Draught and its Performance

Boiler draught may be defined as the small difference between the pressure of outside air and
that of gases within a furnace or chimney at the grate level, which causes flow of air/hot flue
gases to take place through boiler. It is measured in millimetre (mm) or water.

The draught is one of the most essential systems of the thermal power plant which support the
required quantity of air for combustion and removes the burnt products from the system. To
move the ait through the fuel bed and to produce a flow of hot gases through the boiler
economiser, preheater and chimney require a difference of pressure.

This difference of pressure to maintaining the constant flow of air and discharging the gases
through the chimney to the atmosphere is known as draught. Draught can be achieved by the
use of chimney, fan, steam or air jet or a combination of these.

When the draught is produced with the help of chimney only, it is known as Natural Draught
and when the draught is produced by any other means except chimney it is known as Artificial
Draught.

Purpose of Boiler Draught

1. To provide an adequate supply of air for fuel combustion.

2. For throw out the exhaust gases of combustion from the combustion chamber.

3. To discharge these gases to the atmosphere through the chimney.

Classification of Boiler Draught

Types of Boiler Draught

In general, the draughts may be classified into the following two types,

1. Natural Draught

2. Artificial Draught

Natural Draught

Natural draught system employs a tall chimney as shown in the figure. The chimney is a
vertical tubular masonry structure or reinforced concrete. It is formed for enclosing a column of
flue gases to produce the draught.

It removes the gases high enough to prevent air pollution. The draught is produced by this tall
chimney due to the temperature difference of hot gases in the chimney and cold external air
outside the chimney.

Advantages of Natural Draught

1. It does not require any external power for producing the draught.

2. The capital investment is less. The maintenance cost is low as there is no mechanical part.

3. Chimney keeps the flue gases at a high place in the atmosphere which prevents the
contamination of the atmosphere.

4. It has a long life.

Disadvantages of Natural Draught

1. The maximum pressure available for producing natural draught by the chimney is hardly 10
to 20 mm of water under the normal atmospheric and flue gas temperatures.
 2. The available draught reduces with increases in outside air temperature and for generating
enough draught, the exhaust gases have to be discharged at relatively high temperatures
resulting in the loss of overall plant efficiency. Thus maximum utilization of Heat is not
possible.

Artificial or Mechanical Draught

It has been seen that the draught produced by the chimney is affected by the atmospheric
conditions. It has no flexibility, poor efficiency and tall chimney are required. In most of
the modern power plants, the draught applied must be freedom of atmospheric condition, and
It should have more flexibility (control) to bear the fluctuation loads on the plant.

Today’s steam power plants requiring 20 thousand tons of steam per hour would be impossible
to run without the aid of draft fans. A chimney of a reasonable height would be incapable of
improving enough draft to eliminate the huge volume of air and gases ( 400 x 103 m 3 to 800 x
10 3 m 3 per minutes). The further advantages of fans are to reduce the height of the chimney
needed.

The draught required in the actual power plant is sufficiently high (300 mm of water) and to
meet high draught requirements, some other system must be used, known as artificial draught.
The artificial is produced by a fan and it is known as mechanical draught. Mechanical draught is
preferred for central power stations.

Advantages of Artificial or Mechanical Draught

1. It is more economical and its control is easy.

2. The desired value of draught can be produced by mechanical means which cannot produced
by means of natural draught.
3. It increases the rate of combustion by which low-grade fuel can also be used.
4. It reduces the smoke level and increases the heat transfer co-efficient no flue gases side thus
increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler.
5. In mechanical draught, It saves the energy and the heat of flue gases can be best utilized by it.
6. In this way, it reduces fuel consumption and makes boiler operation cheaper.
7. It reduces the height of chimney which now is only controlled by the requirement of pollution
norms.
Disadvantages of Artifical or Mechanical Draught

1. The initial cost of mechanical draught system is high.

2. Running cost is also high due to the requirement of electricity but that is easily compensated
by the savings in fuel consumption.
3. Maintenance cost is also at a higher rate.
4. Noise level of boiler is also high due to noisy fan/blower etc.
 Types of Artificial or Mechanical Draught
The following are the two types of Artificial or Mechanical draught:

1. Steam jet draught

2. Mechanical or fan draught

1. Steam Jet Draught

It is a very simple and easy method of producing artificial draught without the need for an
electric motor. It may be forced or induced depending on where the steam jet is installed. Steam
under pressure is available in the boiler.

When a small position of steam is passed through a jet or nozzle, pressure energy converts to
kinetic energy and steam comes out with a high velocity. This high-velocity steam carries,
along with it, a large mass of air or flue gases and makes it flow through the boiler. Thus steam
jet can be used to produce draught and it is a simple and cheap method.

Actually the steam jet is directed towards a fix direction and carries all its energy in kinetic
form. It creates some vacuum in it’s surrounding and attracts the air of flue gases either by
carrying along with it. Thus it has the capacity to make the flow of the flue gases either by
carrying or including towards chimney. It depends on the position of the steam jet.

Types of Steam Jet Draught

The following are the main two types of steam jet draught:

1. Induced steam jet draught.

2. Forced steam jet draught.
1. Induced Steam Jet Draught
The jet of steam is turned into a smoke box or chimney. The kinetic head of the steam is high
but static head is low i.e., it produces a partial vacuum which brings the air through the grate,
ash pit, flues and then to motor box and chimney.

This type of induced steam jet draught arrangement is used in locomotive boilers. Here the
steam jet is absorbing the exhaust gases through boiler so it is Induced Steam Jet Draught.
 2. Forced Steam Jet Draught
Steam from the boiler after having been throttled to a gauge pressure of 1.5 to 2 bar is supplied
to the jet or nozzle installed in the ash pit. The steam rising out of nozzles with a great velocity
drags air by the fuel bed, furnace, flue passage and then to the chimney. Here the steam jet is
pushing or forcing the air and flue gases to flow through boiler hence it is forced steam jet
draught.

Advantages of Induced Steam Jet Draught

1. It is quite simple and cheap.

2. The induced steam jet draught has the capability of using low-grade fuels.
3. It occupies very less space.
4. It is quite simple and cheap.
5. The initial cost is low.
6. Maintenance cost is low.
7. Exhaust steam from the steam engine or turbine can be used easily in the steam jet draught.
Disadvantages of Steam Jet Draught

1. It can operate only when some steam is generated.

2. Draught produced very low.

2. Mechanical or Fan Draught

The draught, produced by means of a fan or blower, is known as mechanical draught or fan
draught. The fan used is, generally, of centrifugal type and is driven by an electric motor.

In an induced fan draught a centrifugal fan is placed in the path of the flue gases before they
enter the chimney. It draws the flue gases from the furnace and forces them up through the
chimney. The action of this type of draught is similar to that of the natural draught.

In case of forced fan draught, the fan is placed before the grate, and the air is forced into the
grate through the closed ash pit.

Types of Mechanical or Fan Draught

The following are the three types of mechanical or fan draught:

1. Induced draught.
2. Forced draught.
3. Balanced draught.
1. Induced draught
In induced draught, the blower is placed near the base of the chimney instead of near the grate.
The air is absorbed in the system by decreasing the pressure through the system below the
atmosphere. The induced draught fan sucks the burned gases from the furnace and the pressure
inside the furnace is reduced below atmosphere and includes the atmospheric air to flow
through the furnace.

The action of the induced draught is related to the action of the chimney. The draught produced
is free from the temperature of the hot gases, therefore, the gases may be released as cold as
possible after recovering as much heat as possible in air-preheater and economiser.

2. Forced Draught
In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler and air is forced to
pass through the furnace, flues, economiser, air-preheater and to the stack.

This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced draught system because the
pressure and air are forced to flow through the system.

The arrangement of the system is shown in the figure. A stack or chimney is also in this system
as shown in the figure but its function is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to prevent
the contamination. It is not much significant for producing draught, therefore, the height of the
chimney may not be very much.
 3. Balanced Draught
It is always better to use a combination of forced draught and induced draught instead of forced
or induced draught alone. If the forced draught is applied alone, the furnace cannot be opened
for firing or inspection because high-pressure air inside the furnace will quickly try to blow out
and there is every possibility of blowing out the fire completely and furnace stops.

If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace can not be opened either for firing
inspection because the cold air will try to rush into the furnace as the pressure inside the furnace
is under atmospheric pressure. This reduces the effective draught and dilutes the combustion.

Comparison Between Forced Draught and Induced Draught

Derived the Height of Chimney

a) in term of mm of water b) in term of meters of Hot flue gases

The amount of natural draught produced by a Chimney depends on the height of the chimney.

ma and ma + 1 are mass of air and hot flue gases kg/kg of fuel

Pa = atm pressure, To = Absolte temp = 273 k at NTP , Ta = atm temp, k

Tg = Avg temp of hot flue gas, k

H = height of chimney, m

h = draught produced in mm of Water (H2O)

Specific volumn of air at NTP = Vo = (R x To)/Po = (287 x 273)/101325 = 0.7732 m3/kg

Where, R = 287 J/kgk, To = 273 k at NTP and Po = 101325 Pa or N/m2 at NTP

Then the velocity of hot flue gases in the chimney is

𝑉𝑔 = √2𝑔(𝐻′ − ℎ𝑓 )
Problem:01

How much air is used per kg of coal burned in a boiler having a chimney of 35 m height to
create a draught of 20 mm of water? The temperature of gases in the chimney is 370 0C and the
boiler house temperature is 340C. Find the mass flow rate of flue gases through the chimney, if
the diameter of chimney is 2m. Does this chimney satisfy the condition for maximum
discharge? Also find the height of hot gas column under maximum condition of discharge.
Neglect the losses.

𝑚𝑎 +1 353
𝜌𝑔 = × 𝑉𝑔 = √2𝑔(𝐻′ − ℎ𝑓 )
𝑚𝑎 𝑇𝑔

, 176.5 𝐻
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑇𝑎
,
, 𝜌𝑤 × ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌𝑔
Problem 02

A 40 m height of chimney discharging flue gases at 350 0C, when the ambient temperature is
300C. The quantity of air supplied is 18 kg/kg of fuel burnet. Determine:
1) draught produced in mm of water
2) equivalent draught in metres of hot gas column
3) efficiency of chimney, if minimum temperature of artificial draught is 150 0Cand the mean
specific heat of hot flue gas is 1.005 KJ/kg K
4) the percentage of heat spent in natural draught system, if the net calorific value of the fuel is
30600 KJ/kg, and
5) the temperature of chimney gases for maximum discharge in a given time and what would be
the corresponding draught in mm of water produced.
Solution:

1) draught produced in mm of water

Where, H = 40 m, Ta = 30 + 273, ma = 18 kg/kg of fuel, Tg = 350 + 273

2) equivalent draught in metres of hot gas column

3) efficiency of chimney in %
𝑯′ 𝒈
𝜼𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒏𝒆𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Cp = 1.005 KJ/kgK, 𝑻′𝒈 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑪𝒑 (𝑻𝒈 −𝑻′𝒈 )

4) the percentage of heat spent in natural draught system

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑔 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑔′ ) 𝑚𝑔 = 18 + 1 kg/kg of fuel

𝑄
% ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡 = × 100 𝐶𝑝 = 1.005 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑻′𝒈 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 Tg = 350 + 273
𝐶𝑣

5) the temperature of chimney gases for maximum discharge in a given time and what would be
the corresponding draught in mm of water produced

Tg = ? h = ?
 BOILER PERFORMANCE

The performance of boiler is calculated for comparing the boilers for its evaporating capacity,
energy consumption and heat balance sheet. The quantity of heat supplied to vaporise water
from and at 100°C and 1 atm is referred as evaporation unit.

The Evaporative Capacity

The quantity of steam generated by a boiler at full load is called the evaporative capacity of
the boiler. The performance of boilers is often measured in terms of evaporative capacity. The
evaporative capacity of a boiler can be expressed on the basis of time, heating area, or fuel
burned. These are

Equivalent evaporation
The quantity of steam generated by a boiler depends on the following four important
parameters: (i) feed-water temperature, (ii) working pressure, (iii) fuel used, and (iv)
quality of steam generated. In practical situations, the different boilers use feed water at
different temperatures, operate at different pressures and generate different qualities of steam.
Therefore, such boilers cannot be compared unless some standard parameters are adopted.
Hence feed water is taken at 100 °C and working pressure is at 1.01325 bar. At this state,
water evaporates at 100°C and requires 2257 kJ/kg of latent heat to convert it into steam
at 100°C.
Equivalent evaporation is defined as the amount of dry and saturated steam generated from
feed water at 100°C at normal atmospheric pressure. In short, it is defined as the amount of
steam generated from and at 100°C.
ṁs = Mass of steam generated at pressure p and temperature T per hour in the boiler
h = Enthalpy of steam = hf + x hfg for wet steam
 = hg for dry and saturated steam
= hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) for superheated steam
hf1 = Enthalpy of water at feed temperature
mf = Mass of fuel burned per hour
me = Equivalent mass of dry and saturated steam generated from and at 100°C

Factor of Evaporation
It is defined as the ratio of heat received by 1 kg of feed water for evaporation under actual
working conditions to that received by 1 kg of water evaporated from and at 100°C. It is
denoted by Fe and expressed as

Boiler Efficiency
Although the equivalent evaporation of steam in the boiler is a fair indication of the
performance of the boiler, it does not take into account the quantity of fuel burned in the
furnace of the boiler. Hence, the term boiler efficiency is used for comparison of the
performance of boilers.
The boiler efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual heat utilized in producing steam to the
amount of heat librated by burning of fuel.
Economizer efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the feed water in the economiser to the heat
available to flue gases in the economiser.

More often, it is necessary to obtain the percentage heat utilised in an economiser rather than
the economiser efficiency. The percentage heat utilised in the economiser is defined as the ratio
of heat absorbed by the feed water in the economizer to the heat liberated by combustion of
fuel. Mathematically;
The percentage heat utilised in the superheater
The percentage heat utilised in the superheater is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the
steam in the superheater for its superheating to the heat liberated by combustion of fuel.
Mathematically;
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
% ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Heat supplied per kg of steam in superheater for Wet steam, if x less than 100% quality.
𝑄 = (1 − 𝑥)ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝐶𝑝𝑠 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
= ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 − (ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 )

The absolute pressure of generated steam = P = Patm + Pgauge

In an experiment on a small oil-fired boiler, the steam produced is at 6 bar gauge. The quality of
steam produced is found out to be 0.96 dry. 75 litres of water is converted into steam in 9.5
minutes. The fuel is a light diesel oil with specific gravity of 0.85 and calorific value of 43125
kJ/kg. 10 litres of oil is consumed in 11 minutes and 25 seconds. The feed-water temperature is
35°C. Determine Equivalent evaporation and the boiler efficiency, Also Heat produced by
complete burning of fuel and Heat utilized in generation of steam. Take atmospheric pressure
as 1 bar.
Given: Steam generation in a small oil-fired boiler
pg = 6 bar patm = 1 bar ms = 75 litres = 75 kg Δt1 = 9.5 min x = 9.6
mf = 10 lit SG = 0.85 Δt2 = 11 min., 25 s Tf1 = 35°C
p = patm + pg ρ = SG x ρ water mass = vol x density
Equivalent evaporation me
ms = 75 x 1000 x10-3/9.5 x 60 mf = (10x10-3x 1000x 0.85)/(11x60+25)
CV = 43125 kJ/kg. h = hf+xhfg p = patm + pg =1+6 = 7bar
h = hf+xhfg = 697.1 + 0.96 x 2064.9 = 2679.4 Kj/kg
hf1 at 35 = 146,6 kj/kg
Qs = ms x(h-hf1) = 333.06 kj
Qf= mf x CV = 534.75 kj
Boiler eff = Qs/Qf = ms x(h-hf1)/ mf x CV
=
h= = hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) for superheated steam
Example : The following data were obtained during a boiler trial:
Mass of steam = 700 kg/h
Temperature of feed water = 60°C
Steam pressure = 10 bar
Oil consumption = 55 kg/h
CV of oil = 44000 kJ/kg
Dryness fraction of steam = 0.98
Percentage composition of oil by mass:
C = 85%, H2 = 14%, Ash = 1%
Analysis of dry flue gases by volume:
CO2 = 12.5%, O2 = 4.5%, N2 = 83%
Temp. of flue gases leaving the boiler = 350°C
Boiler room temperature = 25°C
Specific heat of flue gases = 1.02 kJ/kg K
Partial pressure of steam = 0.08 bar
Heating surface area = 21.4 m2
Find
(a) equivalent evaporation per kg of fuel from and at 100°C,
(b) equivalent evaporation per sq. m of heating area,
(c) heat rate of the boiler in kJ/h,
(d) thermal efficiency of the boiler or boiler efficiency
(e) heat balance sheet on the basis of 1 kg of fuel and on the percentage basis.

Given Data: A trial on a boiler

Mass of steam, ms = 700 kg/h
Temp. of feed water, Tf1 = 60°C
Steam pressure = 10 bar
Oil consumption, mf = 55 kg/h
CV of oil = 44000 kJ/kg
x = 0.98
Percentage composition of oil by mass: C = 85% H2 = 14% Ash = 1%
Analysis of dry flue gases by volume: CO2 = 12.5% O2 = 4.5% N2 = 83%
Tg = 350°C Cpg = 1.02 kJ/kg K
Boiler room temperature, Ta = 25°C
Partial pressure of steam = 0.08 bar
Heating surface area = 21.4 m2
(a) equivalent evaporation per kg of fuel from and at 100°C,
me = ma (h - hf1 )/2257 ma = ms/mf h = hf + x hfg = 2735.92 KJ/kg at 10 bar
& hf1 = …. At 60 C0
me = 14.01 kg of steam/kg of fuel

(b) equivalent evaporation per sq. m of heating area,

me = ma (h - hf1 )/2257 ma = ms/heating Area me = 36.01 kg of steam/m2 of heating area
(c) heat rate of the boiler in kJ/h,
Qb = ms (h - hf1 ) = 1739.37 KJ/h
(d) thermal efficiency of the boiler or boiler efficiency
Qf = mf . CV Eff. Of Boiler = Qb/ Qf = 79.38 %
Heat Balance Sheet
(a) Heat supplied by 1 kg of fuel,
qin = CV =
(1) Heat absorbed by water per kg of fuel during its heating and evaporation,
q1 = ma (h - hf1 ) ma = ms/mf
(2) Heat carried by dry flue gases,
Actual air required per kg of fuel burnt,

Since 0.85 kg carbon is also present per kg of fuel, thus the mass of dry gases formed per kg
of fuel,
mg = ma + mC = 17.1 + 0.85 = 17.95 kg/kg of fuel
q2 = mg Cpg (Tg − Ta)

(d) Heat carried by moisture per kg of fuel

The moisture formed per kg of fuel,
mv = 9 H = 9 x 0.14 = 1.26 kg/kg of fuel
Properties of steam at 0.08 bar (8 kPa)
hg = 2577 kJ/kg Tsat = 41.54°C
Heat carried by moisture
q3 = mv [hg + Cps (Tg − Tsat) − Cpw Ta]
= 1.26 x [2577 + 2.1 x (350 − 41.54) − 4.2 x 25]
= 3931 kJ/kg of fuel
Heat lost by radiation and convection, etc.
q4 = qin − q1 − q2 − q3
= 44000 − 31630.31 − 5944.8 − 3931
= 2493.9 kJ/kg of fuel
 Cogeneration Power Plant

Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is defined as the sequential generation
of two different forms of useful energy from a single primary energy source, typically
mechanical energy and thermal energy. Mechanical energy may be used either to drive an
alternator for producing electricity, or rotating equipment such as motor, compressor, pump or
fan for delivering various services. Thermal energy can be used either for direct process
applications or for indirectly producing steam, hot water, hot air for dryer or chilled water for
process cooling.

Cogeneration provides a wide range of technologies for application in various domains of

economic activities. The overall efficiency of energy use in cogeneration mode can be up to 85
per cent and above in some cases.

The technology offers the following benefits for both its users and our society:

1. Increased energy efficiency. Cogeneration is up to 40% more efficient than the separate
generation of heat and power.
2. Lower emissions. Cogeneration saves every year 200 milion tonnes of CO2 in Europe
thanks to being very efficient. This equals the total emissions of 42.5 million passenger
cars or 2.6 million trucks.
3. Reduced energy costs. Users of cogeneration benefit from higher efficiencies and
therefore need less fuel to cover their heating and electricity demand.
4. Supporting renewable energy. Cogeneration can run on any renewable fuel and is the
most cost-effective way of using renewable fuels. Currently, 27% of fuels used in
cogeneration in Europe are renewable, mainly biomass and biogas.
5. Empowered businesses and citizens. Cogeneration comes in all sizes, from 1kW to
nearly 1GW. It is fit to supply heat and electricity to all types of users, from a single
household to a large industrial complex or entire town.
6. Enhanced energy system resilience. Cogeneration can generate the exact amount of
electricity and heat needed at a certain time in a certain place. This brings flexibility and
resilience to an energy system which has to cope with a growing number of intermittent
renewables such as solar and wind power.
7. Reduced transmission and distribution costs. Cogeneration generates electricity and
heat at the spot. Users of cogeneration rely less on electricity from the grid avoiding grid
costs both at end-user and system level.
 8. Reduced import dependency. High efficiency leads to reduced fuel demand in Europe.

Need for cogeneration

Thermal power plants are a major source of electricity supply in India. The conventional
method of power generation and supply to the customer is wasteful in the sense that only about
a third of the primary energy fed into the power plant is actually made available to the user in
the form of electricity (Figure 1). In conventional power plant, efficiency is only 35% and
remaining 65% of energy is lost. The major source of loss in the conversion process is the heat
rejected to the surrounding water or air due to the inherent constraints of the different
thermodynamic cycles employed in power generation. Also further losses of around 10-15% are
associated with the transmission and distribution of electricity in the electrical grid.
Technical Options for Cogeneration

Cogeneration technologies that have been widely commercialized include extraction/back

pressure steam turbines, gas turbine with heat recovery boiler (with or without bottoming steam
turbine) and reciprocating engines with heat recovery boiler.

1. Steam turbine cogeneration systems

The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the extraction-
condensing types (see Figure). The choice between backpressure turbine and extraction-
condensing turbine depends mainly on the quantities of power and heat, quality of heat, and
economic factors. The extraction points of steam from the turbine could be more than one,
depending on the temperature levels of heat required by the processes.

Another variation of the steam turbine topping cycle cogeneration system is the extraction-back
pressure turbine that can be employed where the end-user needs thermal energy at two different
temperature levels. The full-condensing steam turbines are usually incorporated at sites where
heat rejected from the process is used to generate power.

The specific advantage of using steam turbines in comparison with the other prime movers is
the option for using a wide variety of conventional as well as alternative fuels such as coal,
natural gas, fuel oil and biomass. The power generation efficiency of the cycle may be
sacrificed to some extent in order to optimize heat supply. In backpressure cogeneration plants,
there is no need for large cooling towers. Steam turbines are mostly used where the demand for
electricity is greater than one MW up to a few hundreds of MW. Due to the system inertia, their
operation is not suitable for sites with intermittent energy demand.
2 Gas turbine cogeneration systems

Gas turbine cogeneration systems can produce all or a part of the energy requirement of the site,
and the energy released at high temperature in the exhaust stack can be recovered for various
heating and cooling applications (see Figure). Though natural gas is most commonly used, other
fuels such as light fuel oil or diesel can also be employed. The typical range of gas turbines
varies from a fraction of a MW to around 100 MW.

Gas turbine cogeneration has probably experienced the most rapid development in the recent
years due to the greater availability of natural gas, rapid progress in the technology, significant
reduction in installation costs, and better environmental performance. Furthermore, the
gestation period for developing a project is shorter and the equipment can be delivered in a
modular manner. Gas turbine has a short start-up time and provides the flexibility of
intermittent operation. Though it has a low heat to power conversion efficiency, more heat can
be recovered at higher temperatures. If the heat output is less than that required by the user, it is
possible to have supplementary natural gas firing by mixing additional fuel to the oxygen-rich
exhaust gas to boost the thermal output more efficiently.

On the other hand, if more power is required at the site, it is possible to adopt a combined cycle
that is a combination of gas turbine and steam turbine cogeneration. Steam generated from the
exhaust gas of the gas turbine is passed through a backpressure or extraction-condensing steam
turbine to generate additional power. The exhaust or the extracted steam from the steam turbine
provides the required thermal energy.
3 Reciprocating engine cogeneration systems

Also known as internal combustion (I. C.) engines, these cogeneration systems have high power
generation efficiencies in comparison with other prime movers. There are two sources of heat
for recovery: exhaust gas at high temperature and engine jacket cooling water system at low
temperature (see Figure). As heat recovery can be quite efficient for smaller systems, these
systems are more popular with smaller energy consuming facilities, particularly those having a
greater need for electricity than thermal energy and where the quality of heat required is not
high, e.g. low pressure steam or hot water.

Though diesel has been the most common fuel in the past, the prime movers can also operate
with heavy fuel oil or natural gas. These machines are ideal for intermittent operation and their
performance is not as sensitive to the changes in ambient temperatures as the gas turbines.
Though the initial investment on these machines is low, their operating and maintenance costs
are high due to high wear and tear.

Classification of Cogeneration Systems

Cogeneration systems are normally classified according to the sequence of energy use and the
operating schemes adopted.

A cogeneration system can be classified as either a topping or a bottoming cycle on the basis
of the sequence of energy use.

In a topping cycle, the fuel supplied is used to first produce power and then thermal energy,
which is the by-product of the cycle and is used to satisfy process heat or other thermal
requirements. Topping cycle cogeneration is widely used and is the most popular method of
cogeneration.

The four types of topping cycle cogeneration systems are briefly explained in given below
Bottoming Cycle

In a bottoming cycle, the primary fuel produces high temperature thermal energy and the heat
rejected from the process is used to generate power through a recovery boiler and a turbine
generator. Bottoming cycles are suitable for manufacturing processes that require heat at high
temperature in furnaces and kilns, and reject heat at significantly high temperatures. Typical
areas of application include cement, steel, ceramic, gas and petrochemical industries. Bottoming
cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants. The Figure 7.6 illustrates the
bottoming cycle where fuel is burnt in a furnace to produce synthetic rutile. The waste gases
coming out of the furnace is utilized in a boiler to generate steam, which drives the turbine to
produce electricity.

Bottoming Cycle CHP

These include timber processors, biomass, geothermal and waste heat from everything from hot
washing water, hot ricotta wastewater to coffee roasters! Historically a bottoming cycle CHP
system requires a heat source of sufficiently high temperatures (usually over 500 °F or 260 °C)
to be practical.
 Fluidized Bed

Fluidization is a process in which solids are caused to behave like a fluid by blowing gas or
liquid upwards through the solid-filled reactor. Fluidization is widely used in commercial
operations; the applications can be roughly divided into two categories, i.e.,

• physical operations, such as transportation, heating, absorption, mixing of fine powder, etc.
and

• chemical operations, such as reactions of gases on solid catalysts and reactions of solids with
gases etc.

Fluidization is a method of mixing fuel and air in a specific proportion, for obtaining
combustion. A fluidized bed may be defined as the bed of solid particles behaving as a fluid. It
operates on the principal that when an evenly distributed air is passed upward through a finely
divided bed of solid particles at low velocity, the particles remain undisturbed, but if the
velocity of air flow is steadily increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are
suspended in the air stream.

The fluidized bed is one of the best known contacting methods used in the processing industry,
for instance in oil refinery plants. Among its chief advantages are that the particles are well
mixed leading to low temperature gradients, they are suitable for both small and large scale
operations and they allow continuous processing. There are many well established operations
that utilize this technology, including cracking and reforming of hydrocarbons, coal
carbonization and gasification, ore roasting, Fisher-Tropsch synthesis, coking, aluminum
production, melamine production, and coating preparations. The application of fluidization is
also well recognized in nuclear engineering as a unit operation for example, in uranium
extraction, nuclear fuel fabrication, reprocessing of fuel and waste disposal.

Advantages and Dis-advantages of Fluidized Bed Combustion

FBC is being used exhaustively these days in all major power stations all over the globe, owing
to numerous advantages that it offers over the other pre-dominant methods of combustion. Few
of those are:
1. High thermal efficiency.
2. Easy ash removal system, to be transferred for made cement.
3. Short commissioning and erection period.
4. Fully automated and thus ensures safe operation, even at extreme temperatures.
5. Efficient operation at temperatures down to 150oC (i.e. well below the ash fusion
temperature).
6. Reduced coal crushing etc. (pulverised coal is not a necessity here).
 7. The system can respond rapidly to changes in load demand, due to quick establishment of
thermal equilibrium between air and fuel particles in the bed.
8. The operation of fluidized bed furnace at lower temperature helps in reducing air
pollution. The low temperature operation also reduces the formation of nitrogen oxides.
By adding either dolomite (a calcium-magnesium carbonate) or lime stone (calcium
carbonate) to the furnace the discharge of sulphur oxides to the atmosphere can also be
reduced if desired.

Fluidization Regimes

When the solid particles are fluidized, the fluidized bed behaves differently as velocity, gas and
solid properties are varied. It has become evident that there are number of regimes of
fluidization, as shown in Figure . When the flow of a gas passed through a bed of particles is
increased continually, a few vibrate, but still within the same height as the bed at rest. This is
called a fixed bed (Figure A). With increasing gas velocity, a point is reached where the drag
force imparted by the upward moving gas equals the weight of the particles, and the voidage of
the bed increases slightly: this is the onset of fluidization and is called minimum fluidization
(Figure B) with a corresponding minimum fluidization velocity, Umf. Increasing the gas flow
further, the formation of fluidization bubbles sets in. At this point, a bubbling fluidized bed
occurs as shown in Figure C. As the velocity is increased further still, the bubbles in a bubbling
fluidized bed will coalesce and grow as they rise. If the ratio of the height to the diameter of the
bed is high enough, the size of bubbles may become almost the same as diameter of the bed.
This is called slugging (Figure D). If the particles are fluidized at a high enough gas flow rate,
the velocity exceeds the terminal velocity of the particles. The upper surface of the bed
disappears and, instead of bubbles, one observes a turbulent motion of solid clusters and voids
of gas of various sizes and shapes. Beds under these conditions are called turbulent beds as
shown in Figure E. With further increases of gas velocity, eventually the fluidized bed becomes
an entrained bed in which we have disperse, dilute or lean phase fluidized bed, which amounts
to pneumatic transport of solids.
Minimum Fluidization Velocity

The superficial gas velocity at which the bed of powder is just fluidized, is normally called the
minimum fluidization velocity or designated by Umf.

Principles of Fluidized Bed Combustion Operation

The working principle of

(a) Fluidized Bed Combustion

(b)Atmospheric bubbling bed combustor

(c) Circulating bed combustor

Principles of Fluidized Bed Combustion Operation:

A fluidized bed is composed of fuel (coal, coke, biomass, etc.,) and bed material (ash, sand,
and/or sorbent) contained within an atmospheric or pressurized vessel. The bed becomes
fluidized when air or other gas flows upward at a velocity sufficient to expand the bed. The
process is illustrated in figure. At low fluidizing velocities (0.9 to 3 m/s). relatively high solids
densities are maintained in the bed and only a small fraction of the solids are entrained from the
bed. A fluidized bed that is operated in this velocity range is refered to as a bubbling fluidized
bed (BFB). A schematic of a typical BFB combustor is illustrated in figure.
The advantages of FBC in comparison to conventional pulverized coal-fueled units can be
summarized as follows:

1. SO2 can be removed in the combustion process by adding limestone to the fluidized bed,
eliminating the need for an external desulfurization process.

2. Fluidized bed boilers are inherently fuel flexible and, with proper design provision, can
burn a variety of fuels.

3. Combustion FBC units takes place at temperatures below the ash fusion temperature of
most fuels. Consequently, tendencies for slagging and fouling are reduced with FBC.

4. Because of the reduced combustion temperature, NOx emissions are inherently low.

Classification of Fluidized Bed Combustion:

1. Atmospheric fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC)

a. Bubbling fluidized bed combustors
b. Circulating fluidized
[Link] Fluidized Bed Combustin (PFBC)

Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC)

1. Bubbling fluidized bed combustor or Bubbling Fluidized Bed Boiler (BFB)

A bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) boiler is a boiler that can also handle fuels that are
difficult to pulverize or less combustible. The fuel is introduced into a mixture of sand flowing
at high temperatures, allowing the fuel to be efficiently combusted.
 Generally, BFB combustion is characterized by keeping large thermal capacity of bed
material, and can stably fire various kinds of fuel such as high-moisture or low-flammable fuel.
By applying the above combustion technology, Mitsubishi Power can supply BFB boiler to
utilize the various fuel, which is coal, woody biomass like waste wood /construction waste, and
industrial waste such as the tire derived fuel

A typical BFB arrangement is illustrated schematically in figure. Fuel and sorbent are
introduced either above or below the fluidized bed. (Overbed feed is illustrated.) The bed
consisting of about 97% limestone or inert material and 3% burning fuel, is suspended by hot
primary air entering the bottom of the combustion chamber. The bed temperature is controlled
by heat transfer tubes immersed in the bed and by varying the quantity of coal in the bed. As the
coal particle size decreases, as a result of either combustion or attrition, the particles are
elutriated from the bed and carried out the combustor. A portion of the particles elutriated from
the bed are collected by a cyclone (or multiclone) collector down-stream of the convection pass
and returned to the bed to improve combustion efficiency.

Secondary air can be added above the bed to improve combustion efficiency and to
achieve staged combustion , thus lowering NOx emissions. Most of the early BFBs used tubular
air heaters to minimize air leakage that could occur as a result of relatively high primary air
pressures required to suspend the bed. Recent designs have included regenerative type air
heaters.

2. Circulating fluidized bed combustor or Circulating fluidized bed boiler (CFB)

A circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler features higher gas velocity (superficial flow
velocity) in the furnace (combustor) compared with a bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) boiler. The
boiler activates a mixture of particles and gas to improve combustion reaction. Moreover, the
fluid sand and fuel issuing out of the furnace are collected in a cyclone and recirculated into the
furnace again, thereby improving combustion efficiency.

A typical CFB arrangement is illustrated schematically in figure. In a CFB, primary air is

introduced into the lower portion of the combustor, where the heavy bed material is fluidized
and retained. The upper portion of the combustor contains the less dense material that is
entrained from the bed. Secondary air typically is introduced at higher levels in the combustor
to ensure complete combustion and to reduce NOx emissions.

The combustion gas generated in the combustor flows upward with a considerable
portion of the solids inventory entrained. These entrained solids are separated from the
combustion gas in hot cyclone-type dust collectors or in mechanical particle separators, and are
continuously returned to the combustion chamber by a recycle loop.

As for temperatures inside the furnace, while a regular boiler reaches 1,400-1,500°C,
temperatures inside a CFB are in the low range of 800-900°C, thus inhibiting the generation of
thermal nitrogen oxides (NOx whose production is dependent on combustion temperature).
Further, with the use of two-stage combustion, NOx generation can be limited to less than 100
ppm. When limestone is supplied to the furnace, furnace desulfurization can take place as
illustrated by the following chemical equations.

CaCO3 → CaO+CO2 CaO+SO2+1/2O2 → CaSO4

The combustion chamber of a CFB unit for utility applications generally consists of
membrane-type welded water walls to provide most of the evaporative boiler surface. The lower
third of the combustor is refractory lined to protect the water walls from erosion in the high-
velocity dense bed region. Several CFB design offer external heat exchangers, which are
unfired dense BFB units that extract heat from the solids collected by the dust collectors before
it is returned to the combustor. The external heat exchangers are used to provide additional
evaporative heat transfer surface as well as superheat and reheat surface, depending on the
manufacturer’s design.

The flue gas, after removal of more than 99% of the entrained solids in the cyclone or
particle separator, exists the cyclone or separator to a convection pass. The convection pass
designs are similar to those used with unconvectional coal-fueled units, and contain
economizer, superheat, and reheat surface as required by the application.

Pressurized fluidized Bed combustion

The PFBC system combines a fluidized-bed combustion boiler with a gas turbine. The
gas turbine supplies the combustion air at high pressure to the combustor, and the gas after
being cleaned in cyclones drive the gas turbine. Steam is simultaneously generated in the tube
bundles in the combustor and drives the steam turbine. It is a coal-fired combined cycle.

The PFBC unit is classified as either turbocharged or combined cycle units. In

turbocharged arrangements (figure) combustion gas from the PEBC boiler is cooled to
approximately 394°C and is used to drive a gas turbine. The gas turbine drives an air
compressor, and there is little, if any, net gas turbine output. Electricity is produced by a turbine
generator driven by steam generated in the PFBC boiler.

In the combined cycle arrangement (figure) 815°C to 871°C combustion gas from the
PFBC boiler is used to drive the gas turbine. About 20% of the net plant electrical output is
provided by the gas turbine. With this arrangement, thermal efficiency 2 to 3 percentage points
higher than with the turbocharged cycle are feasible.
 UNIT NO. 06

CONDENSER

CONDENSER

A condenser is a device in which vapour condenses to liquid phase at saturation temperature

and constant pressure. During condensation, the working substance changes its phase from
vapour to liquid and rejects latent heat. A condenser maintains a very low pressure, due to
sudden decrease in specific volume of the working substance. In a steam condenser, the cooling
of steam is accomplished by circulating water as a cooling agent in the condenser. The exhaust
pressure in the condenser is maintained nearly 7 to 8 kPa which corresponds to condensate
temperature of nearly 40°C.

The primary object of a condenser is to maintain a low pressure on the exhaust side of the rotor
of steam turbine. This enables the steam to expand to a greater extent which results in an
increase in available energy for conversation into mechanical work. The secondary object of
condenser is to supply to the boiler pure and hot feed water, as the condensed steam which is
discharged from the condenser and collect in a hot well can be used over again as feed water for
the boiler. The use of a condenser in a power plant is to improve the efficiency of the power
plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below atmospheric pressure. Another
advantage of the condenser is that the steam condensed may be recovered to provide a source of
pure feed water to the boiler and reduce the water softening capacity to a considerable extent.

The main advantages of incorporating a steam condenser in a steam power plant are as
follows:
• It increases the efficiency of the power plant due to increased enthalpy drop.

• It reduces back pressure of the steam which results in more work output.

• It reduces temperature of the exhaust steam which also results in more work output.

• The condensed steam can be reused as feed water for boiler which reduces the cost of power
generation.

• The temperature of the condensate is higher than that of the fresh water which reduces the heat
supplied per Kg of steam produced.

Function of condenser
The main function of condenser is to convert gaseous form of exhaust steam into liquid form at
a pressure of below atmosphere. Cooling medium is used water to convert steam into water.

• Function of the condenser is to create a vacuum by condensing steam

• Remove dissolved non – condensable gases from the condensate.
• Providing a leak tight barrier between the high grade condensate contained within the shell
and the untreated cooling water.
• Providing leak tight barrier against air ingress, preventing excess back pressure on the turbine.

Elements of a steam condensing plant

The main elements of a steam condensing plants are:
• A condenser in which the exhaust steam is condensed
• Supply of cooling water for condensing exhaust steam
• A pump to circulate the cooling water in case of a surface condenser
• A pump called the wet air pump to remove the condensed steam (condensate) the air, and
uncondensed water vapour and gases from the condenser (separate pump may be used to
remove air and condensed steam)
• A hot well where the condensed steam can be discharged and from which the boiler feed water
is taken
• An arrangement (cooling pond or cooling tower) for cooling the circulation water when a
surface condenser is used and the supply of water is limited
Types of condensers
The steam condensers are classified as follows:
1. Jet condensers (mixing type condensers)
a. Parallel flow jet condenser
b. Counter flow jet condenser (low level)
c. Barometric or high level jet condenser
d. Ejector condenser
2. Surface condensers (non mixing type condensers)
a. Down flow surface condenser
b. Central flow surface condenser
c. Regenerative surface condenser
d. Evaporative condenser

Parallel flow jet condenser

In parallel flow jet condenser both the steam and the water enters from the top and flows in the
same direction as shown in Figure 1. The exhaust steam is condensed when it mixes up with
water. The condensate and the cooling water are delivered to the hot well from where surplus
water flows to the cooling pond through an overflow pipe. Sometimes a single pump know as
wet air pump is used to remove both air and the condensate but generally separate air pump is
used to remove air as it gives a great vacuum.
Counter flow or low level jet condenser
In counter flow or low level jet condenser, the exhaust steam enters from bottom and mixes
with the down coming cooling water as shown in Figure 2. The air pump mounted at the top of
the condenser shell creates vacuum as it suck air. This draws the supply of cooling water which
falls from a large number of jets through perforated conical plate.
The water then falls in the trays and flows through second series of jets and mixes with the
exhaust steam entering at the bottom. This cause rapid condensation after which the condensate
and the cooling water are delivered to the hot well by the condensate extraction pump.
Barometric or high level jet condenser

This type of condenser is provided at a high level as shown in Figure 3 having a long tail pipe.
The exhaust steam enters from the bottom and flows upwards. This steam then mixes with
cooling water which falls from the top through various baffles. The vacuum is created by the air
pump placed at the top of the condenser shell. The condensate and the cooling water flows
downwards through a vertical tail pipe to the hot well without the aid of any pump. The surplus
water from the hot well flows to the cooling pond through an overflow pipe.
Ejector condenser

In ejector condenser, the steam and water mix-up while passing through a series of metal cones
as shown in Figure 4. Water enters from the top through a number of guide cones. The exhaust
steam enters the condenser through a non return valve. The steam and air then pass through the
hollow truncated cones. After that it passes through the diverging cone where its kinetic energy
is partly transformed into pressure energy. The condensate and the cooling water are then
discharged to the hot well. The high exit pressure in the diverging cone allow discharged of
water automatically into the hot well at atmospheric pressure.
Surface condenser

In surface condenser, the condensate does not mix up with the cooling water. So the whole
condensate can be reused in the boiler. This type of condenser is used where is only limited
quantity of fresh water is available like ships. A sectional view of a two pass surface condenser
is shown in Figure 5. It consists of a horizontal cylindrical vessel made of cast iron packed with
tubes for cooling water. The cooling water flows in one direction through the lower half of the
tubes and in opposite direction through the upper half. The water tubes are fixed into vertical
perforated type plates at the ends so that leakage of water should not occur into the central
condensing space. The steam enters from top end. The extraction pump at the bottom sucks the
condensate resulting in the downwards flow of steam over the water tubes.

Down flow surface condenser

In down flow surface condenser, the steam enters from the top as shown in Figure 6. The
exhaust steam is forced to flow downwards over the water tubes due to suction of the extraction
pump at the bottom. The suction pipe of the dry air pump is provided near the bottom and is
covered by a baffle so that the condensed steam does not enter into it. As the steam flow
perpendicular to the direction of flow of cooling water, it is also called cross flow surface
condenser.
Central flow surface condenser

In this type of surface condenser the suction pipe of the air extraction pump is placed in the
center of the tube nest as shown in Figure 7. The exhaust steam from turbine enters from the top
and flows radially inwards over the tubes. The condensate is collected at the bottom. The
advantage of central flow type surface condenser over the down flow type is that the steam
flows over the whole periphery of the water tubes as the steam flows radially inwards.

Evaporative condenser

In evaporative condenser the steam flows enters the gilled pipes and flows backwards and
forwards in a vertical plane as shown in Figure 8. The water pump sprays water on the pipes
which condenses the steam. The main advantage of this type of condenser is that the quantity of
cooling water needed to condense the steam can be reduced by causing the circulating water to
evaporate which decrease the temperature. The remaining water is collected in the cooling
pond.
Regenerative surface condenser

In this type of condenser the condensate after passing the tube nest is heated using regenerator
which is located inside the exhaust steam which raises the temperature of the condensate. This
increases the efficiency of the plant as water in the boiler requires less heat input.

COOLING TOWER

A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere though
the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Purpose of a cooling tower is to reduce the
temperature of circulating hot water to re-use this water again in the boiler. This hot water is
coming from the condenser.

Common applications for cooling towers are providing cooled water for air-conditioning,
manufacturing and electric power generation.

How Cooling Tower Works?

Hot water is coming at the inlet of the tower and pumped up to the header. The header contains
nozzles and sprinklers which is used to spray water, and it will increase the surface area of
water. After that, water comes to PVC filling; it used to reduce the speed of water. At the top
the cooling tower, fans are used to lift air from bottom to the top.
Because of slow speed and more contact area of water, it makes a good connection between air
and hot water. The process will reduce the temperature of water by evaporation process and
cooled water is collected at the bottom of the cooling tower, and this cooled water is used again
in the boiler.

Different Parts of Cooling Tower

1. Eliminator: It is not allowed to pass water. Eliminator is placed the at top of tower, from
which only hot air can pass.
2. Spray Nozzles and Header: These parts are used to increase the rate of evaporation by
increasing surface area of water.
3. PVC Falling: It reduces the falling speed of hot water and it is similar to beehive.
4. Mesh: When the fan is ON, it uses atmosphere air which contains some unwanted dust
particles. Mesh is used to stop these particles and do not allow to enter dust in to cooling
tower.
5. Float Valve: It is used to maintain level of water.
6. Bleed Valve: It is used to control the concertation of minerals and salt.
7. Body: Body or outer surface of cooling tower is often made up from FRP (fiber
reinforced plastic), which protects the internal parts of cooling tower.

Cooling towers can be classified in two types

1. Working of Natural Draught Cooling Tower
In natural draft cooling towers, air flow is obtained by pressure difference obtained from its
structure i.e. chimney effect. Warm and moist air (less dense) after heat transfer will go out
of the cooling tower to the atmosphere, creating to flow in fresh air (denser). The flow of air
 occurs due to the density difference between the warm (less dense) air inside the cooling
tower and relatively cool (denser) ambient air outside the cooling tower.
Natural draft cooling towers are generally preferred in
1. Cool and humid climates (low wet-bulb temperature and high relative humidity)
2. Heavy winter loads

Working Principle of Natural Draft Cooling Towers

The hot water that is to be cooled in the cooling tower is pumped to the top of the cooling
tower at the hot water inlet. The hot water inlet is connected to a series of nozzles which
spray this water over the fill material (provides a large contact surface area for heat
transfer). Fresh air is induced by the open structure at bottom of the tower and then the air
flows in the upward direction for direct contact heat transfer between warm water and air.
The hot water liberates heat after direct contact with fresh air and some of the water gets
evaporated and cold water gets collected at the bottom of the tower. Warm and moist air
will be discharged from the top of the tower into the atmosphere.
Advantages of Natural Draft Cooling Towers
1. No electrical fan is installed so power saving
2. No corrosion problems
3. Maintenance is low
4. No recirculation of air occurs due to high stack outlet
Disadvantages Natural Draft Cooling Towers
5. Huge water flow required.
6. These require a large area.
7. Its performance depends on wind velocity and direction.
These are induced-draft cooling towers. These are compact in size with low height. The air
ovement through the tower is created by induced fans, located at the top of the tower. An
induced draft counter flow cooling tower is shown in Fig. 23.17. The warm water coming from
the condenser is pumped to the top of the tower and is sprayed into air stream. The falling water
passes through a series of baffles, thus the water breaks into fine droplets to promote
evaporation. The atmospheric air is drawn in by an induced fan flowing upward, counter to the
direction of the falling water droplets. As the two streams interact, a small fraction of water
stream evaporates into moist air and cools the remaining falling water. The cooled water is
collected at the bottom of the tower and is pumped back to the condenser. The moist air is
discharged from the top of the tower. Since some of the warm water is evaporated into the air
stream, an equivalent amount of make-up water is added to the cycle.
UNIT – I [ 8 Hrs.]
Introduction to layout of thermal power plant, principle of steam generation, fuel for steam generators,
necessity of water treatment, classification of steam generators, fire tube and water tube boilers, high
pressure boilers, boiler mountings and accessories.

Basic Layout And Working Of A Thermal Power Plant

Almost two third of electricity requirement of the world is fulfilled by thermal power
plants (or thermal power stations). In these power stations, steam is produced by burning
some fossil fuel (e.g. coal) and then used to run a steam turbine. Thus, a thermal power
station may sometimes called as a Steam Power Station. After the steam passes through the
steam turbine, it is condensed in a condenser and again fed back into the boiler to become
steam. This is known as ranking cycle. This article explains how electricity is generated in
thermal power plants. As majority of thermal power plants use coal as their primary fuel,
this article is focused on a coal fired thermal power plant.

Coal: In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the
generating station. Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel. The coal is
stored in either 'dead storage' or in 'live storage'. Dead storage is generally 40 days backup
coal storage which is used when coal supply is unavailable. Live storage is a raw coal
bunker in boiler house. The coal is cleaned in a magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron
particles are present which may cause wear and tear in the equipment. The coal from live
storage is first crushed in small particles and then taken into pulverizer to make it in
powdered form. Fine powdered coal undergoes complete combustion, and thus pulverized
coal improves efficiency of the boiler. The ash produced after the combustion of coal is
taken out of the boiler furnace and then properly disposed. Periodic removal of ash from the
boiler furnace is necessary for the proper combustion.

Boiler: The mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler and
then burnt in the combustion zone. On ignition of fuel a large fireball is formed at the center
of the boiler and large amount of heat energy is radiated from it. The heat energy is utilized
to convert the water into steam at high temperature and pressure. Steel tubes run along the
boiler walls in which water is converted in steam. The flue gases from the boiler make their
way through superheater, economizer, air preheater and finally get exhausted to the
atmosphere from the chimney.
 Superheater: The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The
saturated steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540 °C in
the superheater. The superheated high pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.
 Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the water
before supplying to the boiler.
 Air pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed
in the air pre-heater. Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of
pre-heating the air is that it improves the coal combustion.
Steam turbine: High pressure super heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes
turbine blades to rotate. Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the
steam turbine which acts as the prime mover. The pressure and temperature of the steam
falls to a lower value and it expands in volume as it passes through the turbine. The
expanded low pressure steam is exhausted in the condenser.

Condenser: The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold water
circulation. Here, the steam loses it's pressure as well as temperature and it is converted back
into water. Condensing is essential because, compressing a fluid which is in gaseous state
requires a huge amount of energy with respect to the energy required in compressing liquid.
Thus, condensing increases efficiency of the cycle.

Alternator: The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the
alternator, electrical energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped up
with the help of a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.

Feed water pump: The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump.
Some water may be lost during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external water
source.

This was the basic working principle of a thermal power station and its typical
components. A practical thermal plant possess more complicated design and multiple stages
of turbine such as High Pressure Turbine (HPT), Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and
Low Pressure Turbine (LPT).

Advantages And Disadvantages Of A Thermal Power Plant

Advantages:

 Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.

 It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
 The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
 The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantages:

 It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one of
the causes of global warming.
 The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).

Fuel Used in Steam Power Plant

A fuel is simply a combustible substance. It burns in the presence of oxygen and releases
heat energy. The various types of fuels, like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels, are available for
burning in boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipment. Most fuels contain carbon and
hydrogen as main constituent; thus they are called hydrocarbon fuels, and designated with
the chemical formula Cn Hm. The hydrocarbon fuels consist of all phases such as coal (a
solid fuel), petroleum (a liquid fuel), and natural gas (a gaseous fuel). These fuels are
available for burning in boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipments.

1. COAL

Coal is the most important solid fuel and its main constituent is carbon. It also contains some
amount of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, moisture and ash. Coal is a mineral
substance of vegetable origin. It is the result of decay of vegetable matter which
accumulated under earth millions of years ago and got transformed by the action of heat and
pressure. Its transformation occurs progressively.

Classification of Coal
The coal passes through different stages during its formation from vegetation. These stages
are listed and discussed below:
1. Peat:-
It is a spongy humidified substance and the first stage at which the fuel is derived from the
wood and vegetable matter. Thus, it possesses constituents very nearest to those of wood
with 30% moisture. It has lowest calorific value about 14,500 kJ/kg. It is mainly used as a
fuel in gasproducer plants. Other varieties of coal are derived from peat.
2. Lignite Coal is found next to peat. It is a soft coal, composed mainly of volatile matter
and moisture content with low fixed carbon of about 60%. Its appearance is brown and it
contains high ash and low heating value. It is a low-grade fuel having a calorific value about
21, 000 kJ/kg. It is too brittle, and hence it is converted into briquetts, which can be easily
handled. It burns with heavy smoke. There are comparatively large deposits of lignite in
Kashmir, Neyvelli and Rajasthan. Neyvelli Power Plant uses this type of fuel.

3. Bituminous Coal Its formation is next to lignite. It is shining black in appearance. It

contains about 70% carbon and the remaining as a large percentage of volatile matter. Thus,
it is easy to ignite and it burns with yellow smoky flames. It has an average calorific value of
31, 500 kJ/kg. In India, its reserves are available in Bihar, MP, West Bengal and Orissa. It is
used for producing producer gas.

4. Anthracite Coal;- It is the next generation of bituminous coal, and has the highest rank. It
is a hard coal composed of about 90% carbon with little volatile content and practically no
moisture. It is brittle and has a shining black lusture. It burns without flame and smoke but is
difficult to ignite. It is noncracking and it has minimum ash, sulphur, volatile matter and
moisture content. It has highest heating value, approximately 36,000 kJ/kg. In India, its
reserves are in Kashmir and the eastern Himalayas. It is used as fuel in steam power plants.

Necessity of Water Treatment

The feedwater must be specially treated to avoid problems in the boiler and downstream
systems. Untreated boiler feed water can cause corrosion and fouling.

Boiler corrosion

Corrosive compounds, especially O2 and CO2 must be removed, usually by use of a

deaerator. Corrosion in boilers is due to the presence of dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon
dioxide, or dissolved salts.

Fouling

Deposits reduce the heat transfer in the boiler, reduce the flow rate and eventually block
boiler tubes. Even worse are minerals that form scale. Therefore, the make-up water added
to replace any losses of feedwater must be demineralized/deionized water, unless a purge
valve is used to remove dissolved minerals.

Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage

Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the
boiler, losses due to blowdown and leakages have to be made up to maintain a desired water
level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler
water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of calcium and
magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the make-up water to the
boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and
failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water, and that is done by a
water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists of cation, anion,
and mixed bed exchangers. Any ions in the final water from this process consist essentially
of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions, which recombine to form pure water. Very pure DM
water becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its
very high affinity for oxygen.

The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water
input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance.
For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously withdrawn
for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by
corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel.
Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is provided on
top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with air. DM water make-up is generally added
at the steam space of the surface condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not
only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being
removed by a de-aerator through an ejector attached to the condenser.

Characteristics of boiler feedwater

Water absorbs more heat than any other substance at a given temperature change. This
quality makes it an ideal raw material for boiler operations. Boilers are part of a closed
system as compared to open systems in a gas turbine. The closed system that is used is the
Rankine cycle. This means that the water is recirculated throughout the system and is never
in contact with the atmosphere. The water is reused and needs to be treated to continue
efficient operations. Boiler water must be treated in order to be proficient in producing
steam. Boiler water is treated to prevent scaling, corrosion, foaming, and priming. Chemicals
are put in to boiler water through the chemical feed tank to keep the water within chemical
range. These chemicals are mostly oxygen scavengers and phosphates. The boiler water also
has frequent blowdowns in order to keep the chloride content down. The boiler operations
also include bottom blows in order to get rid of solids. Scale is precipitated impurities out of
the water and then forms on heat transfer surfaces. This is a problem because scale does not
transfer heat very well and causes the tubes to fail by getting too hot. Corrosion is caused by
oxygen in the water. The oxygen causes the metal to oxidize which lowers the melting point
of the metal. Foaming and priming is caused when the boiler water does not have the correct
amount of chemicals and there are suspended solids in the water which carry over in the dry
pipe. The dry pipe is where the steam and water mixture are separated.
Boiler feedwater treatment

Boiler water treatment is used to control alkalinity, prevent scaling, correct pH, and to
control conductivity. The boiler water needs to be alkaline and not acidic, so that it does not
ruin the tubes. There can be too much conductivity in the feed water when there are too
many dissolved solids. These correct treatments can be controlled by efficient operator and
use of treatment chemicals. The main objectives to treat and condition boiler water is to
exchange heat without scaling, protect against scaling, and produce high quality steam. The
treatment of boiler water can be put in to two parts. These are internal treatment and external
treatment. (Sendelbach, p. 131)[3] The internal treatment is for boiler feed water and
external treatment is for make-up feed water and the condensate part of the system. Internal
treatment protects against feed water hardness by preventing precipitating of scale on the
boiler tubes. This treatment also protects against concentrations of dissolved and suspended
solids in the feed water without priming or foaming. These treatment chemicals also help
with the alkalinity of the feed water making it more of a base to help protect against boiler
corrosion. The correct alkalinity is protected by adding phosphates. These phosphates
precipitate the solids to the bottom of the boiler drum. At the bottom of the boiler drum there
is a bottom blow to remove these solids. These chemicals also include anti-scaling agents,
oxygen scavengers, and anti-foaming agents. Sludge can also be treated by two approaches.
These are by coagulation and dispersion. When there is a high amount of sludge content it is
better to coagulate the sludge to form large particles in order to just use the bottom blow to
remove them from the feed water. When there is a low amount of sludge content it is better
to use dispersants because it disperses the sludge throughout the feed water so sludge does
not form.
 Steam Nozzles

A nozzle is a device of varying cross-sectional area, in which the pressure energy of fluid
is converted into kinetic energy. The mass of steam passing through any section of the nozzle
remains constant. When fluid passes through the nozzle, the pressure of fluid decreases with
increase in velocity. Nozzles are used in stream turbines, gas turbines, Jet engines, flow
measuring devices, fuel injection and carburetion systems of IC engines, spray paintings, etc.

Nozzles serve two purposes:

(1) To convert pressure energy and thermal energy into kinetic energy and

(2) To direct the fluid jet at the specific angle known as nozzle angle.

Types of Nozzle

The steam nozzles are classified as

(i) convergent nozzles, (ii) divergent nozzles, and (iii) convergent– divergent nozzles.

(i) convergent nozzles

A convergent nozzle is shown in Fig. Its cross sectional area decreases continuously from its
entrance to exit. It is used, when back pressure is equal to or greater then critical pressure.

(ii) divergent nozzles

A divergent nozzle is shown in Fig. Its cross sectional area increases continuously from its
entrance to exit. It is used when the back pressure is less than critical pressure. A divergent
nozzle is used to increase the pressure and thus produce high thrust like aircraft jet engines or
rocket propulsion engines.
(iii) convergent– divergent nozzles.

A convergent–divergent nozzle is shown in Fig. Its cross sectional area first decreases from its
entrance to throat and then increases from throat to exit. The throat is a portion of the nozzle
which has smallest cross-section. The convergent–divergent nozzle is used when back pressure
is less than the critical pressure. It is widely used in steam and gas turbines.

Analysis of Nozzle

Steam flow through a nozzle is considered isentropic flow or adiabatic (Q = 0), since during
the expansion of steam in a nozzle, neither heat is supplied to the nozzle nor heat is rejected
from the nozzle. However, the work is performed by increasing kinetic energy of steam.

Velocity of steam

The mass-flow rate of steam passing through a nozzle is considered constant with respect to
time. The mass-flow rate (ṁs) of any section of nozzle can be expressed as

ṁ𝑠 = 𝜌1𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2𝑉2 ρ = 1/v

where A = Cross-sectional area of nozzle, m2

V = Velocity of steam, m/s

v = Specific volume of steam, m3/kg

Consider isentropic flow of steam through a nozzle as shown in Fig. At the inlet of the nozzle,

superheated steam at high pressure enters the nozzle with negligible velocity. As steam flows in
the nozzle, the steam pressure decreases with increase in its velocity. At the same time, the
enthalpy of steam also decreases. This enthalpy drop is utilised for converting potential energy
into kinetic energy. The following point should be noted for flow through the nozzle.

Q = 0, there is no heat transfer.

W = 0, no work interaction is involved during flow through nozzle.

ΔZ = 0, fluid experiences usually very little or no change in its elevation between inlet and
outlet.

The following point should be noted for flow through the nozzle.
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑄1−2 + 𝑢1 + 𝑃1𝑣1 + 𝑍1 + = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑢2 + 𝑃2𝑣2 + 𝑍2 +
2 2

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑢1 + 𝑃1𝑣1 + = 𝑢2 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 +
2 2
𝑢1 + 𝑃1𝑣1 = ℎ1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 = ℎ2

𝑉22 𝑉12
ℎ2 − ℎ1 + − =0
2 2
Enthalpy, the sum of the internal energy and the product of the pressure and volume of a
thermodynamic system. ... In symbols, the enthalpy, h, equals the sum of the internal energy, u,
and the product of the pressure, P, and volume, v, of the system: h = u + Pv.

where V1 = Inlet velocity of steam, m/s

V2 = Exit velocity of steam, m/s

h1 = Enthalpy of steam at nozzle entrance, J/kg

h2 = Enthalpy of steam at nozzle exit, J/kg.

Using Eq., the velocity of steam at the nozzle exit can be expressed as

Normally, the velocity of steam at nozzle entrance is very small as compared to velocity of
steam at nozzle exit, hence entrance velocity V 1 is neglected. Thus, Eq. is modified as

Since the fluid flow through the nozzle is isentropic, therefore, the pressure and specific volume
of steam are related as 𝑃𝑣 𝑛 = 𝐶

For isentropic flow through the nozzle, the enthalpy drop ℎ1 − ℎ2 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑝
The mass-flow rate of steam will be maximum at the throat, where the cross section A2 is
minimum (A2 = Throat area). The value of pressure ratio at the throat is P1/P2 called the critical
pressure ratio.

then

Critical pressure ratio

Generally, the pressure at the throat is designated as p*. The critical pressure ratio is defined as
the pressure ratio which maximizes the mass flow rate of steam to be discharged by the nozzle.

The values of critical pressures for different values of expansion index n are calculated below:

1. Saturated Steam: When the steam is dry saturated at the nozzle inlet, the index of
expansion is taken as 1.135;

2. Superheated Steam: When the steam is superheated at the nozzle inlet, n = 1.30.

3. Wet Steam: For wet stream at the nozzle inlet, the index of expansion is considered as

n = 1.113.
Effect of Exit pressure or Back pressure on Mass flow rate or Effect of critical pressure
ratio on Mass flow rate:

1. When back pressure pb = p1, there is no mass flow ms = 0, through the nozzle. This
corresponds to Case 1 of Fig. (b).

2. If the back pressure pb is reduced to the state 2, it causes the pressure to decrease in flow
direction which results in certain mass-flow rate of steam through the nozzle. Further, decrease
in back pressure results in greater mass-flow rate.

3. If the back pressure pb is further reduced, the mass-flow rate reaches its minimum possible
value. This case is represented by state 3 on Fig. (b). At this state, the pressure is called critical
pressure and the velocity of flow is called sonic velocity.

4. If the back pressure is further reduced to states 4 and 5, less than p2 = Throat pressure, neither
the mass flow rate nor flow velocity in the nozzle is affected and the nozzle is said to be
choked. For a choked nozzle, the mass-flow rate reaches the maximum possible value for given
conditions. If the critical pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, the nozzle is choked.

For all back pressures lower that the critical pressure, exit pressure = critical pressure,
Mach number is unity (Ma = 1, Mach number is ratio of the velocity of a fluid to the velocity of
sound in that fluid) and the mass flow rate is maximum (choked flow).
For a convergent–divergent nozzle, the sonic velocity reaches at the throat, where cross-
section is minimum. The flow is subsonic in convergent portion, and supersonic in the
divergent portion of the nozzle.

Effect of Friction on Nozzle Efficiency

The flow through the nozzle is approximated to be isentropic. Actual expansion through nozzles
is non-isentropic flow. It is due to presence of irreversibility at the surface of flow and within
the fluid itself. The primary cause of irreversibility in nozzles is the presence of frictional
effects, which are due to

(i) friction between fluid and wall surface of nozzle, and

(ii) friction within the fluid itself.

The friction between the wall surface and fluid molecules makes the expansion adiabatic
but not isentropic. The energy lost in overcoming the friction is used to reheat the steam and the
enthalpy and entropy of steam increases during the process.

The frictional losses in the nozzle depends upon material of construction, size, shape and
surface because the wall surface in the large nozzles occupies a smaller portion of total flow
volume. The effect of friction in a nozzle can be summarized as

(i) Reduction in enthalpy drop,

(ii) Reheating of fluid,

(iii) Reduction in exit velocity,

(iv) Increase in sepecific volume,

(v) Decrease in mass flow rate.

The convergent portion of the nozzle is smaller than the divergent portion. Thus, the wall
friction is small in the convergent portion as compared to the divergent portion. The fluid
friction is also small in convergent portion than in the divergent portion, since the fluid velocity
in the convergent portion is small. Thus, most of the friction occurs in the divergent portion of
the nozzle and h–s diagram takes the shape as shown in Fig. The nozzle efficiency for such a
nozzle is defined as the ratio of actual enthalpy drop to the isentropic enthalpy drop
 where h1 is the enthalpy of steam at the nozzle inlet and h3 is the enthalpy of fluid at the
exit for the actual nozzle, while h3s is the exit enthalpy for a nozzle under isentropic conditions.
The nozzle efficiency varies from 90% to 99%. The larger nozzles have more efficiency than
the smaller nozzles.

Another cause of irreversibility in the nozzles is flow separation, which induces strong
turbulence near the nozzle wall. Flow separation occurs when the angle of divergence in a
convergent–divergent nozzle is made too large. Consequently, the flow area increases faster
than the fluid expands. Thus, the included (cone) angle of the divergent duct is usually kept less
than 20°C.
Problem: A Steam enters a convergent–divergent nozzle is to be designed to expand steam at
the rate of 360 kg per hour from 500 kPa, 210°C to 100 kPa. Neglect inlet velocity of steam.
For a nozzle efficiency of 0.9. Determine (a) throat, and (b) exit areas of the nozzle.

Given data; Expansion of steam through a nozzle

ms = 360 kg/h = 0.1 kg/s P1 = 500 kPa = 5 x 105 N/m2 = 5 bar T1 = 210°C = 483 K
P2 = 100 kPa V1 = 0 ƞN = 0.9

State 1: From steam table Superheated steam at 500 kPa and 210°C, find h1 = 2876.3 KJ/kg
State 2: Throat area of nozzle
The critical pressure ratio for superheated steam; P2/P1= 0.546
P2 =
From mollier chart, After isentropic expansion, S1 = S2 = S3s = 7.1014 KJ/kg K
𝑉2 = √2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) V2= where h = KJ/kg = 1000 J/kg

After isentropic expansion, S1 = S2 = S3s =

State 2: From mollier chart Wet steam; P2 = 100 kPa find h3s =

find h3 =
Therefore, at actual exit state, the properties are
p3 = 100 kPa h3 = kJ/kg
3
Sp. Volumn, v3 = m /kg
The velocity at nozzle exit, 𝑉3 = √2(ℎ1 − ℎ3 ) V3= where h = KJ/kg = 1000 J/kg
 𝑉2 = √2𝑥1000𝑥(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
h1 = 2876.3 KJ/kg
S1 = S2 = S3s = 7.1014 KJ/kg K

critical pressure ratio for superheated steam; P2/P1= 0.546

P2 = 2.73 bar h2 = 2760 KJ/kg V2 = 482.28 m/s
v2 = 0.75 m3/kg
h3s = 2590

h3 = 2618.63
𝑉3 = √2(ℎ1 − ℎ3 )

The steam is supplied to a nozzle at a rate of 1 kg/s from an inlet condition of 10 bar, dry
saturated and exit at 1 bar pressure. The efficiency of the nozzle for the convergent portion is 95
per cent and that of the divergent portion is 90 per cent. Determine
(a) throat and exit diameters of nozzle,
(b) length of nozzle, if divergent cone angle of the nozzle is 14°,
(c) The power in kW corresponds to exit velocity of the steam.

Given Expansion of dry saturated steam through a convergent–divergent nozzle.

ms = 1 kg/s p1 =10 bar x1 = 1.0 p3 = 1 bar
ƞN, conv = 0.95 ƞN,div = 0.9
 ℎ1 −ℎ2 ℎ2 −ℎ3
ƞ𝑁,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ƞ𝑁,𝑑𝑖𝑣 =
ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠 ℎ2 −ℎ3𝑠
𝑉2 = √2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) 𝑉3 = √2(ℎ1 − ℎ3 )

When the steam is dry saturated at the nozzle inlet, the index of expansion is taken as 1.135;

Find:P2 = 5.77 bar then from steam table at P1 = 10 bar & x1 = 1.0

hg = h1 = 2776.2 KJ/kg

S1 = S2s = ….. KJ/kgK and at P2 = …… bar find h2s = 2675 KJ/kg from mollier chart
ℎ1 −ℎ2
Then from ƞ𝑁,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = find h2 = 2680.06 KJ/kg and sp. vol, v2 = 0.325 m3/kg and
ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠

S2 = S3s = ….. KJ/kgK from mollier chart

𝑉2 = √2𝑥1000𝑥(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) and V2 = 438.49 m/s

D2 = 0.03 m = 3 cm

Find h3s = 2415 KJ/kg at p3 = 1 bar from mollier chart

ℎ1 −ℎ3
Then from ƞ𝑁,𝑑𝑖𝑣 = find h3 = 2451 KJ/kg and sp. vol, v3 = 1.5 m3/kg and
ℎ1 −ℎ3𝑠

𝑉3 = √2𝑥1000𝑥(ℎ1 − ℎ3 ) V3 = 806.47 m/s

D3 = 0.048 m/s

length of nozzle, if divergent cone angle of the nozzle is 14°,

L = 0.0733 m

P = 325.19 kw

Supersaturation (Effect of Friction)

When steam expands in the nozzle, its pressure and temperature drop simultaneously, but steam
does not start condensing, and expands as superheated vapour even as it reaches the saturation
line. This process is very quick, the residence time of steam velocity is very high, and there may
not be sufficient time for necessary heat transfer and formation of liquid droplets.
Consequently, the condensation of vapour is delayed for a little while. This phenomenon is
known as supersaturation and steam, which exits in the wet region without containing any
moisture is called supersaturated steam. Such expansion of steam is called a supersaturated
expansion. The point at which condensation occurs may be within the nozzle or after the vapour
leaves the nozzles.

metastable state

The steam below the saturation curve up to the point where condensation begins neither in
stable equilibrium nor in unstable equilibrium. Since fluid is a homogenous vapour below
saturation temperature, the steam in this condition is said to be in a metastable state.

Consider superheated steam is expanding isentropically in a convergent–divergent nozzle as

shown in Fig. The expansion process is represented on T–s and h–s diagrams in Fig. (a) and
(b), respectively. The point a is on saturation line, where in normal condition, the condensation
of steam begins. However, if the point a is reached in the divergent section of the nozzle, the
condensation does not occur at this point. The steam exists as a vapour between points a and b,
but the temperature is lower than the saturation temperature for a given pressure. The point b is

known as metastable state. The point b lies on the pressure line p2 produced from the
superheated region.

The temperature of supersaturated vapour at p2 is Tb, which is less than the saturation
temperature T2 corresponding to p2. This vapour is said to be supercooled, and the degree of
supercooling (or undercooling) is given by (T2 – Tb).

The degree of supersaturation is defined as the ratio of actual pressure at the point b to the
saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature Tb of steam at the point b

Degree of supersaturation = Pb/Pb,sat

What is Wilson line in steam nozzle?

The locus of points where the condensation will take place regardless of initial temperature and
pressure of steam at the nozzle entrance is called the Wilson line. The Wilson line lies between
95 and 96 per-cent dryness fraction curves in the saturation region as shown on the h–s diagram
Fig. (b) and it is approximated by the 96% dryness fraction line. Therefore, the high-velocity
steam flowing through the nozzle is assumed to begin to condense when the 96% dryness
fraction line in crossed.

Effects of Supersaturation:

The flowing effects in a nozzle, in which Supersaturation occurs, are important from the subject
point of view;

1. Since the condensation does not take place during supersaturated expansion, so the
temperature at which the Supersaturation occurs will be less than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure. Therefore, the density of supersaturated steam will be more than
for the equilibrium conditions, which gives the increase in the mass of steam discharged.

2. The Supersaturation increases the entropy and specific volume of the steam.
3. The Supersaturation reduces the heat drop (for the same pressure limits) below that for
thermal equilibrium. Hence the exit velocity of the steam is reduced.

4. The Supersaturation increases dryness fraction of steam.

 Turbine

A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotating shaft work is developed by a steadily
flowing fluid. The work is produced by changing the momentum of steam as it passes through
a rotor of the turbine. The change in angular momentum of steam causes the torque on the
rotor, thus the rotor spins. Therefore, a steam turbine is a rotodynamic machine.
The steam turbine essentially contains two parts: (i) nozzles, and (ii) moving curved
blades. The high velocity steam jet coming out of the nozzle impringes on the curved blades,
and the steam glides tangentially on the curved blades fixed on the periphery of a moving
wheel. The motive force is exterted on the blades due to change in direction of flowing steam
which causes the blades to rotate.
Since the steam undergoes a continuous steady flow process and the speed of fluid is very
high, thus a turbine handles a large mass of fluid and produces a large power. Steam turbines
are used to drive electric generators in power plants to produce electricity. They are also used to
propel large ships, ocean liners, submarines, and so on. The small steam turbines are used to
drive the fans, compressors and pumps.
Working principle of steam turbines
Figure shows a steam jet gliding on a vane tangentially at an angle α and leaving the vane
at an angle β after gliding over the curved surface of the vane. Due to change in angular
momentum of the steam jet, the blade moves with a linear velocity u. According to Newton’s
second law, the change in momentum is directly proportional to the force acting on the blades.

Force applied on the vane = Change in momentum of jet

= mass flow rate X change in velocity

where ms = mass-flow rate of steam, kg/s

V1 = Velocity of steam jet entering, m/s
V2 = Velocity of steam leaving, m/s
The torque acting on the rotating wheel of radius R is given by

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES

IMPULSE TURBINES
The impulse turbines work on the principle of impulse. The steam coming out the boiler
expands in the stationary nozzles, where the kinetic energy of steam increases at the cost of
enthalpy drop. This high-velocity steam jet is directed to glide over the curved blades mounted
on the periphery of the rotor (rotating wheel). When the steam jet glides tangentially over the
curved surface of blades, the direction of steam flow is changed. It changes the momentum of
the high-velocity steam jet and thus impulsive force is exerted in normal direction of steam jet,
which ultimately provides motive force at the turbine shaft and it spins rapidly.
In an impulse turbine, the absolute velocity of steam coming out the nozzles is about 1050 m/s.
If this high-velocity steam jet is used on a single row of blades, the rotor speed may reach as
30,000 rpm, which is too high for practical considerations.
(i) Inlet Vector Diagram
V1 = Absolute velocity of steam jet coming out the nozzle, m/s
α = Angle of steam jet in respect to plane of blade rotation, degree
u = Linear velocity of blade, m/s
Vr1 = Relative velocity of steam at inlet, m/s
θ = Blade inlet angle, degree
Vw1 =Whirl velocity, (component V1 in the direction of rotation), m/s
Vf1 = axial or flow velocity of steam, m/s
(ii) Exit Vector Diagram
V2 = Absolute velocity of steam at blade outlet, m/s
Vr2 = Relative velocity of steam at outlet, m/s
Vf2 = Axial velocity at discharge, m/s
Vw2 = Whirl velocity (component of V2 in the direction of rotation)
β = Steam jet outlet angle, degree
ϕ= Blade outlet angle, degree
The relative velocity at the inlet Vr1 is the vector difference of the absolute velocity V1 and the
blade velocity u. The relative velocity Vr1 makes an angle θ with the axis of rotation. Since the
steam does not expand in the moving blades, thus the relative velocity Vr2 at the exit in absence
of any frictional effects, will be equal to relative velocity at the inlet, Vr2 = Vr1 . However, if
there is friction then the two relative velocities are related as Vr2 = k Vr1 where k is called the
blade velocity constant and its value varies from 0.7 to 0.9, which takes into account the loss of
velocity due to friction.
Analysis of Velocity Vector Diagram
1. Force on Blade or Tangential thrust on blade: By Newton’s second law of motion, the
tangential force is proportional to the rate of change of momentum,
𝐹 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )
2. Work done on the Blade
Work = Force x displacement,
Work Done, 𝑊 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )𝑢
where,
Torque, 𝑇 = ṁ𝑠 𝑅 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )
and
𝑉𝑤 = (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )’
3. Axial thrust; The vertical component of the absolute velocity is responsible to provide axial
thrust on the bearings and other components and therefore, is undesirable. Axial thrust on the
wheel is obtained due to difference between the velocities of flow (axial velocity) at entrance
and outlet of blade.
Axial thrust = Mass flow rate x change of axial velocity
𝐹𝐴 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑓1 − 𝑉𝑓2 )
Work done on the blade
Blade efficiency, 𝜂𝑏 = Energy supplied to the blade
Work Done, 𝑊 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )𝑢
ṁ𝑠 𝑉21
Energy supplied to the blade =
2
Power developed in the blades = Work Done/1000
Blade velocity = u = πDN/60

Problem: The steam leaves the nozzles of a single-row impulse turbine at 900 m/s. The nozzle
angle is 20° and blade angles are 30° at inlet and outlet. Calculate the blade velocity, Axial
thrust and work done per kg of steam. Assume the flow over the blade is frictionless.
Given : A single-row impulse turbine V1 = 900 m/s, α = 20° θ = ϕ = 30°
100 m/s = 1cm V1 = 900 m/s = 9cm
AB= V1 = 900 m/s BC = Vf1= V1 x Sin20 = 307.82 m/s
AC = Vw1 = V1 x cos20 = 845.72 m/s DB = Vr1 BC = Vf1 = Vr1 sin30
Vr1 = 615.64 m/s DC = Vr1 cos30 = 533.16 m/s AB = u = AC-DC = 312.56 m/s

Vw1
u

Vr1 Vf1
V1

Vr2sin30 = Vf2 = 307.82 m/s Vw2 = Vr2 cos30 – u = 220.6 m/s

 Tan Bita angle = 54.37 = vf2/vw2
𝐹𝐴 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑓1 − 𝑉𝑓2 ) Work Done, 𝑊 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )

Problem: In an impulse turbine (with a single row wheel), the mean diameter of the blade is
1.05 m and speed is 3000 rpm. The nozzle angle is 18°. The ratio of blade speed to steam speed
is 0.42 and ratio of relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that at inlet is 0.84. The outlet
angle of the blade is to be made 3° less than the inlet angle. The steam-flow rate is 10 kg/s.
Draw the velocity diagram for blades and derive the following:
(a) Tangential thrust on the blades,
(b) Axial thrust on the blades,
(c) Power developed in the blades,
(d) Blading efficiency.
Given Data: D = 1.05 m, N = 3000 rpm, α = 18° u/V1 = 0.42, Vr2/Vr1 = 0.84 ms = 10 kg/s
Φ- θ = 3°
Blade velocity = u = πDN/60 = 164.85 m/s
u/V1 = 0.42 then V1 = 392.5 m/s
Vf1 = V1sin18 = 121.3 m/s
AC = Vw1= V1cos18 = 373.28 m/s
DC = Vw1-u = 208.43 m/s , tan θ = 121.3/208.43
θ = 30.2° Φ = 27.2°
Vr1 = 241.16 m/s Vr2 = 202.57 m/s
Vf2 = Vr2 sin27.2 = 92.59 m/s V22= Vf22 + Vw22 V2 =
Vw2 = Vr2 cos27.2 – u = 15.33 m/s
β=
Vw2

A
 𝐹 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )
𝐹𝐴 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑓1 − 𝑉𝑓2 )
Power, 𝑃 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )𝑢/1000 kw
Work done on the blade
Blade efficiency, 𝜂𝑏 = Energy supplied to the blade
Work Done, 𝑊 = ṁ𝑠 (𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 )𝑢
ṁ𝑠 𝑉21
Energy supplied to the blade =
2

COMPOUNDING OF STEAM TURBINES

The compounding of an impulse turbine is done to reduce rotational speed of the turbine to the
practical limits.
In a simple impulse turbine, a rotor speed of 30,000 rpm is almost impractical to use in
practice.
The compounding of an impulse turbine is achieved by using more than one set of nozzles,
blades, rotors in a series, keyed to a common shaft; so that either the steam pressure or steam jet
velocity can be regulated by the turbine in stages. Thus, compounding of steam turbine
improves the performance of the turbine.
There are three main types of compounding in impulse turbines.
(i) Velocity compounded steam turbine
(ii) Pressure compounded steam turbine
(iii) Pressure - velocity compounded turbine

(i) Velocity compounded steam turbine (Curtis Turbine)

In velocity compounding, the steam is expanded to an exhaust pressure in a single set of
nozzles. The kinetic energy of the steam is absorbed in two or three sets of moving blades. The
pressure and velocity variation for a three sets of moving blades are shown in Fig.
It consists of a set of nozzles, three rows of moving blades and two rows of guide blades.
The guide blades are arranged between moving blades in the reverse manner.
The velocity of the steam jet is increased in the nozzles only and it drops gradually, after
being utilized successively by all rows of moving blades till it is finally discharged to the
condenser.
(ii) Pressure compounded steam turbine (Rateau Turbine)

Instead of expanding the steam completely in a single set of nozzles, the expansion of
steam is splitted into a number of phases by arranging a number of moving and fixed blades in
series, thus the rotor speed is obtained in practical range. The fixed blades act as nozzles. The
steam expands equally in all rows of fixed blades. Thus, this arrangement can be viewed as a
number of simple impulse machines in series on the same shaft, allowing the exhaust steam
from one turbine to enter the nozzle of the succeeding turbine. Each of the simple impulse
machines would be termed as a “stage” of the turbines, since each stage comprises its set of
nozzles and moving blades. Fig. shows schematic arrangement of three stage impulse turbine.
This arrangement is equivalent to splitting up the whole pressure drop into a series of
small pressure drops, hence arrangement is known as pressure compounding.
In a pressure-compounding steam turbine, a partial enthalpy of steam is transformed into
kinetic energy in each stage. Hence, steam velocity is much lower than the simple impulse and
velocitycompounded steam turbines, and thus the operation is salient and more efficient. The
example of pressure-compounded steam turbine is Rateau and Zeolly turbine.
(iii) Pressure - velocity compounded turbine
This is a combination of pressure and velocity compoundings. The total pressure drop of
steam is divided into a number of stages as done in pressure compounding. Each stage has a
number of rows of fixed and moving blades working as an independent velocity compounded
stage.
Each stage is separated from the adjacent stage by a row of stationary ring of nozzles for
expansion of steam for the next stage. The set of moving and fixed blades is used for velocity
compounding and a set of nozzle rings in between stages is utilized for pressure compounding.
Such type of compounding offers a larger pressure drop in each stage with less number of
stages. Therefore, the turbine is simple in construction and compact in size.
What is the difference between the Impulse and Reaction Turbine?
In an Impulse turbine, All steam energy is converted into kinetic energy by a nozzle whereas In
a Reaction turbine Only some amount of the available energy is converted into kinetic energy.
Difference Between Impulse and Reaction Turbine
[Link] Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
In the reaction turbine, first, the steam
In an impulse turbine, the steam flows through the guide mechanism
flows through the nozzle and strike and then flows through the moving
1. on the moving blades. blades.
The steam glides over the moving
Steam strikes on the buckets with blades with both pressure and kinetic
2. kinetic energy. energy.
During the flow of steam through
moving blades, its pressure During the flow of steam through
3. remains constant. moving blades its pressure reduces.
The steam may or may not be
admitted to the whole The steam must be admitted over the
4. circumference. whole circumference.
The blades of impulse turbine are The blades of reaction turbine are not
5. symmetrical. symmetrical.
While gliding over the blades the In reaction turbine, while gliding over
relative velocity of steam remains the blades the relative velocity of
6. constant. steam increases.
For the same power developed, the For the same power developed, the
7. number of stages required is less. number of stages required is more.
The direction of steam flow is
radial to the direction of turbine The direction of steam flow is radial
8. wheel. and axial to the turbine wheel.
9. It requires less maintenance work. It requires more maintenance work.
It is suitable for medium and high
10. It is suitable for low discharge. discharge.
Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine etc.
Pelton Wheel is the example of are the examples of reaction
11. impulse turbine. turbine.

Comparison Between Impulse and Reaction Turbine

 In impulse turbine the steam flows through the nozzle and strikes on the moving blades.
In reaction turbine steam first flows through the guide mechanism and then flows through
the moving blades.
 In impulses turbine, steam strikes on the moving blades with kinetic energy only. But in
the reaction turbine, the steam which glides over the moving blades possesses both
pressure and kinetic energy.
  In impulse turbine the pressure of steam remains constant during its flow through the
moving blades. But in reaction turbine, the pressure of steam reduces during its flow
through the moving blades.
 In impulse turbine the steam may or may not be admitted to the whole circumference. In
reaction turbine the steam must be admitted to the whole circumference.
 The blades of the impulse turbine are symmetrical where as in reaction turbine it is not
symmetrical.
 The relative velocity of steam in impulse turbine remains constant but in Reaction turbine
it increases while gliding over the blades.
 For the same power developed, the number of stages required in impulse turbine is less
where as in reaction turbine the number of stages required is more.
 The steam flow in impulse turbine is radial to the turbine wheel where as in reaction
turbine steam flow is radial and axial to the turbine wheel.
 If we talk about the maintenance work, then impulse turbine has less maintenance work
as compared with the reaction turbine.
 Impulse turbine is suitable where discharge is low and reaction turbine is suitable for
medium and high discharge.
 Pelton wheel is the example of impulse turbine whereas Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine
etc. are the examples of reaction turbine

Reaction Turbine
In a reaction turbine, the moving blades have converging steam passage. Therefore, when steam
passes over the moving blades, it expands with a drop in steam pressure and increase in kinetic
energy. Thus in a reaction turbine, the steam jet leaves the moving blades with higher velocity
than it enters the blades. The higher velocity steam jet coming out of the moving blades, reacts
on the blades and causes them to rotate in opposite direction. The Parson turbine which is
named after its inventor, Sir Charles A Parson, in 1884 is a good example of a reaction turbine.
It developed 7.5 kW running at 17000 rpm.
The degree of reaction
The degree of reaction of a reaction turbine is defined as the ratio of the enthalpy drop in
moving blades to the total enthalpy drop in the stage. It is designated as Δ and may be defined
as
Figure (b) shows the actual enthalpy drop when steam glides over the fixed and moving
blades.
h0 = Enthalpy of the steam at inlet of fixed blades,
h1 = Enthalpy of the steam at entry of moving blades, and
h2 = Enthalpy of the steam at exit from the moving blades.
The total enthalpy drop in a stage = Enthalpy drop in fixed blades + Enthalpy drop in moving
blades
= h0 – h1+ h1 – h2
= Δ hf + Δ hm
The total enthalpy drop for a stage (Δ hf + Δ hm) is equal to work done by the steam in the stage
and it equals to,
In a Parson reaction turbine, the angles of receiving tips are 35° and of discharging tips, 20°.
The blade speed is 100 m/s. Calculate the tangential force, power developed, diagram
efficiency, and axial thrust of the turbine, if its steam consumption is 1 kg/min.

Θ = β = 35 α=ϕ= 20 Δ= 50% ms = (1/60) kg/s u = 100 m/s 100m/s = 2 cm

V1 = 4.6 cm = 230 m/s V1cos20 = Vw1 = 216.14 m/s V1sin20 = Vf1 = 78.66 m/s
Vr1sin35 = Vf1 Vr1 = 137.13 m/s V1 =