhalation
into the respiratory
system. Although this is the most common route of
entry for emergency responders it is not the most
common exposure reported in industry. It is important
to note that there are several factors that affect the
level of toxicity of the exposure.
Size of particle – The smaller the particle of solid
material (dust, powder) being inhaled the deeper it will
go into the respiratory system. Larger solid particles
tend to be filter in the nasal/oral cavity and in the
upper areas of the external respiratory system.

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Solubility of the material being inhaled. Vapors and gases are chemicals found in the air. If
these chemicals are inhaled, solubility determines where in the external respiratory system they
will be captured and absorbed. Water soluble chemical vapor/gases tend to absorb quickly into
the water soluble mucous found in the airways between the fine bronchioles and the oral pharynx.
Non-water soluble and poorly soluble chemicals are actually repelled by the water soluble mucous
and tend to go all the way to the alveoli. In the alveoli they are absorbed into the lipoprotein
substance called pulmonary surfactant. Whether a chemical is water soluble or non-water soluble
(also called lipid soluble), it can affect the tissue of the external respiratory system and cause
significant injury.
Absorption of the skin and eyes. There are several factors that slow or prevent absorption
through the skin. One, and probably the most important, is the thickness of the skin.
Understanding that the thickest skin on the body is the bottom of the feet and palms of hands,
these areas are not good locations for absorption of chemical. On the other hand, skin in the
groin area and face are very thin and are excellent for absorption. Other factors include
penetrations through the outer layer of skin such as hair follicles, oil, and sweat glands. Therefore,
the scalp and under arms are included as opportune areas for absorption. Lipid soluble materials
are absorbed very well through dry skin, and water soluble is absorbable through wet skin. Of
course, the amount of time the chemical is in contact also determines the dose that is received.
The eyes are a different situation. Because the tissue is somewhat more fragile than the skin,
chemicals have the ability to not only absorb easier but also create greater damage. Acids and
alkalis cause damage to the surface tissue of the eyes and, if left in the eye, gain access deeper
into the cornea causing loss of visual acuity and blindness. Other chemicals can be absorbed
but the eye represents a small area and the absorption of large quantities of a chemical are
unlikely.
Ingestion takes place when food and drink are contaminated.
When a chemical is ingested and proceeds into the
gastrointestinal (GI) system where it is absorbed and is sent via
the blood stream, into the liver for detoxification. In many cases,
the liver efficiently reduces the toxicity of the chemical. In other
cases, the GI system is damaged, or the liver is damaged. This
is not a common route of entry for accidental chemical exposures,
but it does take place if decontamination is not conducted or
completed adequately.
Injection can occur after a trauma where a puncture or laceration takes place from a sharp
contaminated item. These injuries are subtle and may not show signs of contamination or injury
for days or weeks after tissue destruction become visible or painful. Injection can also take place
from the rapid escape of high pressure gases or liquids. Placing unprotected skin in close
proximity to escaping gases or liquids under pressure can force a chemical between the skin cell
walls and into the subcutaneous tissue. Once in the subcutaneous tissue the chemical can create
injury at the site or can be absorbed and affect a different target organ.

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Types of Poisons
There are many different types of chemical poisons and toxins.
Usually, they are named after the target organ that they effect or
the end result of the exposure. For example:
Hemotoxin – a poison affecting the hemoglobin
Neurotoxin – a poison affecting the nervous system
Nephrotoxin – a poison affecting the kidneys. (Nephro is a prefix
meaning kidney)
Hepatotoxin – a poison affecting the liver. (Hepat is a prefix
meaning liver)
Mutagen – a poison causing a change (mutation) of DNA
Teratogen – a poison causing damage to a developing fetus
(means monster forming)
Carcinogen – a poison causing cancer
Asphyxiants – a chemical causing asphyxia
Exposure Limits and Terminology
When evaluating health hazards to determine the level of danger you must understand a number
of terms that are used to describe the danger. These terms are found on SDS sheets and also
in the NIOSH Pocket Guide. The exposure limits section provides information on the exposure
limits of the chemical. An exposure is the amount of the chemical the person has come in contact
with. This contact does not have to be direct contact with a liquid or solid but also include
exposure to chemicals in a vapor or gas form.
Exposure is different from contamination. Contamination is when you come in contact with a solid
or liquid and actually still have the chemical on your body. With contamination you have the ability
to contaminate someone else or other items such as tools or items in the environment. This is
called secondary contamination. An exposure, on the other hand, means that you have been
subjected to the effects of the substance, but you pose no threat of
contaminating anyone or anything else.
These exposure limits are expressed in parts per million (PPM).
The Time Weighted Average (TWA). Threshold Limit Value also
called the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) is the safe level of
a substances’ airborne concentration to which a normally healthy
person can be exposed to for 8 hours a day, 5 days a week without
detrimental health effects.
In industry there may be times when a worker has to enter an area that has concentrations of a
chemical above the TLV/TWA. The Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is developed for this
reason. The STEL is a concentration higher than the TLV/TWA that is allowed for a worker to be
exposed to for 15 minutes at a time without adverse effects. This STEL can only be done up to
4 times a day with at least 60 minutes between each exposure.
The Ceiling Limit (C) is the maximum concentration you can be exposed to without any adverse
side effects. Exposure above this will produce an effect. The effect may be seen right away (acute
effects) or may not show up for years (chronic effects). Any level of the chemical above the

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Ceiling Level will require the use of appropriate personal protective equipment and respiratory
protection.
Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) refers to the dose of a solid or liquid measured in milligrams per kilogram
that killed 50% of the test animals in a controlled environment.
Lethal Concentration 50 (LC50) is the dose of a gas measured in
parts per million in air that killed 50% of the test animals in a
controlled environment. The reason a responder may consider
these levels is to provide some idea of the level of toxicity of the
chemical involved. Therefore, the lower the numbers the greater
the toxicity of the chemical.
Lethal Dose Low (LD (low)) is the lowest dose of a solid or liquid
that will kill one test subject. This is not a reliable source of
measuring toxicity because of sensitivity, genetic characteristics of the sample population, the
species type that has been tested, factors in the environment and, the method of administration.
Lethal Concentration Low (LD (low)) is the lowest dose of a gas
that will kill one test subject. Just like LD (low) this is not a reliable
measure of toxicity because of the factors that may affect the first
subject to die.
Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) is the
atmospheric concentration of a substance that is immediately
dangerous to life or would cause adverse effects that would cause
adverse health effects or hinder the individual’s ability to escape
from the contaminated atmosphere.
Influences on Toxicity
There are a number of factors that influences the toxicity of an
exposure. The amount of time a person is exposed to a chemical
the greater effect, from that exposure, will be. If an unprotected
person enters an environment containing a chemical gas or vapor,
the more time they spend in that environment, the more severe the
exposure effects will be even if the chemical is in a low
concentration. If the concentration in the environment is very high,
and the victim is only exposed for a short time, the effects may be
the same as a longer duration of exposure to a lower concentration.
This concept is called the dose/time relationship. Long exposure to a lower concentration = a
higher concentration for a short exposure. The same is true for a skin exposure. Lack of
decontamination or poor decontamination results in a longer exposure. Depending on the
chemical this can create a significant injury. This injury can be the same as an exposure to a
much higher concentration of a chemical for a short time followed by excellent decontamination.

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As mentioned previously there are other factors that affect how a

chemical can affect the body. Some people, because of a variety
of factors that may include age factors, overall health, and genetic
difference, have greater effect from the chemical. This is called a
sensitivity to the chemical. As the LD (low) and LC (low) indicated there
is the first test subject to die at the lowest concentration of the
chemical exposure, this is the test subject experiencing sensitivity.
In addition, environmental factors such as temperature, humidity,
and chemical factors such as solubility and vapor pressure.
When a victim is exposed to 2 or more chemicals several effects
may occur. This also occurs when the victim is taking certain
medications. Some medications can cause much worse symptoms
from an exposure than the same exposure to a person not taking
the same medication. These influences are:
Synergism is when there is an expected effect from the exposure
to one chemical and an expected effect from the exposure to a
second chemical. But when a victim is exposed to both of these
chemicals together, the effects are much greater than the combination of the two individually.
Potentiation is when the same exposure to a chemical is given over time but the effects from
that exposure become more intense or more dramatic.
Antagonism is when the exposure to one chemical is expected to cause predictable effects but
the exposure to a second chemical decreases or eliminates those effects.
Toxic Syndromes (Toxidromes)
Toxic syndromes also called toxidromes are categories of toxic
chemical exposure that causes similar symptoms. These are
categorized differently depending on what program you may be
learning from. In this Operations program the toxidromes will
follow the same ones that are presented in detail in the Florida
Hazardous Materials Medical Protocols found on the State
Emergency Response Commission (SERC) website. There are
six toxidromes identified in that document. They are as follows:
• Corrosive and Irritant Toxidrome
• Asphyxiant Toxidrome
• Cholinergic Toxidrome
• Hydrocarbon and Derivatives Toxidrome
• Etiologic Toxidrome
• Radiologic Toxidrome

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Corrosive and Irritant Toxidrome

Corrosives represent two categories: acids and bases (alkalis).
Both of these categories cause tissue destruction.
Acids actually cause a coagulation of the proteins called
Coagulation Necrosis. In an interesting way, the coagulation of the
proteins actually form a material (coagulum) that slows the
absorption of the acid and delays more serious injury. Because
acid injuries create almost immediate pain, the victim will
decontaminate the exposure using water or wiping it off with other
absorbent material.
Bases cause tissue destruction through liquefying the collagens and fats of the skin. This is a
slower process that does not generate immediate pain. This tissue injuring process is called
liquefaction necrosis. Unfortunately, as the base works to liquify and absorb deeper into the
tissue, pain is delayed. When the pain begins, decontamination cannot be complete because
some of the base has gone below the surface of the tissue. Therefore, base or alkali injuries are
said to be 20 time worse.
Vesicants/Blister agents were developed as military antipersonnel weapons. These specific
weapons were alkylating agents causing severe damage to any tissue it comes in contact with
including skin, eyes, and respiratory system. On the skin it causes the formation of large blisters
(hence the name). When it has been used in wartime, blindness was one of the largest lasting
effects from exposure.
Acids and bases work in a very similar manner when an eye exposure takes place. Acids quickly
attack the top layer of tissue and it is sloughed off of the surface of the eye. Pain is immediate so
the victim generally does whatever is necessary to remove the chemical. Bases go deeper and
begin destroying the tissue deeper in the cornea and causing discoloration. Pain has a slow onset
leading to delayed decontamination of the eyes. This leads to a much more serious injury.
In the respiratory system, the destruction leads to severe shortness of breath, wheezing, and
pulmonary edema (fluid filling the alveoli). The most common of these acids and bases that irritate
the respiratory system are chlorine, ammonia, chloramine, and phosgene.
Antipersonnel (pepper spray and CN) are not acids or bases but affect the eyes, skin, and
respiratory system with severe pain and irritation. These chemicals are made from a component
found in peppers called capsicum. This chemical actually stimulates pain nerve endings causing
spontaneous depolarization of the pain receptors. This generates pain, not from actual tissue
damage, but from over stimulation. Most last only a short period of time (about 30 minutes) and
require no special treatments.
Sensitizers are chemicals that can cause allergic-type reactions in a person who has the
sensitivity. Sometimes sensitivity develops over time after numerous exposures and sometimes
they appear suddenly and without warning. These reactions include minor symptoms including
coughing, redness of the eyes, and red raised area of the skin or rashes. They may also include
serious reactions such as bronchial construction, loss of vascular tone (loss of blood pressure),
unconsciousness, and death. These symptoms may be temporary or may leave a victim with
permanent injury. Some chemicals are known to quickly cause sensitizing reactions such as:
formaldehyde and some heavy metals.

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Asphyxiant Toxidrome
Asphyxiants are found in two forms: Simple and Chemical. Simple
asphyxiants are any chemical gas or vapor that displaces oxygen
from an environment to less than 19.5%. Typical air has 20.9%
oxygen. Simple asphyxiants like carbon dioxide do not have other
toxic qualities but because it is heavier than air it has the ability to
push oxygen out of low lying areas and confined spaces causing
an oxygen depletion. Fires in structures cause a similar issue. Fire
consumes oxygen and replaces it with a number of other gases. It
does not take long, in a structure fire, to reduce the oxygen
concentration to below 19.5% and eventually interfere with a person’s ability to safely leave the
structure.
Chemical asphyxiants work differently. They interfere with the transportation or use of oxygen in
the body. Carbon monoxide is an excellent example. Carbon monoxide attaches to the
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is responsible for moving large quantities of oxygen to the cells. When
carbon monoxide attached to the hemoglobin, called carboxyhemoglobin, oxygen cannot be
efficiently transported, and the cells become hypoxic. Nitrites/Nitrates are similar in the fact that
they change hemoglobin to methemoglobin. Methemoglobin does not carry oxygen and causes
cellular asphyxia.
Cyanide and hydrogen sulfide are the other chemical asphyxiants. These two chemicals enter
the cells and stop the cell from using oxygen. The process is different than with carbon monoxide
or nitrates/nitrites, but the results are the same. The cells suffer from a lack of oxygen and hypoxia
leading to death.
Cholinergic Toxidrome
Cholinergics are chemicals that bind with an enzyme called
acetylcholinesterase. Organophosphate insecticides, military
nerve agents, and carbamate insecticides are all chemicals that
bond to this enzyme. The nervous system is controlled through a
number of nerve cells that transmit electrical conductions
throughout the body. The autonomic (also called the
parasympathetic nervous system) nervous system is that part of
the nervous system that automatically controls specific functions
in the body. Things like sweating, producing saliva, tears, mucous
in the airways, and controls peristalsis. The nerve cells in the autonomic nervous system pass
the electrical impulse from one cell to another cell across a synapse. The synapse is a gap
between cells. When the impulse reaches the synapse, the cell releases acetylcholine into the
synapse. Acetylcholine is a chemical used as a transmitter (neuro-transmitter) of the electrical
conduction through the synapse. If acetylcholine is left in the synapse, it will generate another
electrical conduction, and another, and another. This is a problem when the electrical conduction
(message) is to the salivary glands telling it to produce saliva. Over stimulation produces a
continuous flow of saliva. Instead, the enzyme acetylcholinesterase sweeps into the synapse and
removes the acetylcholine stopping overstimulation of the nerve cell. Organophosphates
(including military nerve agents) and carbamates bonds with the enzyme and cause an over
production of nerve impulses basically poisoning the patient. The loss of acetylcholinesterase
causes uncontrolled sweating, salivation, mucous in the airways, tearing, and diarrhea and
continuous urination. If not corrected this condition is deadly.

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Hydrocarbons and Derivatives Toxidrome

Hydrocarbons include those chemicals typically used for fuels and
solvents. These chemicals cause Central Nervous System
Depression. An exposure can slow breathing, lower core
temperature, decrease blood pressure, and cause a drunkenness
type behavior. The other things that hydrocarbons are capable of
doing is causing cardiac sensitivity that can be seen on an EKG as
atrial and ventricular ectopy (irregular beats). Caution needs to be
taken when treating the patient with any drug that will further
stimulate the heart as this could lead to fatal rhythms.
Hydrocarbons also lower the seizure threshold. Epileptic patients who control their seizures with
meds may suffer from seizures when exposed to hydrocarbons.
Toxic alcohols include ethylene glycol commonly used as antifreeze in automobiles. This alcohol
is sweet to the taste but is extremely toxic causing destruction of the liver and other solid organs.
The common practice of washing greasy hands in gasoline or diesel fuel can be dangerous
because of the systemic effects especially with a history of cardiac issues or epilepsy.
Etiologic Toxidrome
Etiologic agents are those pathogens that cause infection in the
body. The etiologic infectious agents are made up of bacteria,
viruses, and biological toxins. Viruses such as hepatitis A, B, and
C, HIV, Herpes, Ebola, and Corona-19 are great examples of
infectious agents. These are either primary pathogens or
opportunistic pathogens. Opportunistic agents gain access
through routes such as open wounds, the respiratory system, the
gastrointestinal system, and target those with compromised
immune systems. Primary pathogens do not need an
opportunistic route. They can attack the body right through perfectly intact skin. Measles,
smallpox, and gonorrhea of primary pathogens. The biggest danger from a terrorist event is the
use of opportunistic pathogens which are bacterial like anthrax and plague, viral like Viral
Hemorrhagic Fever, or biological toxin like botulinum toxin and ricin. Avoiding exposure to blood
and body fluids by using PPE can help from exposure. EMTs and paramedics are familiar with
body substance isolation (BSI) and universal precautions. These are PPE specific for infectious
pathogens.
Other organisms that cause disease include fungi (plant-like organisms such as oral thrush and
athlete’s foot), parasites (organisms that live on other organisms, such as those that cause
trichinosis and dysentery), and rickettsia (microorganisms transmitted by insects, such as the tick
that carries Lyme disease).
Radiologic Toxidrome
Alpha radiation is the largest particle of radiation and it can only
be propelled about 4” from the source. It is somewhat weak in
paper or intact skin. The biggest danger from alpha radiation is
when it contaminates the body, gains access through the mouth,
nose, or eyes, and internally causes harm to cells. The best
protection from alpha radiation is using a SCBA to protect the
most common routes of entry.
Beta particles are much smaller, move faster and penetrate
further than alpha particles. They have higher energy levels and can travel about 30 feet from

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the source. In close proximity to the source, beta particles can penetrate ½” into the skin. This
can cause serious skin burns and is very hazardous to the eyes. Like alpha particles they can be
picked up by air movement and become a respiratory hazard. Walls, thin metal, and earth all
provide excellent protection from beta particles. A SCBA will protect the respiratory system from
airborne particles.
Gamma rays and x-rays are not particles but high energy electromagnetic waves. They are
stopped only with dense shielding such as lead or several feet of concrete. As the rays of energy
pass through the body cells are destroyed. Destruction is much greater with gamma rays than
with x-rays, but both cause cellular damage. There are few radiating materials that only emit
alpha or beta. Most emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
Neutrons are particles found in the nucleus of an atom. They are released during different
processes such as splitting an atomic nucleus (nuclear fission). Neutrons are larger than beta
particles and have ¼ the mass of alpha particles. These particles have high energy causing
extreme damage to human tissue. They can penetrate thick lead shields but are rare because
they are usually only found after an atomic weapon is detonated.
Radiological Exposure
The standard unit of measure for radiation activity is the REM
(Radiation Equivalence in Man). The Sv (Sievert) is an
internationally acceptable term.
1 Sv = 100 REM
1 REM = 1,000 mREM (milli REM)
1 mREM = 1,000 µREM (micro REM)
In the past, and even in some current information the unit of measurement called a roentgen is
used. Roentgen (R) was used as a unit of measurement for both gamma rays and x-rays. The
rule of thumb is 1 R = 1 REM.
Exposure Limits
The dose of radiation is equal to the dose rate (amount of radiation)
times the duration of the exposure. Radiation response also works
on action levels. Action levels provide guidelines for emergency
response and decision making when entering a radioactive scene.
The following can be used for that decision making process:
• Normal background radiation is 8 to 16 µREM/hr
• All actions = 5 REM (5,000 mREM). Any work in the hot zone should be limited to a dose
of 5 REM or less.
• Live Saving = 25 REM (25,000 mREM). If there are lifesaving efforts in the hot zone
rescuers may go over action levels to 25 REM as a one-time only dose.
• Any greater exposure must be voluntary. Any exposure greater than 25 REM can only
take place if the responder is informed and they volunteer to be exposed to a greater
amount.

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Caring for the Radiologically Injured HM Patient

Victims of a hazardous material exposure from a radiologic
exposure cannot be handled like any other medical emergency.
First, these victims may need decontamination prior to any
advanced treatment. Decontamination of an injured victim must
include removal all clothing. This alone may reduce contamination
by up to 70%. Next decontamination needs to be conducted.
There are several means of decontamination that will be
discussed later. Once decontamination is complete, BLS and ALS
support can be accomplished. A general rule is that if the victim
has immediate symptoms from a radiologic exposure, the injury is severe, the victim rarely
survives.
Transportation to a medical facility should only be completed after communication with the
receiving facility. The HazMat Alert protocol is also located in the Florida Hazardous Materials
Advance Medical Protocols.
For more information concerning the treatment of hazardous
materials victim, these agencies can provide information to both
the field medical provider and the receiving medical facility. They
include:
• Regional Poison Control Center. 3 located in Florida in
Miami, Tampa, and Jacksonville.
• CDC located in Atlanta Georgia
• Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry
• Online programs like: ChemKnowledge, and W.I.S.E.R.

Complete Activity #5

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Section Two – Planning the Response

Part 1: Describing Response Objectives

HazMat Goals
Hazardous materials goals for Operations Level Responders
include the goals identified for Awareness Responders and
additional goals that are defensive in nature but more aggressive
that those for Awareness Responders. Awareness Responders
recognize/identify, isolate the incident, protect those in danger,
and notify other responders for assistance. The Operations Level
Responder also has duties of spill control, leak control, fire
control, recovery, and termination as long as it can be
accomplished without entering a chemical environment that
require advanced PPE or skills. Many times, these additional goals can be completed in a
defensive manner not using offensive actions conducted by the Technician Level Responder.
Priorities and Steps to Manage the Incident
When developing objectives to address the emergency these
priorities must be considered first. The acronym LIPE is used to
remember the four most important priorities. They are Life (your
life, your crew’s life, and the public’s life), stabilizing the Incident,
Property conservation, and protecting the Environment.

This program is set up to follow the acronym APIE; Analyze, Plan,

Implement, and Evaluate. The GEDAPER acronym has also long
been used in the hazmat field. GEDAPER is a bit more detailed
but follows the same premise as APIE. GEDAPER is: Gather
information, estimated potential course and harm, determine
strategic goals, assess tactical options to meet goals, plan and
implement the actions, evaluate progress, and review. Either of
these acronyms can be used to assist in the development of an
Incident Action Plan (IAP) as described in the Incident Command
System (ICS).

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Response Objectives
One of the early duties of an Incident Commander is to develop
the objectives for the incident. These objectives guide the
response. Objectives are written for each operational period.
These objectives must be SMART objectives. This means that
they must be written specific, be measurable, must be achievable,
realistically accomplishable, and be time-bound (lets the reader
know when they will be accomplished).
Risk vs Benefit
In the fire service the analysis of risk versus benefits are
determined sometimes in seconds. At the scene of a fire, a
company officer will assess the fire and building and make a
determination to do an interior firefight or an exterior. These
decisions are made quickly and aggressively. A hazardous
materials incident is a good bit different. Decisions are planned
better and usually proceed with less aggression. In a hazardous
materials incident, the risks must be justified by the benefits that
will be achieved. When there is a chance of the rescue of a victim
that who has a high probability of survival, high risk may be taken to achieve that rescue.
Moderate risk may be taken if survivability cannot be determined but is possible. Other than these
situations high or moderate risk is difficult to justify from the benefits.
Determining if Rescue is Possible
In order to take high risk to rescue a victim the following needs to
be considered:

• How long has the victim been trapped.

• How toxic is the material and what is the survivability of an
extended exposure?
• Is the victim showing any signs of life?
• What is the risk with the PPE that is currently available?
• If a decision is made to attempt the rescue you must:
o Have a back-up team ready in case the entry team needs rescuing
o Have emergency decontamination available and set up before entry is made.
• OSHA recognizes line-of-site rescue if you can answer yes to these questions.

Part 2: Identify Action Options

There may be many ways to complete an objective. In the
Incident Command System these are considered to be action
options. These options should be presented and then the best
option selected. The selection of the options may be based on
the following:
• Amount of resources needed
• Resources on hand
• Cost of each option
• Timeline of each option
• Overall ability by the on-scene responders

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Identify Options
Each objective developed by command needs to be reviewed by the
Operations Section Chief to determine how it can be accomplished
tactically. The Operations Section Chief, working with the hazmat
branch officer will evaluate options to address the objective. Then
the option that best matches the situation and resources will be
selected. The option also has to be approved by the Planning and
Logistics Section Chiefs and been reviewed by the Finance Section
Chief to ensure that the options will fit into the budget for the
incident.
Prioritizing Victims
When multiple victims are involved the challenges of caring for them
after an exposure is difficult and hazardous. Every patient removed
from the contaminated area must be decontaminated prior to any
advanced treatment is conducted.
• Children exposed to chemicals will have significantly worse
symptoms that an adult. Children breathe faster and their
heart rate is faster making the exposure more efficient and
creating a more severe response.
• The elderly, because of diminished cardiac and pulmonary capability will also show severe
symptoms before healthy, young, and middle-aged adults.
• The other high-risk exposure are pregnant women. Many chemicals that cause systemic
injury cross the placental barrier and expose the fetus.
Keeping these high-risk victims in mind, the health care provider must determine the order for
patients to be treated and transported to the definitive healthcare facility.

Part 3: Determining Suitability of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

HazMat PPE
Operations Level Responders are trained to take defensive
actions making every effort to eliminate direct contact with the
chemical. In many situations, the defensive and timely actions are
sufficient to stabilize the incident. But, if the defensive actions are
not enough to stabilize the incident, more offensive actions may
be needed. These offensive actions require responders to interact
with the chemical in one form or another. To function in this
capacity the responder must be trained to the Technician Level.
Technicians are trained to use a higher level of protection against the chemical as their offensive
actions may require them to work in environments and atmospheres containing chemicals and
come in direct contact with these chemicals as well. The protection afforded to Technician Level

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Responders includes chemical protective clothing and other related equipment. Understanding
what clothing and respiratory protection to use and to determine when it is necessary is essential
to protecting responders. The different types of chemical protective garments are numerous.
Technicians are trained to select the specific suits based on the chemical properties and the
hazards present. This Operations program will not go into suit protections specifically as that is
information and training reserved for the Technician program.
As presented earlier in the program, one of the easiest and most
proficient means for a chemical to gain access into the body is
through an unprotected respiratory system. Respiratory exposure
is the most common way that a responder is exposed. Therefore,
it is important to review the options for respiratory protection on a
hazardous materials incident.

Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) has been a staple

in the fire service for protecting a firefighter’s respiratory system for
both hot air and toxic chemicals found in smoke. Today’s self-
contained breathing apparatus are positive pressure maintaining
pressure in the mask at all times thus, reducing the opportunity for
toxic material to gain access. Although positive pressure breathing
apparatus are very effective, and have had many improvements
over the years, it is not completely failsafe and have limitations.
• Air bottles (holding only compressed air) are rated for 30,
45, and 60 minutes.
• Weight of the cylinders have been reduced but are still bulky and
somewhat heavy.
• Back plates and harnesses are made to be more ergonomic and
comfortable with easily accessible controls.
• Heads up displays allow the user to easily see the amount of air
remaining in the cylinder and provides automatic warning when the
air is low.
• Breathing apparatus used for firefighting also have alarms if the air pack does not sense
movement that may indicate a firefighter that has gone unconscious.
• Impairs both vision and movement of the firefighter.
• Provides the highest level of respiratory protection in a hazardous atmosphere.

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Supplied air respirators, also called positive pressure supplied air respirators (PP SAR) provide
the user with positive pressure air through a full facemask very similar to a
SCBA. The big difference is that this respirator does not have a backpack
containing a heavy and bulky cylinder. The advantages to using a SAR includes:
• Instead of a heavy cylinder for air, a hose line delivers the needed air to
supply the user.
• It can provide almost an endless supply of air and does not reduce the
movement as much as a SCBA does.
• The airline can be connected to a group of cylinders that can be individually
replaced with full cylinders without interrupting the air flow.
• The airline can also be attached to a large cylinder giving long duration air
supply.
• Protects the user from airborne toxic chemicals and dust.
• The airline still provides limitations with movement because the user must be tethered to
the air supply.
• OSHA limits the length of the hose line to 300 feet or less.
• The airline is susceptible to damage or contamination.
Air Purifying Respirators (APR) are also known as cartridge
respirators. These are basically filtering
masks that remove contaminates from
the air through the use of special filters.
These may not be the best consideration
for an emergency situation. The filters
must be selected for the specific chemical in the air. In addition, they
are not to be used in an oxygen depleted atmosphere. The oxygen
concentration in the mask is directly dependent on the concentration of
oxygen in the air. These respirators were designed and developed for
industry workers who are exposed to very controlled air environments.
When used in the right circumstance they do have some advantages:
• Better mobility because there is no cylinder on the user’s back and no airline keeping the
user tethered to an air supply bottle.
• Very lightweight and can be tolerated for longer periods.
• Less physical stress.
Powered Air Purifying Respirators (PAPR) are a nice improvement over
the typical APR. The user of the APR will find
that over time fatigue will begin to affect them
as they are working to draw air through the
filter into their respiratory system. The
powered air purifying respiratory essentially
places a fan in the system that forces air
through the filters relieving the stress of
drawing air through the filters. This greatly
reduces the physical energy needed and allows the user to work for
longer periods. In addition, the fan also creates a positive pressure situation inside of the mask
(or hood) reducing the chance of accidental exposure.

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Not only is PPE uncomfortable, limit your movements and vision,

create a high humidity and high heat environment, and, in the case
of the APR, causes fatigue because of the extra effort to breath,
they also create some psychological stress as well.
There is a certain amount of stress involved in being zipped up into
a fully encapsulating suit. Firefighter who are used to wearing
firefighting turn-out gear can still have claustrophobic effects in
chemical protective equipment. In addition, and adding to the
stress, is the loss of dexterity and movement. The only way to reduce the psychological stress is
through familiarity with the equipment. Regular training, repeated practice, and experience will
all reduce the stress factor involved in wearing chemical PPE.
PPE Selection
Although there are many different types of respiratory protective
equipment the most popular in the fire service will always be the
SCBA. In fact, the SCBA provides the highest level of protection
available. Today’s SCBAs are all positive pressure, must be fit
tested, and supply clean air from a compressed bottle worn on the
back. The only other type of respiratory protection that is close to
the efficiency of the SCBA is a supplied air respirator (SAR).
Wearing SCBA or SAR inside of a chemical protective suit will
provide great protection. If a SAR is chosen to be worn in an
encapsulating suit, the suit must be modified to accommodate the supply hose to enter the suit.
Any form of the Air Purifying Respirator (APR) is generally not used in emergency response. APR
filters must be selected based on the specific chemical atmosphere being entered. In addition,
the atmosphere must contain the normal 20.9% oxygen because the APR does not supply any
oxygen at all. Therefore, the APR is generally used in industry where exact chemicals can be
determined and oxygen concentrations can be ensured.
Operations Level Responders are generally not trained on the
selection and use of chemical protective suits. There are many
different kinds and different levels to choose from. All chemical
protective suits protect the skin from chemical exposure. A typical
firefighter responds with their firefighting turn-out gear. Firefighting
turn-out gear is not rated for chemical exposure although it does
provide limited protection. The firefighter gears integrity is quickly
diminished by chemical exposure; therefore, it should never be
considered as a routine form of protection from a chemical
exposure. There may be a time when there is a possible line-of-site rescue situation for a victim
in a contaminated environment. In this isolated case, a rescue may be attempted with firefighting
PPE. This can only be attempted after the risk vs benefit is reviewed and then only if a backup
team member is dressed out, on-air, and ready to rescue the responder if anything happens. In
addition, decontamination must be made immediately available as soon as the rescuer exits the
hot zone.

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As mentioned earlier, there are many forms of personal protective

equipment. In this program there have been discussion on the
different levels of chemical PPE. Firefighters typically use
firefighting personal protective equipment that is designed to
protect the wearer from the heat of the fire. There are also proximity
suits used in aircraft and flammable liquid fires that reflect the heat
rays and keep the responder cool while working in the suit. In
addition, EMTs, paramedics, nurses, and physicians wear PPE that
is specific to protect them from infectious pathogens. Anyone who
is required to wear PPE must understand its capabilities and its limitations.

Part 4: Identifying Emergency Decontamination Issues

Decontamination is defined as the removal of hazardous substance
from equipment, PPE, and personnel in an effort to eliminate or
reduce the exposure of a chemical. The effort of decontamination
is ultimately to avoid any health complications or effects that could
occur as a result of the exposure. So, decontamination is a process
used to remove dangerous contamination from personnel,
equipment, and the area to ensure safety and eliminate the
possibility of further exposure to a harmful substance.
How Contamination Occurs
Contamination occurs when a person or item is in the general vicinity
of a hazardous materials release. Chemicals come in many forms:
solids, liquids, and gases. Liquids can become airborne as mists and
vapors, which are not pure gas, but liquids suspended in the air.
Solids can be suspended in the air as powders. With that said all but
true gases have the ability to contaminate people, tools, equipment,
apparatus, and the environment. Chemicals settle on or stick to items
they come in contact with. On the other hand, a victim can be
exposed to a chemical gas, have health effects from that exposure, but never be contaminated
from it. A gas does not settle on or stick to a person or object. Once a chemical contaminates
an item, that item can cause secondary contamination to anyone who touches it. To make the
item that is contaminated safe, it must go through the process of
decontamination.
Types of Contamination
Secondary contamination takes place
when a contaminated person or item
comes in contact with another person or
item. The chemical contamination can
then be transferred to the second item or
person. There are two methods of becoming contaminated: direct
and secondary contamination. Direct contamination is described
above; when the person or object is in the vicinity of the hazardous
material and it settles on or sticks to the item or person. Secondary contamination (cross
contamination) occurs when an item or person who had direct contamination touches or comes
in contact with another person or item and transfers the contamination.

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The key is to determine how to avoid contamination in the first place.

This is accomplished through training. Learning not to enter areas of
contamination and how to avoid touching or coming in contact with
the chemical is important. If contamination cannot be avoided, then
using proper PPE is critical then ensuring proper decontamination
prior to doffing the PPE. Understanding the chemical and physical
properties of a chemical will assist you in determining if
decontamination is needed and if it is, what kind of decontamination
will efficiently remove the chemical.
Methods of Decontamination
Methods of decontamination range from simple to technical. They
can involve throwing away contaminated items to using chemicals
to neutralize the contamination chemical.
For an Operations Level Responder the process does not have to
be complex, but it is important to understand the different types of
decontamination.
Dilution
The first is dilution. Dilution is simply using water to carry away
the offending chemical. Dilution works great on water soluble
chemicals that are easily absorbed into the volumes of water.
Adding a surfactant such as soap assists in the process of
removing chemicals that are not water soluble or only partially
water soluble. In addition, some scrubbing actions with soft
brushes may be needed to completely remove the
contaminant. Using a mild detergent and water is the most common type of decontamination
solution. It is commonly used on PPE, equipment, and other items that are contaminated. Clothes
detergent or dish detergent are the most often used as they generally do not cause harm to the
items being cleaned.
Absorption
Absorption is another form of decontamination. It involves soaking up liquid contaminant with an
absorbing material. This may be an absorbent pad or an absorbent granular material. The
absorbent does not change the chemical, so the hazards of the chemical contaminant are
preserved. Care needs to be taken with whatever material was used. Disposal must be done in
the same manner as the disposal of the liquid contaminant.
Adsorption
Adsorption is similar to absorption except the chemical adheres to the outside surface of the
adsorbent. Absorbents are often used on flammable or combustible hydrocarbons because the
absorption qualities tend to subdue the generation of vapors. Using an adsorbent material on a
flammable or combustible liquid actually increases the surface area and increases the production
of vapors.
Chemical Degradation/Neutralization
Chemical Degradation/Neutralizations is a form of technical decontamination that involves adding
a chemical to the contaminant in an attempt to render it harmless or to reduce the hazard. The
advantage of using these methods is that the chemical hazard is reduced or eliminated.
Neutralization is often done with acids and bases. Using a weak base on an acid or a weak acid

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on a base will generally generate a gas and leave a salt solution behind. Many times, these salts
are not hazardous and do not need specialized disposal.
Evaporation
Evaporation can also be used for volatile chemical. Sometimes this happens automatically.
When certain chemicals are spilled, such as gasoline, acetone, and alcohols, often they evaporate
before action can be taken to absorb them. The danger in evaporation is the vapors. Vapors
may be dangerous and difficult to contain adding a different dimension to the hazardous materials
incident. This is common in decontaminating after an exposure to anhydrous ammonia. Using
wet decontamination actually serves to expand the contamination. Blowing a fan over the
contamination allows it to evaporate from PPE and equipment.
Vacuuming
Vacuuming is used to remove dust or other solid materials. The vacuum must be capable of
HEPA filtration, so the material is not discharged with the exhaust from the vacuum. The biggest
advantage is the vacuum also contains the material. Vacuuming can be very time consuming
and may have to be follow with a secondary type of decontamination.
Types of Decontamination Procedures
There are a number of decontamination procedures used in an
emergency incident.

• Emergency decontamination is used when contamination

threatens health.
• Gross decontamination is the removal of items (clothing) to
shed contamination
• Technical decontamination is the physical removal of
contaminants from head to toe.
• Mass decontamination is using procedures to decontaminate large numbers of victims.
Emergency decontamination is the immediate, or almost
immediate, removal of a harmful substance from a person (civilian or
responder) in an effort to reduce the exposure. This is usually done
in an emergency when a more technical decontamination system
has not been set up or is unavailable. Emergency decontamination
is necessary for someone who is showing any signs of medical
distress or has unexpectedly been exposed to a toxic chemical.
This is rapid decontamination used for the purposes of reducing injury or illness. Emergency
decontamination can be done without any effort taken to capture the
runoff which may be contaminated at a dangerous level. Emergency
decontamination can be done quickly in the field using a firefighting
hose and water. If at an industrial setting, using a hose off of the
wall can also serve to provide emergency decontamination. The
purpose is to remove the contamination as quickly as possible. It
also serves to make the patient safe for rescuers to treat the patient
without fear of secondary contamination.
Although saving the runoff is not mandated, keep in mind where the runoff is going and if it can
be directed to a non-sensitive area without delaying lifesaving efforts, it should be considered.

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Emergency decontamination is used for life saving efforts and should not be used routinely for
decontamination.
Gross decontamination is only partial decontamination. It usually
is done as a first step in a more complete decontamination process.
Just removing outer garments such as clothing or PPE can remove
up to 70% of the contamination. This serves to minimize the risk of
the decontamination process because the contamination is
significantly reduced.

Secondary decontamination is what occurs after gross

decontamination. It is a systematic removal of contaminants from
head to toe. Usually this involves a wash, rinse, and removal of any
additional PPE.

Tertiary decontamination is either done at the hospital on a victim

of a hazardous materials incident or is the final cleaning of responders
once they return to the station. Tertiary decontamination includes a
shower. Tertiary decontamination can also include the debridement
of a contaminated wound or dialysis to remove an internal
contamination.

Technical decontamination is a planned and systematic removal of contamination from

personnel and equipment. It involves formal steps through a
process of contamination reduction. This may include a number of
steps depending on the situation. For example, an entry team
member who is exiting the hot zone will drop all tools and equipment
prior to entering the decontamination corridor. The first station is an
initial wash with soap and water. The second step is a rinse. The
third is a second and more complete wash. The fourth is a final rinse
and check for visible contamination. The fifth is careful removal of
PPE. The sixth is redress and the final is the tertiary
decontamination shower at the station.

As the decontamination team demobilizes, the decontamination

worker on the hot zone side would proceed through the
decontamination line followed by the next closest to the hot zone and
continue until the last person decontaminates prior to careful removal
of their PPE.

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Mass decontamination is an effort to use large quantities of water to

remove as much contamination as possible from as many people as
possible in a short period of time. This process usually involves the
use of fire apparatus such as engine companies or truck companies
to provide large hose lines in an effort to remove the chemical. This
is a hands-off operation that keeps responders safe while affecting the
largest population possible.

Complete Activity #6
Section Three – Implementing the Planned Response
Part 1: Establishing Scene Control
An Operations Level Responder can learn all about how to function in a hazardous materials
incident but for the scene to operate efficiently and safely it must be managed in a coordinate
fashion. The use of the National Incident Management System (NIMS), Incident Command
System (ICS) is the system used across the nation to control the incident. The ICS is used for
small and large events. It is managed through the development of objectives. This section will
focus on a general overview and how the hazardous materials branch fits into the overall
command structure.
From the dispatch a set of steps must be taken to remain safe while
taking actions to control the incident. Upon arrival there are several
items that must be identified and determined. This includes:

• Determining the best route to make entry into the hazmat scene.
• Take command and determine the size of the hazard zone.
• Immediately evacuate any people in the danger area.
• Determine the staging area
• Secure the entire area away from the public
A common acronym to use is the APIE acronym. In fact, NFPA 472 is
organized in this fashion with four sections including:
Analyze – take all available information known. This will include
information from dispatch, preplanning, sights and sounds on the
scene, placards, labels, SDS, and reference information. Using this
information make a determination of what the scene involves, if it is
advancing, how fast is it growing, and make a decision on your immediate actions.
Plan – Develop a plan of action with safety in mind. Review this initial plan with any other
command and section leadership.
Implement – Implement the plan after all aspects of the plan are
communicated to others on the scene.
Evaluate – Evaluate the forward progress of the plan. If progress has
not been scene, it is then appropriate to reevaluate and reanalyze the
scene and begin the planning process over again.

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Establishing Zones
One of the first duties of both
an Awareness Level
Responder and Operations
Level Responder needs to
accomplish is defining the
hazard zone and isolating
the chemical release.
Although this seems to be
an easy function it can be very complex. Determining
the likely initial area of contamination is necessary in order to determine who is in the greatest
danger. Then the decision must be made concerning whether evacuation must be accomplished
or whether it is appropriate to shelter-in-place. This is also the time to determine is large amounts
of victims are exposed and possibly contaminated from the chemical release. Keeping
contaminated people away from everyone else reduces the chance of secondary contamination
and allows for emergency and possibly mass decontamination.
At a hazardous materials incident part of the control of the scene is establishing zones. The
typical zones at a hazardous material incident are called the hot zone, warm zone, and cold zone.
These zones serve the following purposes:
Hot Zone – is the area of contamination where the release took place. It is usually determined
by the use of the ERG or detection meters identifying the area of contamination.
Warm Zone – is the area between the hot zone and the cold zone. The only function conducted
in the warm zone is decontamination. The entry into the decontamination corridor is at the edge
of the hot zone. The corridor progresses through the warm zone and ends at the entry of the cold
zone.
Cold Zone – is the clean area used for the staging of equipment, the Command Post, and other
functions. It is still an exclusion zone where bystanders, press, and other uninvolved persons are
excluded from. It is considered a work area for the incident.
Before any offensive actions, such as entry are taken, there must be a
review of the safety issues on the scene. The safety briefing is used to
communicate the issues and any remediation related to those issues.
This is especially important with an incident created by criminal activity.
In this case it is important that the command be unified involving all
agencies who are involved in the incident response.

Part 2: Preserving Evidence

Evidence preservation is critical during any incident involving illicit
activities. This needs to be a consideration from the beginning of the
response to the very end. If it is not known to be caused from illegal
activity upon response, once it is known, every effort should be made
to preserve evidence on the scene.

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Every department or agency should have policies concerning the

preservation of evidence. If not, law enforcement representation will
guide responders on evidence policies. In any hazardous materials
incident involving illegal activities, law enforcement needs to be
involved in command of the incident and involved in the hazardous
material branch. Evidence preservation should be written into the
hazmat emergency response plan and addressed in the standard
operating procedures or guidelines.

Part 3: Initiating the Incident Command System

The Incident Command System places one person in charge of an incident. Command develops
the overall objectives that need immediate action. The Operations Section Chief then develops
the tactics to complete the objectives. All of this takes place as a team effort with logistics
providing the equipment or supplies, planning defining the goals of the next operational period,
and finance developing both the costs and defining the financial constraints of the incident. The
Incident Command System also serves to reduce the confusion on a scene by defining a clear
and prescriptive chain of command. Every responder on the scene only answers to one person
which reduces the opportunities for confusion by receiving orders from more than one supervisor.
The Hazardous Materials Branch falls under the Operations Section Chief.

Implementing the ICS

The first arriving emergency response unit on the scene will establish
command. This begins the institution of the Incident Command
System. The initial arrival report will define the incident for other
responding units and additional resources will be requested. The
Incident Commander will set the initial objectives and develop the initial
tactics for the incident. As more resources are needed the command
system expands.
Purpose
The purpose of the Incident Command System is to provide an organizational system to
coordinate the incident. It limits the span of control for every supervisor (between 1:3 to 1:7 with
1:5 being ideal) and provides unity of command (only one supervisor for every responder). It is
also a means of managing the incident through the development and completion of objectives
developed by command. It expands and contracts as needed and institute safety as a key
component to the response. Below is a typical incident command organizational structure. The
components of this structure are instituted as needed depending on the incident.

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The Structure

The hazardous materials function falls under the Operations Section Chief. Hazardous Materials
becomes a branch of a larger incident with groups representing the different functions that need
to be completed to meet the objectives set by the Incident Commander.

Hazardous Materials Group

The Hazardous Materials Group is responsible for entry into the hot zone. The Hazardous
Materials Branch Director answers directly to the Operations Section Chief. The Hazardous
Material Branch obtains all the necessary resources, support, and personnel through the
Operations Section Chief (or on smaller incidents from the Incident Commander if the Operations
Section Chief is not established). The Operations Section Chief develops the tactics necessary
to meet the objectives. The Operations Section Chief will work with the Hazardous Material
Branch Director to ensure that the tactics are reasonable and realistic.

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Complete Activity #7
Duties
Command will identify an Incident Safety Officer. The Safety Officer
will oversee each function in the operation and ensure that practices
are safe. They also develop the Safety Plan for the incident which
identifies known safety issues and how to manage them in a safe
manner.
Generally, the Command Post is located at, or near, the immediate
vicinity of the incident site. The Command Post is where the direct, on-
scene control of operations takes place. Incident planning and the communication center would
normally be established at this location. The Command Post may house the command staff,
responders from federal, state, local, and tribal agencies, private-sector representatives, and non-
governmental organizations.
All responders in the Hazardous Materials Branch must be trained to
at least the Operations Level and personnel who take offensive
actions must be trained to the Technician Level.
When resources are needed a request is made up the chain of
command. If a logistics section has been instituted, the request will
go to the Logistics Section Chief and the request is filled.
The Incident Command System utilizes plain language. In the case
of a hazardous material incident the Incident Commander can advise
the communication center of some basic information. This allows
some documentation to take place and when appropriate will notify
the Emergency Operations Center (EOC). In a moderate or severe
incident, the resource need is more than can be supplied by the scene
and activating the EOC is needed for many reasons. Information
concerning the product leaking or spilled, the quantity of the leak, and
the area impacted are crucial information. The hazmat incident is
classified as follows:

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• Level 1 or minor incident is one that can be controlled by the initial response units.
Involves a small amount of gas, liquid, or solid of a known hazardous material. The agency
on scene has the expertise and
proper safety equipment to safely
mitigate the incident.
• Level 2 incident is beyond the
capabilities of the response
agency and must call for
additional resources from within
the region. May include mass
exposure and contamination.
• Level 3 incidents are beyond the
capabilities of a regional
response team(s) and require
state or federal resources. These
incidents generally pose extreme
and immediate danger to the
public and the environment.
These incidents may be caused
from the use of a WMD.
On any incident, large or small, the Incident Command System must
be implemented. This allows for control of the scene without extending
an Incident Commander’s span of control beyond their capabilities. It
is also a means of coordinating resources. The simple expansion of
the command structure allows for additional command personnel when
needed, as the incident grows, and constriction of the command
personnel (and structure) and the incident is mitigated. In addition, the
ICS allows for documentation, personal accountability, and functional
communications all facilitating a well-controlled scene.

Complete Activity #8
The suggested span of control is from 3-7 subordinates with 5 being
optimal. This means that every supervisor position from the Incident
Commander down to a squad boss will have no more than 7
subordinates. In addition, every person on the scene only answers to
one supervisor. The fact that there is only one supervisor for each
person is the definition of Unity of Command. The detailed command
structure will be discussed shortly. Command (the Incident
Commander) typically has four direct subordinates: Operations,
Finance, Logistics, and Planning
The Incident Command System uses a standard structure. Any position
not assigned will be handled by the Incident Commander. In a Level 1
hazardous materials incident the IC may only assign an Operations
Section Chief who would be responsible for the HM incident. Therefore,
the IC would assume the functions of the Logistic, Finance, and Planning
Section Chiefs. If there is not an Operations Section Chief assigned the

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IC will conduct the duties and will communicate directly with the HM Branch Director.
The Operations Section will handle the tactical operations of the
incident. This may include fire suppression, emergency medical, or
hazmat operations. This is where most of the scene activities will take
place.

The HazMat Branch falls under the Operations Section Chief. This
branch is generally responsible for the activities involving the hazmat
incident. Reference of the chemical, entry, decontamination, medical
support, and any technical specialties will fall under this branch.
Decisions on the tactics to be used will begin at the Branch level.

The Command Post will usually be located in close proximity to the

incident. It will be out of the way of other operations. Functions including
any operations or command post functions should always be located up
wind and uphill. The Command Post may be unified to include law
enforcement, EMS, environmental protection, or other parties involved
in the incident. In some cases, such as a large area incident, the
Command Post may be located a long distance from the origin of the
incident.
Part of scene management is controlling access into the area where work
is being conducted. To manage this, the area needs to have access
control in place. This may be initially done by the hazmat responding
units but later be passed to law enforcement. The public must be
directed out of the exclusion zone. There must be a controlled access
point and level one staging (on the scene staging) must be defined.
Level two staging (off the scene) should be established at the same time.
As previously discussed, the Command Post will either be located on the scene or another
appropriate location off of the scene.
As previously discussed, a hazmat scene is typically set up into 3 zones.
The hot zone; location of the spill or leak, the warm zone; location of
decontamination, and the cold zone; location of all support units and
equipment.

Public protection depends on two functions. Evacuation which includes

moving all of the endangered public out of the area and/or protection in
place. If it is early in the event evacuation may be an option in close
proximity to the incident but as the incident unfolds and the hazardous
atmosphere spreads, protection in place may be the only option. In
some low-level events it may be better to institute a protect in place plan,
rather than an evacuation that takes many more resources to

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accomplish. Protection in place involves asking those persons in a hazard area to stay inside
with all windows and doors closed. In some cases (commercial buildings), maybe turning off air
conditioning systems may help.
An important part of the command structure, and part of command staff
is the Safety Officer. The safety officer develops the site safety plan.
This plan addresses all of the obvious safety issues and provides
guidance concerning how to avoid these safety issue. The Safety
Officer reviews the plan at the pre-entry briefing. In addition, the Safety
Officer also ensures accountability, proper decontamination is
conducted, and the appropriate selection of PPE. In a large hazmat
incident, the Incident Safety officer may have an Assistant Safety
Officer oversee just the hazmat portion of the incident.
Initial PPE on most scenes include the use of a SCBA. This is included
as respiratory PPE for firefighting operations but is also optimal for most
hazmat incidents. As reviewed earlier in this training program,
firefighter turn-out gear is not chemically rated but will provide some
level of protection especially if a rescue is possible. Entry into the hot
zone either with firefighter turn-out gear or a higher level of chemical
protection such as Level A or Level B requires a backup team dressed
the same way at the edge of the hot zone. The backup team is made up of two responders who
have the function to rescue the entry team if anything goes wrong. The use of a higher level of
protection such as a Level A or B suit will require specialized training and possibly a higher level
of certification as a Technician.
EMS personnel supporting the hazardous materials incident have
several critical roles. First, they are assigned to the entry team to
monitor the health and wellbeing of the team. They provide pre-entry
physicals and post-entry physicals. They may also be in charge of the
rehab unit for post-entry. The decision to allow initial entry and re-entry
falls on the EMS provider. In addition, these EMS providers oversee
any injury assessment and treatment. Every hazardous materials
incident from a Level 1 incident to a Level 3 incident must have EMS support immediately
available on the scene.

Part 4: Using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

All entry teams into the hot zone, regardless of the level of PPE must
be made with a minimum of two people. We call them the entry team.
In addition to the two-person entry team, a second set of two
responders need to be dressed in the same level of PPE as the entry
team, staged at the entry to the warm zone. This is called the back-
up team. The reason for the back-up team is to provide immediate
assistance should anything go wrong in the hot zone. This is required
under both OSHA and EPA. The two in and two out is critical if a
rescue is necessary. In addition to these four responders, before entry is made, decontamination
must also be set up. The decontamination team is 2-4 personnel and an additional 2-4 medical
personnel to both assess and/or treat any responder injured during entry.

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Harm from Entry

In additional to providing care if an injury takes place during entry, the
• Physical
medical team should be responsible for pre-entry physicals and post-
•
•
Psychological (Stress)
Chemical
entry evaluations.
• Heat/Cold

As entries and tasks are taken on, additional personnel may be needed
to work around and in the hot zone. All responders must be trained to
at least Operations Level and any personnel taking offensive actions in
the hot zone must be at least Technician Level. In an ideal situation, there should always be one
person in charge of each task.
There are a number of physical injuries that may take place when entry
Physical Injury
team personnel are dressed in high level PPE. Because balance, • Slip, Trip, Fall

visibility, dexterity, and perception are significantly changed injuries • Trapped/crush

• Back Strain

from slips, trips, and falls may be encountered. In addition, a responder

may become entrapped or crushed between machinery or objects such
as bulk containers. Back strains may occur when the entry team
attempts to move or lift heavy objects to get to or to access a chemical
emergency.

Phycological
There should always be an awareness on the scene of possible
• Stress
psychological injury. First, PPE is very confining and a responder who
• Loss of life
• Changing incident is not comfortable in tight spaces may become very stressed in PPE. In
addition, any scene that has caused a loss of life or is rapidly changing
(becoming more dangerous) will cause additional stress. Be mindful of
these conditions and closely monitor the entry team members.
In the event of a suit failure/leak there is an increase possibility of Chemical Injury
chemical contamination to the entry team member. The reference • Loss of integrity of chemical protection

personnel should be providing the medical evaluation team with • Sudden change in incident/leak

possible signs and symptoms of exposure to the chemicals involved. A

concerted effort by those providing post-entry physicals should focus on
the signs and symptoms found when an exposure takes place.

Heat and cold injuries may not only be caused by the environment but also by the conditions of
the chemical involved. Cold injuries, such as frostbite, can occur in
Heat/Cold Injury
seconds when a sudden cryogenic exposure takes place. Heat injuries
Heat Cramps
can also occur when working in close proximity to fires or hyperthermic
•
• Heat Exhaustion
• Heat Stroke
• Cold Injury
reactions. The post-entry exam should be monitoring core temperature
to make a determination if responder should be allowed a second entry
or if time in the hot zone should be limited or prevented.

Complete Activity #9

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Section Four – Evaluating Progress

Part 1: Evaluating the Status of the Planned Response and
Part 2: Communicating the Status of the Planned Response
On a continuous basis the IC should be monitoring the progress in
completing the Operational Objectives. At least every operational
period the progress is documented. There are many things that may
affect the completion of the objectives. This includes:
• Lack of appropriate resources
• Incident is expanding at an uncontrolled rate
• Weather changes
If the incident is changing and cannot be controlled or resources are not available to make a safe
attempt to control the incident, the safest and most appropriate action to take is to withdraw until
more resources are available or until the incident reaches a point that available resources can
once again address the incident.
Periodically the Operations Section Chief must make reports to the
Incident Commander. This can be accomplished as a radio
transmission or face to face. If the situation begins to expand rapidly
it may be critical to quickly remove all responders form the hazard
zone. Every emergency response department must have a procedure
in place to accomplish a fast retreat and evacuation of the hazard area.
For most departments it is a set number of blasts from the air horn and
a loud tone on the handheld radios. The use of radio terminology such
as “Emergency traffic, Emergency traffic”. “All responders evacuate the scene”.
Termination of the incident
Termination is the part of the incident where resources are released to return to service. It is the
time that the scene will be released from the responsibility of the responding agency to the owner,
other agencies, state, or federal authorities. Termination may take place before clean-up of the
site. A thorough briefing will take place between the Incident Commander and whomever is taking
over the scene.

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