Multilateral Investment Guarantees Agency
Environmental Guidelines for
Electronics Manufacturing
Industry Description and Practices carcinogenic and mutagenic substances and
therefore production should be carried out in
The electronics industry includes: the closed systems.
manufacture of: passive components (resistors, Printed circuit board (PCB) manufacturing:
capacitors, inductors); semiconductor components There are three types of boards: single sided
(discretes, integrated circuits); printed circuit boards (circuits on one side only); double sided
boards (single and multilayer boards); and boards (circuits on both sides); and multilayer
printed wiring assemblies. This document boards (three or more circuit layers). Board
addresses the environmental issues associated manufacturing is accomplished by producing
with the latter three manufacturing processes. patterns of conductive material on a non-
The manufacturing of passive components is conductive substrate by subtractive or additive
not included since it is similar to the processes (the conductor is usually copper; the
manufacturing of semiconductors, (although base can be pressed epoxy, teflon, or glass).
passive component manufacturing uses less of The subtractive process is the preferred route
the toxic chemicals used in doping and the steps include: cleaning and surface
semiconductor components and more of preparation of the base; electroless copper
organic solvents, epoxies, plating metals, plating; pattern printing and masking;
coatings, and lead). electroplating; and etching.
Semiconductors: Semiconductors are Printed wiring assemblies: Printed wiring
produced by treating semiconductor assemblies consist of components attached to
substances with dopants such as boron or one or both sides of the printed circuit board.
phosphorous atoms to give them electrical Attachment may be by ‘through hole’
properties. Important semiconductor technology where the ‘legs’ of the components
substances are silicon and gallium arsenide. are inserted through holes in the board and are
Manufacturing stages include: crystal growth; soldered (solder is usually a tin-lead alloy) in
acid etch and epitaxy formation; doping and place from underneath, or by ‘surface mount’
oxidation; diffusion and ion implantation; technology (SMT) where components are
metallization; chemical vapor deposition; die attached to the surface by solder or conductive
separation; die attachment; post-solder adhesive. PCBs of all types may require that
cleaning; wire bonding, encapsulation drilled holes be copper-plated to ensure
packaging; and final testing, marking and interconnections between the different copper
packaging. Several of these process steps are layers. SMT allows much denser packing of
repeated several times so that the actual length components, especially when components are
of the production chain may well exceed one mounted on both sides. It also offers higher
hundred single processing steps. Between the speed performance and is gaining importance
repetitions a cleaning step which contributes to over ‘through-hole’ technology.
the amount of effluent produced by the process
is often necessary. Production involves
367
368 Electronics Manufacturing
Waste Characteristics form phosphoric and hydrochloric acids),
acetate, metals, and fluorides.
Air Emissions Effluents from the manufacture of printed
circuit boards may contain: organic solvents,
Potential air emissions from semiconductor vinyl polymers, stannic oxide, metals such as
manufacturing include: toxic, reactive and copper, nickel, iron, chromium, tin, lead,
hazardous gases; organic solvents; and palladium and gold, cyanides (some metals
particulates from the process. The changing of may be complexed with chelating agents),
gas cylinders may also result in fugitive sulfates, fluorides and fluoborates, ammonia,
emissions of gases. Chemicals in use may and acids.
include: hydrogen, silane, arsine, phosphine, Effluents from printed wiring assemblies may
diborane, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen contain: acids, alkalis, fluxes, metals, and
fluoride, dichlorosilane, phosphorous organic solvents, and, where electroplating is
oxychloride, and boron tribromide. included, metals, fluorides, cyanides, and
Potential air emissions from the sulfates.
manufacture of printed circuit boards include:
acids such as sulfuric, hydrochloric, Solid and Hazardous Wastes
phosphoric, nitric and acetic; chlorine;
ammonia; and organic solvent vapors Solid and hazardous wastes from semiconductor
(isopropanol, acetone, trichloroethylene; N- manufacture may include: heavy metals, solder
butyl acetate; xylene; petroleum distillates; and dross (solder pot skimmings), arsenic, spent
ozone depleting substances (ODSs). epoxy and waste organic solvents (which
In the manufacture of printed wiring represents the largest waste). In printed circuit
assemblies, air emissions may include organic board operations, solid wastes may include
solvent vapors, fumes from the soldering scrap board materials, plating and hydroxide
process, including aldehydes, flux vapors, sludges, and inks, while in the manufacture of
organic acids, etc. printed wiring assemblies solid wastes may
Throughout the electronics manufacturing include solder dross, scrap boards,
sector chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been a components, organic solvents and metals.
preferred organic solvent for a variety of Boards may also be treated with brominated
applications. CFCs are ozone depleting flame retardents which may pose some
substances (ODSs). Their production and environmental risk when boards are disposed
import in developing countries will also soon in landfills. All conventional electronics
be baned. HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) present additional hazards in landfills by the
have been developed as a substitute for CFCs presence of lead in cathode-ray tube envelopes
but they too are ODSs and will be phased out. and solder, as well as lead and other metal
Methyl chloroform, another organic solvent, salts, particularly if they have not been cleaned
has also been used by the electronics industry. in a post-soldering operation.
It too is an ODS and is being eliminated For all three manufacturing processes there
globally on the same schedule as CFCs. may also be sludges containing heavy metals
Chlorobromomethane and n-propyl bromide where waste water treatment plants are
are also unacceptable because of high ozone operated. Other wastes requiring management
depleting potential. and disposal are organic solvent residues.
Effluents Pollution Prevention and Control
Effluents from the manufacture of Semiconductor industry
semiconductors may have a low pH from
hydrofluoric, hydrochloric and sulfuric acids Measures such as plasma etching of silicon
(the major contributor to low pH), and may nitride, a dry process, in Metal Oxide
contain organic solvents, phosphorous Semiconductor (MOS) technology replaces the
oxychloride (which decomposes in water to hot corrosive phosphoric acid (H3PO4) wet
369 Electronics Manufacturing
process, and provides reductions in generated Printed Wiring Assemblies
waste, and better safety for workers, while
reducing the number of processing steps. Due In the printed wiring assembly process, non-
to the reaction of the plasma with the substrate, ozone depleting alternatives are readily
several substances are formed which are available for cleaning printed wiring
regarded as carcinogenic or mutagenic and assemblies including, for example, other
which may pose a danger to maintenance organic solvents, hydrocarbon/surfactant
personnel. Risks are minimized by sweeping blends, alcohols, and organic solvent blends),
equipment with nitrogen before opening. A and aqueous and semi-aqueous processes.
gas mask with breathing equipment should be More importantly, the industry has shown that
worn by personnel during repair and even sophisticated printed wiring assemblies
maintenance. intended for military uses (where specifications
are very exacting) can be made without
Printed Circuit Board Manufacturing cleaning by using low residue fluxes that leave
very little in the way of contamination on the
There are a number of process alternatives for boards. The no-clean concept eliminates
consideration in the manufacture of printed organic solvent use and the need to dispose of
circuit boards. These include: organic solvent waste, eliminates a process step
• Board manufacture: SMT rather than and equipment, and has been shown to give
plated through hole technology; injection adequate product quality according to the
moulded substrate; additive plating. application.
• Cleaning and surface preparation: use of
non-chelating cleaners; extend bath life; General
improve rinse efficiency; counter current
cleaning; recycle/reuse cleaners and rinses. Organic solvent losses can reduced by
• Pattern printing and masking: aqueous conservation and recycling, through closed
processable resist; screen printing to replace loop delivery systems, hoods, fans, and stills.
photolithography; dry photoresist; Installation of activated carbon systems can
recycle/reuse photoresist strippers; segregate achieve up to 90% capture and recycle of
streams; recover metals. organic solvents used in the system. All
• Electroplating and electroless plating: solvents and hazardous chemicals (including
replace by mechanical board production; non- wastes) require appropriate safe storage to
cyanide baths; extend bath life; recycle/reuse prevent spills and accidental discharges. All
cleaners and rinses; improve rinse efficiency; tanks, pipework and other containers should
countercurrent rinsing; segregate streams; be situated over spill containment trays whose
recover metals. dimensions are large enough to contain the
• Etching: use differential plating; non- total volume of liquid over it. Containment
chelated etchants and non-chrome etchant; facilities must resist all chemical attack from
pattern versus panel plating; additive versus the products. In lieu of containment facilities,
subtractive process; recycle/reuse etchants. the floor and walls, to a suitable height, may be
• Metal recovery by regenerative treated (e.g., by an epoxy product, where
electrowinning results in a near zero effluent chemically suitable) to prevent the possibility
discharge for segregated metal bearing of leakage of accidental spills into the ground
streams. Heavy metals are recovered to metal (untreated cement or concrete or grouted tile
sheets which eliminates 95% of sludge floors are permeable), with suitable door sills.
disposal. Metal bearing sludges that are not It is unacceptable to have a drain in the floor of
treated for recovery of metals should be any shop where chemicals of any description
disposed in secure landfills. are used or stored, except where such a drain
leads to an adequate water-treatment plant
capable of rendering used or stored chemicals
in its catchment area.
370 Electronics Manufacturing
Waste organic solvents should be sent to a such as photoresist); acids and alkalis are sent
solvent recycling operation for reconstitution to wastewater treatment facilities on-site for
and reuse. Where recycling facilities are not neutralization, after segregation of heavy metal
available waste solvent may need to be bearing streams for separate treatment;
incinerated or destroyed, according to their fluoride bearing streams in a semiconductor
chemical composition. plant are segregated and treated on-site or sent
off-site for treatment/disposal. Treatment steps
Target Pollution Loads for effluents from the electronics industry may
include precipitation, coagulation,
Implementation of cleaner production sedimentation, sludge dewatering, ion
processes and pollution prevention measures exchange, filtering, membrane purification and
can provide both economic and environmental separation, and neutralization, depending on
benefits. The following production-related the particular stream. Sanitary wastes are
targets can be achieved by measures such as treated separately (primary and secondary
those detailed in the previous section. treatment followed by disinfection) or disposed
Ozone depleting substances are not to used to a municipal treatment system.
in production operations unless no proven
alternative exists. Discharges of organic Emission Guidelines
solvents should be minimized and alternative
technologies should be considered where Emission levels for the design and operation of
available. Solder dross should not to be each project must be established through the
disposed to landfills (waste can be sent to Environmental Assessment (EA) process, based
suppliers or approved waste recyclers for on country legislation and the Pollution
recovery of the lead/tin content of the dross). Prevention and Abatement Handbook as applied
Scrap boards and assemblies having soldered to local conditions. The emission levels selected
components should have their components and must be justified in the EA and acceptable to
solder connections removed before disposal in MIGA.
landfills or recycled for other uses. The following guidelines present emission
levels normally acceptable to the World Bank
Treatment Technologies Group in making decisions regarding
provision of World Bank Group assistance,
Wet scrubbers, point-of-use control systems including MIGA guarantees; any deviations
and VOC control units are used to control toxic from these levels must be described in the
and hazardous emissions of the chemicals used project documentation.
in semiconductor manufacturing. It is often The guidelines are expressed as
appropriate to scrub acid and alkaline waste concentrations to facilitate monitoring.
gases in separate scrubbers because different Dilution of air emissions or effluents to achieve
scrubber liquids can be used resulting in higher these guidelines is unacceptable.
removal efficiencies. All of the maximum levels should be
Air emission concentrations of chemicals achieved for at least 95% of the time that the
such as arsine, diborane, phosphine, silane and plant or unit is operating, to be calculated as a
the several other chemicals used in the process proportion of annual operating hours.
are to be controlled to worker health levels for
plant operations.
Air Emissions
Because of the many chemicals used in the
electronics industry, wastewater segregation
For electronics manufacturing the following air
simplifies waste treatment and allows recovery
emissions levels should be achieved:
and reuse of materials: organic wastes are
collected separately from wastewater systems
(note: solvent used in the semiconductor
industry cannot be readily recycled because
much of it is generated from complex mixtures
371 Electronics Manufacturing
Note: Effluent requirements are for direct
Air Emissions from Electronics Manufacturing discharge to surface waters.
Maximum Value
milligrams per normal Ambient Noise
Parameter cubic meter (mg/Nm3)
Noise abatement measures should achieve
VOC 20
either the following levels or a maximum
Phosphine 1 increase in background levels of 3 dB(A).
Arsine 1 Measurements are to be taken at noise
HF 5 receptors located outside the project property
HCl 10 boundary.
Ambient Noise
Liquid Effluents
Maximum Allowable Leq
The following effluent levels should be (hourly), in dB(A)
achieved: Receptor Daytime Nightime
07:00 - 22:00 22:00 - 07:00
Residential; 55 45
Effluents from Electronics Manufacturing institutional;
educational
Maximum value
Industrial; 70 70
milligrams per
commercial
Parameter liter (mg/L)
pH 6–9 The emission requirements given here can be
BOD5 50 consistently achieved by well-designed, well-
Total suspended solids operated and well-maintained pollution
Maximum 50 control systems.
Monthly average 20
Oil and grease 10 Monitoring and Reporting
Phosphorous 5.0
Monitoring of sources of toxic emissions (such
Fluoride 20 as the toxic gases used in the semiconductor
Ammonia 10 industry, should be continuous and part of the
Cyanide process. Effluents should have continuous
total 1.0 monitoring of pH and other parameters should
free 0.1 be tested once per month.
Total chlorocarbons and 0.5 Monitoring data should be analyzed and
hydrochlorocarbons reviewed at regular intervals and compared
with the operating standards so that any
Metals, total 10
necessary corrective actions can be taken.
Arsenic 0.1 Records of monitoring results should be kept in
Chromium, hexavalent 0.1 an acceptable format. These should be reported
Cadmium 0.1 to the responsible authorities and relevant
Copper 0.5 parties, as required. If requested, they should
Lead 0.1 be provided to MIGA.
Mercury 0.01
Nickel 0.5
Tin 2.0
372 Electronics Manufacturing
Key Issues
The following box summarizes the key
production and control practices that will lead
to compliance with emission requirements:
• Cylinders of toxic gases should be well
secured and be fitted with leak detection
devices as appropriate. Well designed
emergency preparedness programs are
required. Note: fugitive emissions occurring
with gas cylinder change do not normally
require capture for treatment, however
appropriate safety precautions are expected
to be in place.
• No ozone depleting chemicals should be
used in the process (exceptions only where
no proven alternatives are available)
• Equipment, such as refrigeration
equipment, containing ozone depleting
chemicals should not be purchased unless
no other option is available
• Toxic and hazardous sludges and waste
materials must be treated and disposed or
sent to approved waste disposal and/or
recycling operations
• Where liquid chemicals are employed, the
plant, including loading/unloading areas
should be designed to minimize
evaporation (other than water) and to
eliminate all risk of chemicals entering any
water course, sewage system or ground in
the event of an accidental leak or spill.
Further Information
The following are suggested as sources of
additional information (these sources are
provided for guidance and are not intended to
be comprehensive):
World Bank, Environment Department. 1997.
"Industrial Pollution Prevention and
Abatement: Electronics Manufacturing." Draft
document.