Physics for Everyday Life
PHYS002
BEIRUT ARAB UNIVERSITY
Chapter 2
Light and Its Applications
Dr. Wael Chmaisani
Importance of Light
Light is basic to almost all life on Earth.
Light represents energy transfer from the source to the observer.
Many phenomena depend on the properties of light:
▪ Seeing a TV or computer monitor
▪ Blue sky, colors at sunset and sunrise
▪ Images in mirrors
▪ Eyeglasses
▪ Rainbows
▪ Photocell
▪ Medicine
▪ Many others
Nature of Light
In the 17th century, two scientists had different views about the nature of light.
Light is
particle
No! Light is
waves
Isaac Newton Christian Huygens
(1643-1727) (1629-1695)
Nature of Light
Newton was the chief architect of the particle theory of light:
He believed the particles left the object and stimulated the sense of sight upon entering
the eyes.
Christian Huygens (1629 – 1695) argued that light might be some sort of a wave motion.
Thomas Young (in 1801) provided the first clear demonstration of the wave nature of
light:
• He showed that light rays interfere with each other.
• Such behavior could not be explained by particles.
Nature of Light
Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect that used the
idea of quantization. The quantization model assumes that the energy of a light
wave is present in particles called photons.
The photoelectric effect was a major phenomenon not explained by waves. When light
strikes a metal surface, electrons are sometimes ejected from the surface.
Nature of Light
In view of these developments, light must be regarded as having a dual nature.
➢ Light exhibits the characteristics of a wave (wave aspect) in some situations
• Diffraction, Interference
➢ Light exhibits the characteristics of a particle (corpuscular aspect) in other situations
• Photoelectric effect
What is Light?
Light is just one form of electromagnetic
radiation, or electromagnetic waves.
All electromagnetic radiation consists of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
These oscillations or waves, have
wavelengths and frequency, just like sound
waves or waves in water.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation.
These waves are all around us and come in many sizes.
The largest electromagnetic waves, with wavelengths from a few centimeters to over
100 meters are called radio waves.
The smallest electromagnetic waves, with wavelengths the size of an atomic nucleus
are called gamma rays.
In between are microwaves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light and X-rays.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Note that Low-frequency waves have little energy and are normally harmless.
High-frequency waves have a lot of energy and are potentially very harmful.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The following table presents the applications and harmful effects of each type of
electromagnetic wave
Type of wave Wavelenght range Applications Harmful effects
Generally safe at low energies, potential
> 1 mm Broadcasting (radio,tv), MRI, wi-fi
Radio waves heating effects
Microwave ovens,radar,satellite
1 mm - 1 cm Tissue heating, potential Burns
Microwaves communication
Remote controls,thermal
700 nm - 1 mm Eye damage, skin burns at high intensities
Infrared (IR) imaging,heating
Eye strain, potential retinal damage from intense
Visible light 400 - 700 nm Vision photography, illumination
light
10 nm - 400 nm Sterilization, fluorescent lights Skin cancer, eye damage, sunburn
Ultraviolet (UV)
Medical imaging, security Tissue damage, increased cancer risk high
X-Rays 0.01 nm - 10 nm
scanners exposure
Cancer treatment, sterilization of cellular damage, high cancer risk, radiation
Gamma Rays < 0.01 nm
medical equipment sickness
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature as they
propagate by varying the electric and magnetic fields
such that the two fields are perpendicular to each other.
Electromagnetic wave propagation does not require any
material medium to travel. It can travel in vacuum.
An electromagnetic wave is characterized by several
fundamental properties, including its amplitude,
frequency, speed and wavelength.
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
• Amplitude (in meter) is the distance from the maximum
vertical displacement of the wave to the middle of
the wave. It has to do with the intensity of the light.
• Wave frequency (in Hertz Hz) is the number of waves
that pass a fixed point in a given amount of time. As
light travels from one medium to another, its frequency
does not change. Thus, the frequency depends on the
source.
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
• The speed of light in any material is less than its speed in vacuum. The speed
depends on the index of refraction, n (dimensionless), of a medium.
𝐜
𝐯= 𝐯 𝐢𝐧 𝐦/𝐬
𝐧
Where c = 3 × 108 m/s is the speed of light in vacuum (air).
• Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or troughs.
𝐯
𝛌= 𝛌 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫
𝐟
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
Example 1:
1) What is the wavelength of a 2.990 MHz wave in air?
2) What is the type of this wave in electromagnetic spectrum.
3) Determine the wavelength of this wave in water. Given: nw = 1.33.
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
Example 1:
Solution
v c 3×108
1) λ = = = = 100.334 m
f f 2.99×106
2) Radio-wave
v
3) λw = f
c 3×108
v= = = 2.255 × 108 m/s
nw 1.33
f = 2.99 × 106 Hz (same source)
2.255×108
λw = = 85.28 𝑚
2.99×106
Light Phenomena – Reflection
Law of Reflection
A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in a
medium.
When it encounters a boundary with a
second medium, part of the incident ray is
reflected back into the first medium. This
means it is directed backward into the first
medium.
Light Phenomena – Refraction
Refraction
When a ray of light traveling through a transparent medium
encounters a boundary leading into another transparent
medium, part of the energy is reflected and part enters the
second medium.
The ray that enters the second medium changes its
direction of propagation at the boundary. This bending of
the ray is called refraction.
Light Phenomena – Refraction
Bending types:
Snell’s law of refraction:
𝐧𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏 = 𝐧𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟐
θ1 is the angle of incidence, n1 is the index of refraction of medium 1
θ2 is the angle of refraction, n2 is the index of refraction of medium 2
Light Phenomena – Refraction
Example 2:
A light ray of wavelength 589 nm traveling through air is incident on a smooth, flat slab of
crown glass, of index of refraction nglass = 1.52, at an angle of 30.0° to the normal.
1) Find the angle of refraction.
2) Find the speed of this light once it enters the glass.
3) What is the wavelength of this light in the glass?
Light Phenomena – Refraction
Example 2:
Solution
n1 1
1) n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 → sin θ2 = sin θ1 = sin 30 = 0.328 → θ2 = 19.2°
n2 1.52
c 3×108
2) v = = = 1.97 × 108 m/s
ng 1.52
v c
3) λg = f and λa = f (f is same in the two medium since we have same source)
v c
λg v ng 1 λa 589×10−9
= f
c = = = → λg = = = 388 × 10−9 m = 388 nm
λa c c ng ng 1.53
f
Light Phenomena – Total Internal Reflection
A phenomenon called total internal reflection can
occur when light is directed from a medium having
a given index of refraction toward one having a
lower index of refraction (n1 > n2).
Possible directions of the beam are indicated by rays
numbered 1 through 5. The refracted rays are bent
away from the normal since n1 > n2.
Light Phenomena – Total Internal Reflection
There is a particular angle of incidence that will result in an angle of
refraction of θ2 = 90°. This angle of incidence is called the critical angle,
θC.
Snell’s law of refraction:
n1 sin θc = n2 sin 90
𝐧𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝐜 =
𝐧𝟏
For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle (θ1 > θc), the
beam is entirely reflected at the boundary. This ray obeys the law of
reflection at the boundary.
Light Phenomena – Total Internal Reflection
Example 3:
Find the critical angle for an air–water boundary. (Assume the index of refraction of water
is 1.33).
Light Phenomena – Total Internal Reflection
Example 3:
Solution
n2 1
sin θc = = = 0.752 → θc = 48.8°
n1 1.33
Light Phenomena – Dispersion
For a given material, the index of refraction varies with the
wavelength of the light passing through the material.
This dependence of n on λ is called dispersion.
Snell’s law indicates light of different wavelengths is bent at
different angles when incident on a refracting material.
The index of refraction for a material generally decreases with
increasing wavelength.
Violet light bends more than red light when passing into a refracting
material
Light Phenomena – Dispersion
Since all the colors have different angles of
deviation, white light will spread out into a
spectrum.
• Violet deviates the most.
• Red deviates the least.
• The remaining colors are in between.
Light Phenomena – Diffraction
Diffraction can be described only with a
wave model for light.
Light of wavelength comparable to or
larger than the width of a slit spreads
out in all forward directions upon
passing through the slit. This
phenomena is called diffraction.
Light Phenomena – Diffraction
A single slit placed between a distant light source and a screen produces a diffraction pattern.
• It will have a broad, intense central band.
Called the central maximum
• The central band will be flanked by a series of narrower, less intense secondary bands.
Called side maxima or secondary maxima
• The central band will also be flanked by a series of dark bands.
Called minima
Light Phenomena – Interference
Interference can be described only with a wave model for light.
Thomas Young first demonstrated interference in light waves from
two sources in 1801.
The narrow slits S1 and S2 act as sources of waves.
The waves emerging from the slits originate from the same wave
front and therefore are always in phase.
Light Phenomena – Interference
The light from the two slits forms a visible pattern on a
screen.
The pattern consists of a series of bright and dark
parallel bands called fringes.
Constructive interference occurs where a bright fringe
occurs.
Destructive interference results in a dark fringe.
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect occurs when light incident
on certain metallic surfaces causes electrons to be
emitted from those surfaces.
The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.
All electromagnetic radiation of frequency ƒ from any
source can be considered a stream of quanta, now
called photons.
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
Each photon has an energy E (in joule or ev) and moves at the speed of light in a
vacuum
𝐄 = 𝐡ƒ
Where h = 6.62 × 10−34 J. s −1 is the Plank’s constant.
A photon of incident light gives all its energy to a single electron in the metal.
That’s means each photon eject one electron.
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric Effect Apparatus
• When the tube is kept in the dark, the ammeter reads
zero.
• When plate E is illuminated by light having an appropriate
wavelength, a current is detected by the ammeter.
• The current arises from photoelectrons emitted from the
negative plate and collected at the positive plate.
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
When is the electron ejected from the metal? 𝐟
Cutoff frequency 𝐟𝐜 (threshold) is characteristic of 𝒇 < 𝒇𝒄
the material being illuminated.
𝐟𝐜
No electrons are ejected below the cutoff 𝒇
frequency regardless of intensity.
𝒇 ≥ 𝒇𝒄
The electron is ejected for 𝐟 ≥ 𝐟𝐜 .
𝐟𝐜
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
Work function of material
The work function 𝛗 represents the minimum energy with
which an electron is bound in the metal.
The cutoff frequency is related to the work function (in joule or ev)
through
𝛗 = 𝐡𝐟𝐜
𝟏 𝐞𝐯 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗𝐉
The electron is ejected for 𝐄 ≥ 𝛗
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
cutoff wavelength
The cutoff frequency corresponds to a cutoff wavelength (in m)
𝐜
𝛌𝐜 =
𝐟𝐜
Wavelengths greater than λ𝒄 incident on a material having a work function φ do not result
in the emission of photoelectrons.
The electron is ejected for 𝛌 ≤ 𝛌𝐜 .
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
Maximum kinetic energy of ejected electron
Electrons ejected from the surface of the metal and not making collisions with other
metal atoms before escaping possess the maximum kinetic energy Kmax.
𝐊𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐡ƒ – 𝛗
• Kmax is independent of light intensity.
• Kmax depends on the light frequency and the work function.
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
Example 4:
A sodium surface is illuminated with light having a wavelength of 300 nm. The work
function for sodium metal is 2.46 eV.
1) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons.
2) Find the cutoff wavelength for sodium.
Light Phenomena – Photoelectric Effect
Example 4:
Solution
c −34 3×108
1) K max = hf − φ = h λ − φ = 6.62 × 10 × − 2.46 × 1.6 × 10−19
300×10−9
−19 2.672×10−19
K max = 2.672 × 10 J , K max = = 1,67 ev
1.6×10−19
c
2) λc = f and φ = hfc
c
c hc 6.62×10−34 ×3×108
λc = φ = = = 504 × 10−9 = 504 nm
φ 2.672×10−19
h
Light Applications
In general, we use far more light than necessary for many applications and tasks.
Light has some interesting properties, many of which are used in:
• Atmosphere
• Medicine
• Telecommunications
• Photography
• Astronomy
• Fiber optics
• Many others
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Why is the sky blue?
The sunlight contains all the colors.
The colors separated into two types:
• The long waves (red)
• The short waves (blue)
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Why is the sky blue?
The sunlight moves through the atmosphere.
Most of the longest wavelengths (red) pass
straight through.
However, much of the shorter wavelength
(blue) light is scattered by the molecules in the
atmosphere.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Why is the sky blue?
Tiny gas molecules in the atmosphere scatter
the blue wave, creating an effect that we see
as a blue sky.
As you look at the sky, you see the scattered
light of blue. So, the sky is not blue but only
appears blue.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Why is the sky blue?
At night, the sky is black because there is not
any light.
In space, there is no air. None of the light
gets scattered and the sky looks dark and
black.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Why is the sun red?
As the sun approached the horizon line, it must travel a great distance through our
atmosphere.
As the path that sunlight takes through our atmosphere increase in length, the light
waves hit more and more atmospheric particles.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Why is the sun red?
The shorter wavelength blue
light is scattered further by the
air molecules (O2 and N2), as the
sunlight passes over a greater
distance, and we see the longer
wavelength yellow and red light.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
How is the rainbow formed?
Rainbow is formed when white
light of the sun separates into
different colors on entering the
raindrop due to dispersion,
causing red light to be refracted
less than blue light.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
How is the rainbow formed?
Light from sun strikes raindrop.
Some of the light is reflected.
The rest of the light is refracted.
White light splits into component colors.
Light is reflected due to the total internal reflection.
Light is refracted again as it leaves raindrop.
Colors are further dispersed.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
How is the rainbow formed?
The rays leave the drop at various angles:
• The angle between the white light and the most
intense violet ray is 40°.
• The angle between the white light and the most
intense red ray is 42°.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
How is the double rainbow formed?
The secondary rainbow arises from two internal reflections.
The colors of the secondary rainbow are reversed from the primary bow and is
twice as broad and its intensity is low.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Global warming
Global warming is the increase of average world
temperatures as a result of what is known as the
greenhouse effect.
Global warming, the gradual heating of Earth's surface,
oceans and atmosphere, is caused by human activity and
natural effect that pump greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Global warming
Causes of Global Warming
Human Deforestation, Greenhouse Gases
Activity Use of
(primarily the vehicles, Carbon dioxide (CO2),
burning of Industrial Methane (CH4), Nitrous
fossil fuels development, oxide(N2O),
like coal, Agriculture, Chlorofluorocarbons
petrol, gas) Overpopulation (CFC)…
Volcanos,
Natural
Water vapor,
Effect
Forest blazes
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Global warming
Certain gases in the atmosphere act like glass in a greenhouse, allowing sunlight
through to heat the earth's surface but trapping the heat as it radiates back into
space.
As the greenhouse gases build up in the atmosphere the Earth gets hotter.
This process is leading to a rapid change in climate, also known as climate change.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Greenhouse Effect
The term greenhouse designated a plant-keeping
house built to protect tender plants from cold
weather.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms
the Earth's surface.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Greenhouse Effect
When the Sun's energy reaches the
Earth's atmosphere, some of the infrared
radiation of sun light is reflected back to
space and some is absorbed and re-
radiated by greenhouse gases.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
What is a thunderstorm?
A thunderstorm is weather condition characterized
by heavy rain and wind accompanied by
lightning, thunder; sometimes with hail and
tornadoes. It can last for 30 minutes to several
hours.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
What do thunderstorms form?
Warm air near the ground rises and cooler air sinks.
The rising air is called updraft,
Warm surface air will continue to rise since it is less while the downward moving air is
dense than the surrounding air. called downdraft.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
As air continues to rise, it cools and condenses
to form clouds.
If the air is moist, then the warm air condenses
into a cumulus cloud.
The cloud will continue to grow as long as warm
air below it continues to rise.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
When the cumulus cloud becomes very large, the
water in it becomes large and heavy.
Raindrops start to fall through the cloud when the
rising air can no longer hold them up. Meanwhile,
cool dry air starts to enter the cloud.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
Because cool air is heavier than warm air, it
starts to descend in the cloud (known as a
downdraft). The downdraft pulls the heavy
water downward, making rain.
Thunderstorms form when there is a balance of
updrafts and downdrafts.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
After about 30 minutes, the thunderstorm begins to dissipate.
This occurs when the downdrafts in the cloud begins to dominate
over the updraft. Since warm moist air can no longer rise, cloud
droplets can no longer form.
The storm dies out with light rain as the cloud disappears from
bottom to top.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms (Lightening !)
Lightning is around 27 000 degrees Celsius. That is six time hotter than the surface of
the sun.
Lightning is an electric current. To make this electric current, first you need a
cloud.
Now, the cloud becomes a thundercloud. Lots of small bits of ice bump into each
other as they move around. All these collisions cause a build up of electrical
charge.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
Eventually, the whole cloud fills up with electrical charges.
Lighter, positively charged particles form at the top of the cloud.
Heavier, negatively charged particles sink to the bottom of the cloud.
When the positive and negative charges grow large enough, a giant
spark-lightning occurs between the two charges within the cloud.
This is like a static electricity sparks you see, but much bigger.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
Shocking !
Most lightning happens inside a
cloud, but sometimes it happens
between the cloud and the
ground.
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
A build up of positive charge builds up on the ground beneath the cloud, attracted to the
negative charge in the bottom of the cloud.
The ground's positive charge concentrates around anything that sticks up trees, lightning
conductors, even people!
The positive charge from the ground connects with the negative charge from the clouds and
a spark of lightning strikes
Light Applications – Atmosphere
Thunderstorms
booming sound !
As lightning strikes, the air around it is heated and
expands rapidly to the point that it explodes.
Thunder is a shockwave caused by this explosion,
which manifests as a loud booming sound.
Light Applications – Photoelectric Effect
There is real life applications of photoelectric effect in daily life.
Solar Panel (Photovoltaic Cells)
Solar panel convert light energy into
electricity with the help of Photoelectric
effect. When the photons of sunlight falls
on the semiconductor installed on the
solar panel, they displaces the electrons
from their atoms and movement of
electron causes generate electricity.
Light Applications – Photoelectric Effect
Light Sensors
Photocells are used in light sensors,
when light falls on the photocells it
creates electric energy which can be
used to trigger various switches like
automatic light on-off system.
Light Applications – Photoelectric Effect
Photo resistor
Photoresistors, also known as light dependent
resistors (LDR), are light sensitive devices most
often used to indicate the presence or absence
of light, or to measure the light intensity.
It changes resistance depending on the amount of
light incident on it.
Light Applications – Photoelectric Effect
Digital Cameras
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor) or CCD (Charge-Coupled
Device) sensor is used in digital camera which
uses the principles of photo electric effect which
converts light energy into electrical signals.
These electrical signals are used to create
digital image.
Light Applications – Photoelectric Effect
Barcode Scanners
Photodiodes are used in the scanner
when it placed on the barcode intensity
of the light changes. Photoelectric effect
is used to convert these lights into
digital which can be used identify the
product.
Light Applications – Photoelectric Effect
Smoke Detector
Light source and a photosensitive sensor are
used in the smoke detector to detect the fire.
When smoke enter inside the case of sensor
it scatters light on the sensor which triggers
the alarm and started sprinkling water.
Light Applications – Photoelectric Effect
Security Systems
Security system uses photoelectric sensor to
detect the motion of an object. It works by
emitting light rays and measure its reflection.
Changes in the intensity of the reflected light
indicates the motion of the object or presence
of the any object which trigger the alarms and
alert the security personnel.
Light Applications – Medicine
Medical physics is a branch of physics that
applies the principles and techniques of physics
to the field of medicine. It plays a crucial role in
advancing healthcare by developing and applying
technologies that enhance diagnosis, treatment,
and patient care.
Here, we will present some applications on medical physics.
Light Applications – Medicine
X-ray Imaging
The photoelectric effect is utilized in X-ray
imaging systems to produce high-resolution
images of the human body.
When X-rays are directed at a patient’s body,
some of the X-ray photons undergo the
photoelectric effect, leading to the absorption
of X-ray photons by the body tissues.
Light Applications – Medicine
The degree of X-ray absorption depends on the
atomic number and density of the tissues, allowing
for the generation of contrast between different tissues
in the resulting X-ray image.
Materials that are easy to penetrate appear dark.
Materials that are difficult to penetrate appear
bright.
Light Applications – Medicine
X-ray imaging is commonly used for
diagnosing fractures, detecting tumors, and
examining internal organs.
Light Applications – Medicine
Computed Tomography (CT) Scans
CT scans utilize the photoelectric effect to create
detailed cross-sectional images of the body.
In CT scanning, X-ray beams are directed at the
patient’s body from multiple angles, and
detectors measure the intensity of X-ray
photons that pass through the body.
Light Applications – Medicine
The photoelectric effect contributes to the
attenuation of X-ray photons as they pass
through different tissues, providing
information about tissue density and
composition.
CT scans are used for diagnosing
conditions such as tumors, trauma, and
vascular diseases.
Light Applications – Medicine
Nuclear Medicine Imaging
In nuclear medicine imaging techniques such
as positron emission tomography (PET) and
single-photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT), radioactive tracers are introduced
into the body, and gamma-ray emissions
are detected using specialized detectors.
Light Applications – Medicine
The photoelectric effect contributes to the
attenuation of gamma-ray photons as they
pass through body tissues, allowing for the
localization and imaging of radioactive
tracers within the body.
Nuclear medicine imaging is used for
diagnosing cancer, heart disease, and
neurological disorders.
Light Applications – Medicine
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy involves the use of high-
energy electromagnetic waves, such as
X-rays and gamma rays, to target and
kills cancer cells or slows their
growth by damaging their DNA.
Light Applications – Medicine
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
It used to produce images of soft tissues,
fluid, fat and bone. It is used to diagnose
many problems e.g., helps identify tumors.
Does this by producing a map which depends
on the density of hydrogen in the body.
Uses strong superconducting magnet with a magnetic field strength 40,000 x
that of the Earth’s.
Light Applications – Medicine
How MRI works?
Light Applications – Medicine
When a person is lying in the magnetic field of the MRI scanner the hydrogen
atoms in their body line up.
A radiofrequency field is applied, which causes some of the protons to flip around
and the atoms spin together.
This in turn produces a change in magnetic field, which induces a voltage in a coil,
and the signal is used to produce an image, dependent upon the tightness of the
protons.