7

MODULE 1: DC CIRCUITS
Electrical circuit elements (R, Land C)

Voltage and current sources

Kirchoff current and vo l tage laws

Analys is of simple circuits with DC excitation

Superposition theorem

• Thevenin theorem

Norton theorem

Time-domain analysis of 1 st - order RL and RC circuits .

; CLASSIFICATION

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ELEMENTS

PASSIVE ELEMENTS

R (resistance)
;-a.~c..+-,,
L (: f ' CE:.)

C (capacitance)

Linear/ Lumped/ Bilateral

ACTIVE ELEMENTS

voltage source

current sourGe

cwsirICATION _BASED ON TOPOLOGY/ CONJ'IGURATION

Branch

Network

Mesh

Loop

Node

1
 ,.:i.:. F:],, t i ir·,1 I·:, ;Ir,< l I rt , I , I: ,; - LI . 1 ; 1 I /. I

PASSIVE ELEMENTS

1. Linear elements / parameter s

v-i relation is linear (related to constant coefficie nt)
a ci rcuit whose parameters are not changed or constant with
respect to Current and Voltage is ca lled Linear Circuit
(if negated) non-linear
A c ircui t whose parameters are varied wl th r e s pect to Current
and Vol t age
V = Ri ; V = Ldi/dt ; V = fidt/C
2 . Lumped elements/ parameters

They are phys i cally separable / isolabl e otherwise distributed

If ne gat e d - d istributed elements (eg . power line)
3 . Bi lateral elements

Prope r t y i ndependent / invariable/ irrespective of

orientation
.
(A c ircuit whose characteristics , behaviour are same
irrespective of t he direction of curren t through various
elements of i t , is called bilateral ne t work)
When ,negated unilateral (diode)

••
R.

#I'
Ill I
•· ,. F R,

#I' ••
I 4
R, • RJ

FenrardblaMd Rn-nwd.,...
R, R,
+
e R1 "I RJ
e +

rl n
I (C11rrnal ) -+
\'•I cllaractr-TMtkt of M- • r rk-llk'•I.
I t< .rrC'•O
\ -1 cllar..-tuktk-1 ef -
•
· IMlnf- ....._.,.

2
 t..1 ... 1 I· I·' t l ir , , I , J-l· I: l C 1 :.i

ACTIVE ELEMENTS
•

Active Sections/ Sources

1 . Voltage source

2. Current source

Ideal/ actual

Independe nt / dependent

We will work o n ac tua l and independent

Terminal vol tage (V), is independent of c urre n t (I) flowi ng th r ough

i t i + 6i , Vis independent of I

I
..
--... .,
-
I' • I'
•
i~of/

VT= V - Ri 1 where R is internal resistance

t VT

v + 6v, I invariant or independent of terminal voltage

for actual circu it , internal resistance need to be incorporated

3
 , ,; i c El er t I l r·u I I. 1 J r" ~ l I I i') • I. -trJt,1 ;.r

V1 I R,

hence , i 1 = i - V1 / R (fo r a ctual c ur r ent source )

Now, compare equat i on s - > sou r ce c onve r sion

V - > I (vo ltage t o current)

I - > V (current t o voltage)

Voltage is d i vided by internal r e s is tance

V = Ri [ R, in ter nal r e s is ta nce)

Voltage i s in se ries c onnec t ion

Current i s in para l lel connection
(* hence, its proved that in t ernal resi stance is connected t o
voltage)
I
DEPENDENT SOURCES

Four di fferent combinations are possible

I - I

V - V

V - I
I V

r., uv,.
r ,-
''•

(a) Currcn1-con1rolled \.,.11:rl'.'nt sour"-c (bl VolU11,t.:•«1ntrolkd \ol:.ai;c ~

(c) Vol1atte<ontrolled \."WTC.111 ..oun;c td) Current-.:ootrollcd wllagc souhx

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 ,. ~ I I' I I • I I :·- 1-1 '· I l.'

CONFIGURATION/ TOPOLOGY

Branch : Co llection of connected elements (active or passive ) havi ng

t wo terminals
Network: Any aroitrary collection of interconnec ted branches

1 . active network (if excitation of source )

2 . passive network (network where no active excitation is
prese nt)

Mesh : collect ion o f in tercon nected branches t o form a closed pa th

such that omi ssi on of one branch makes the path open
Loop: collec tion of interconnected branches to form a closed path
such that omissi on of one branch doesn't make the path open
Node : terminal shared by at least two elements / branches

• ANALYSIS

KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
K. V. L. (Ki rchhoff's Voltage Law)

LV = 0 (algebraic sum of any voltage drop in a closed path)

K. C.L . (Kirchhoff's Current Law)

Li= 0 (algebraic sum of curren t flowing through a node or junction )

Proof:

Let us assume that LV IO, but its incompatible with the law of
conse rvation of energy, if infinite amount of transmission occurs then
infinite amount of energy will be produced.

Similarly,

Let us assume that Li I 0, but its absurd due to law of conservation of

energy, infinite charge cannot be accumulated.

For K.V. L -> mesh analysis

For K.C.L -> node analysis

5
 . I. t I , I II j I ' -I i'.lrll I ,\11

MESH ANALYSIS

We can write the algebraic summation of vol tages by KVL

In Mesh 1 ,

Ex - ( 1)

In Mesh II,

0 - ( 2)

In Mes h I II ,

(IJ - I2) Z4 +l JZ6 + Ey = 0

or, (0) I1 + ( -Z4 ) I 2 + (Z 4 + Z6) lJ - Ey - ( 3)

We can write Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) in t he matrix form as

- Z3
Zz + Z3 + Z4 + Zs
- z4
Aga in , by Cramer's ru l e , we c a n find the mesh c ur r ents:

/1:;:
11Ex
:;i- 0 Zz
- z3
+ Z3 + Z4 + Zs 0
-z♦ I
- Ey -z♦ Z4 + z 6

lz :;: -
1r t+ - z3
Z3
Ex
0 - 0Z4 I
.d 0 - Ey Z4 + Z6

/3 :;: -
1r t+ - Z3
Z3
Zz
- z3
+ Z3 + Z4 + Zs Ex I
.d 0 -z. -~y

ZJ + Zz - Z3
.d :;:
I - Z3
0
Zz + Z3 + Z4 + Zs
-z.
The generalized mesh equations can be written as

[ZJ [I] = [El

Where, Z square matrix i s impedance matrix , having z 11 a s elements

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 • I I· . ,, I I I I

i: 1 , 2 , . . , m and j ~ 1, 2, .. , m

E column ma t rix of inp ut voltages Ei , whe r e i • 1 , 2, .. , m

Consideri ng a gen~rali ze d ne two rk with m numbe r o f meshes , we c a n wr ite the
mesh equatio ns usi ng KVL

NODE ANALYSIS

Using KCL,
The current summation at node 1 gives -

which, te rms of potentials and admittance, is

or, (1)

The current: summa tion at node 2 g ives -

or, (2 )

Equation (1) & (2) m~ybe written in matrix form

-Yz+ Y ][Ei]
Y2 + Y1
[/]
£ = 0
5 2

Again , by Cramer's rule, we can find the node voltages:

Ei = ~11/0
- Y2
Y2 + Y1 + Y5
I
E _ _!, ,Y1 +Y2+Y3
z - .::1 -Yz II
0

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 r. . , _, l l r-; 1 ,., · · t 1 i. r I l 1· 11 'J rc, 1: I :·,
I I -I • . - !.!.I,, 1 I l ,f)

-Y
Y2 + Y/+ Y5
I
The generalized node equations can be written as
[Y] [E] = [I]

Where ,
Y s quare matrix - admittance matrix
E column matrix of the node voltages with r espect to the reference node
I column matrix of input currents .
Consideri ng a genera lized network with (n + 1) nodes including the da tum
node , we can write th e node e quation in matrix- f o rm of order (n X n) using
KCL

NETWORK THEOREMS

• Superposi~ i o n t heo r e m
• The iveni h s theo rem
• Nor tons t h eo r e~

Why do we need the theorems?

Its always ?OSsible to calculate [v, i ) in a network , by mesh
analysis and node analysis, but In mult i - loop circuit we need
reduction / simplification o f the probl em, hence we need the
theorems.

s6P'
ER POSITION THEOREM
• Statement of line a r ity
• Proportionalit y bet ween causes and effect
• Independent effects can be added up a l gebraically for
independent causes for similar presence of causes
• Effects due to i nd i vidual c a uses are independent
• Underlying principle - principle of independence

Voltage sou rce - excita t ion

Current - response

Cause - voltage in a network

Effect - source e xcitation

When c ause and effect are proportional and effects are c opresent /
simultaneously p rese n t

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 B,-,sic Ele :::-t.d c;1l Eil ']jii('f.' l i. n ,1 Mo r,t ' I.E 11 E~~-EE101 I AD

c, e
C', e'
c", e"

eo • E (e, e' , e")

If we add a new so~rce to a network then individual l y the response
need not be analysed by mesh analysis.

In this T section, excited on both sides El, E2

Z1 Z2

+
Z3
E1

MESH I

Ilzl + (il - i2)z3 = El ·

(zl +z3)il - z3i~ = El -(i)

MESH II:

Z2i2 +z3(i2 - il) = -E2

(z2 + z3)i 2 z3ii - E2

Z3il - (z2 + z3)i2 E2 - (ii)

[il, i2] - > i3

Now, in this T-section El is present, E2 is absent, by mesh
analysis, · (il', i 2 ') we get i3' """..t·

Z1 Z2

E1
1) Z3 i~

MESH I :

(zl +z3) il' - z3i2' • El - (i )

j
 Ee1s i c Electrical Engir.e~r in•J r·-10::l·L~ : l [Link]!l I i\Q

MESH II:

Z2i2' + z3 (i 2 ' - il') 0

Z3il ' - (z2 + z3) i2' 0 - (ii)
[il', i2' J -> i3'

Now when E2 is prese nt and El absent, by mesh a nalysis we get ( il ",

i2") , i3"

Z1
Z2

E2
ZJ

MESH I :
(zl +z3)il" - z3i2" 0 - ( i)

MESH II:

Z2i2 " +z3(i2" - il ") -E2

Z3i l" - ( z2 + z3)i2" E2 - (ii)

[il", i2"] - > i 3"

We can infer , that if we have both left and r i ght hand e xcitati on ,
the result in a T-section

i 3' + 13" ~ · i3 (proved)

(The total current in any part of a l inear circuit equals t h e

algebraic sum of the currents p roduced by each s~u r ce separate ly.)

(Keep in mind, don't change the o rie ntation of current, keep an

u n iform orientati on )

TIIEVDIIB'rTiiioiiii
For any t wo term inal networks (Linear , Bilat€ral)
We can have a voltage equivalent; source equivalent , resistance/
impedance equivalent co nne c ted in series with it

Thevenin ' s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear

ci r cui t containing independent and dependent voltage and c u rre n t
sources , no matt t r how complex , to an equivalent circuit wi th jus t a

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~:~-= iJ,,.., /;;,•JJii~ •,"./.,/'.. • ~:/; _. s~ti~~ :'!~i~~~:-,(....~, r...~t"e~n ar6y tw?
4

~~, ~~~ ~! ~~~ ~Jt~Jlt,

*U"A ~
t; ! .'1 ,,,,.,f. ~ 1t•,,.; t ,,,,: t:i,'j~ ,;',f',t,.s t.:,~ r.x,:'l(;~tr,iYl tern:ir,als (Eeq]
r ;,,-1 ;~ p~"J.;;:.1~1 -,',,'fl.,,":,~ t:.~J ;/,:-,,:,~;.r:-.i.; 1 tf:.r:r!n~:s ( Zeq l
,.,,,:: '/' /; !•.,;A:. ,;:..e.,,~,_ r, ... ,,,,,,i.?1 •i~~- t;c;-; (t.J.◊.r:t circuit ci..:rrent)
Z,::'l - ,#//, ,,, I -: t"';

';/A'I~::. H,' • ~t~',t~~ 1 ~ s;,,::: •;.i~.:.17 -✓~t.'l :.~.:.-"!·:}:. a:-,d tin-.e- saving when
'II~ ~1~:. ~;, f!: '1 t ,:A :~.:~;..."'.,:.~~ t".,: di!f~t"!(.t val:1~~ of the load
/'ft;!~•_...,:. ,~,

WM ~., TKr/ZJflU A GIVbf Clf(CUlT

E (·•.
•
I
-;-,--
Z1
- -,

'
I I
Z2

_;I
H
~ ~
~ ZL.

T
·J - :----23

I
~

'/,/, • Zi Z/ (Z. • Z ·i)

21 Z2

f
::J I'
:,I nI
♦
I

Eo I
H,

II
i2
.
~

11
 I I , I•

I ••• i ·• ,l,, l,'1•1111,, • 1111, 1 11, 11\ 111,,., 11 ,1l1 ,1l y 1 \ •i

\ , I. ·,1 I" 4 '1 11 ·, \
l' ro,1

c~ ) ~ z,

ll
/

I~ I I
~
(J
\ - I \I' I , ''-\ t )

~TON' S '1'111:0UN

IL

Yeq ZL

Any tw._,- tt>un i n.,l JC'tiVt' t H 1 Lw ntk co 11~,1lnl11q vo .L L.1q,~ :1o ur cv:i dnd
lt'!'li~t.'\lh't' wh,' ll vi t•w,•d lLOlll i t :, 0 11 Lpul. \ (' J111 ln,1 l :.1 , i n c•qulv ,1 l(' ni. t o
d ...-,.., nst11nt- 1.: u1tt't1l ~u ll rt' <' J 11 d ,1 J>. 11,1IJ,,J n• :ii:JL ctn t'C ,

12
 Method

Short-circuit th e two terminals of th e net work and deterreine t~e cu:re~t

through this sho rt - c irc uit.
Turn off al l t he sources in the net work and determine the [Link] .
, .... Looi-•&- .
between the t wo te r minals , th i s i s t he same M&fe>ta •:ir--.- that we tound H1
Theve nin ' s equival ent .

Norton 's e qu ival e n t circuit ' s c urr ent s o ur ce Ie q in parallel with

reiistanee Ye q.
c:A.<t~~.._,,u...,

. TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS

For an excit ation f (t) total response

= fs( t) or s te ady st ate

f T(t ) = f (t) - f s (t) or tra~sien t state

c(t)

-------------------·_.:;--::;-:.:------

Transient Steady
State state

~ c:aDSa Ill, CIRCUIT: RISE

Ldi/dt + Ri = E

Ldi/dt E -Ri

di/(E - Ri) = dt/L

i nt egrating both s i des

- 1/R (l n(E-Ri) • t/ L + c , [at t • O, i • O, c1 '"' -1/R(lnE)]
-1/R((ln(E-Ri)/E) • t/ L
l n [( E-Ri) /E) • -Rt/L

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 B.;;sic [Link] c"l l~r,q.i11,,,::rir,ri W1[1L1Lf: JI ES-E;EJ()l I l-.[1

1 -Ri/E = e-Rt/L
i = E/R ( 1 - e-RtlL) )

[•l is the steady state and e -Rt/L is the transient state)

i = i,(1 - etli) ( t i s tou)

t = L/R, time constant of the circuit

In limit the exponential part is disappearing
i , = E/R is the stead~ state value
i = 0. 63i ,

s
0
,- o T

l'IRST _ORDER '-RL .CIRCUIT: DECAY/.., FALL

Ldi/dt + Ri = 0
di/i = (-R/L)dt
lni = -Rt /L + C2 (at t= 0, i E/R, so C2 lni,)
lni/i, = -Rt/L
i i,e-Rt/L

t = L/R ,
time constant of the circuit. So, i

K2

I(~

L R

0.371

♦ 11-i
K1

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 Basic Electric~l ~naineerJng MOnULE 1 1 ES -EEl0l I AD

l'XU'l' 01m&R 1tC CDCUI'l': CHARGING

q/ c + Rdq/dt E

dq/(E - q/c) dt/ R

now integrating we get -

C1 [B.C : t 0, q= OJ

ln ( 1- q/qo) -t/cR

go = EC
q qo (l - e-t/cR)

1 = cR (time constant)
so, q = q o(l - e -tll )

i = dq/ dt

E - VR(t) = Vc( t)

C R
--------~~------·
~
i(t)

+~
E
T=O

l'IRS'l' _91U)D 1tC CIRCUIT: [Link]~

q/c + Rdq/dt = 0

dq/q = - dt/c R

now integrating we g e t -

lnq/qo • -t/cR
q • qoe -tlcR

t • cR (time constant)
so, q - q 0 e -ti,

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 Basic ElecLr:ical E'.nc:,i n•?t:r-ing [Link]:: 11 ES - EE101 I AD

q = q(t)

i(t) = dq/ dt
Ri(t) Ee- t /c R

V c (t) q/c = Ee -t/cR

+
E
T=O T =i;

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