Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28

Department of Electronics and Communications

Introduction to IOT-BECTK103H
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

Network Types
Connection types Depending on the way a host
communicates with other hosts, computer networks are of
two types—(Figure 1. Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint.
(i) Point-to-point:
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Department of Electronics and Communications

Point-to-multipoint
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Department of Electronics and Communications

● Physical topology Depending on the physical manner in

which communication paths between the hosts are
connected, computer networks can have the following
four broad topologies— (Figure 1.2): Star, Mesh, Bus, and
Ring
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Department of Electronics and Communications

Mesh
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Department of Electronics and Communications

Bus
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Department of Electronics and Communications

Ring
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Department of Electronics and Communications
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

● Network reachability Computer networks are

divided into four broad categories based on
network reachability: personal area networks,
local area networks, wide area networks, and
metropolitan area networks.
● (i) Personal Area Networks (PAN): PANs, as the
name suggests, are mostly restricted to individual
usage. A good example of PANs may be
connected wireless headphones, wireless
speakers, laptops, smartphones, wireless
keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a
house
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

● (ii) Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN is a collection of

hosts linked to a single network through wired or wireless
connections. However, LANs are restricted to buildings,
organizations, or campuses. Typically, a few leased lines
connected to the Internet provide web access to the whole
organization or a campus; the lines are further
redistributed to multiple hosts within the LAN enabling
hosts. The hosts are much more in number than the actual
direct lines to the Internet to access the web from within
the organization. This also allows the organization to
define various access control policies for web access
within its hierarchy. Typically, the present-day data access
rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps,
with very high fault-tolerance levels. Commonly used
network components in a LAN are servers, hubs, routers,
switches, terminals, and computers.
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Department of Electronics and Communications

● (iii) Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): The

reachability of a MAN lies between that of a LAN
and a WAN. Typically, MANs connect various
organizations or buildings within a given
geographic location or city. An excellent example
of a MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP)
supplying Internet connectivity to various
organizations within a city. As MANs are costly,
they may not be owned by individuals or even
single organizations. Typical networking devices/
components in MANs are modems and cables.
MANs tend to have moderate fault tolerance levels
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

● Wide Area Networks (WAN): WANs typically

connect diverse geographic locations.
However, they are restricted within the
boundaries of a state or country. The data rate
of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s
data rate. Typically, WANs connecting two
LANs or MANs may use public switched
telephone networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based
links. Due to the long transmission ranges,
WANs tend to have more errors and noise
during transmission and are very costly to
maintain. The fault tolerance of WANs are also
generally low
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

Layered Network Models

Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional
layered network models are the open systems
interconnection developed by the International
Organization of Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model
and the Internet protocol suite.

OSI Model The ISO-OSI model is a conceptual framework

that partitions any networked communication device into
seven layers of abstraction, each performing distinct tasks
based on the underlying technology and internal structure of
the hosts. These seven layers, from bottom-up, are as
follows: 1) Physical layer, 2) Data link layer, 3) Network layer,
4) Transport layer, 5) Session layer, 6) Presentation layer,
and 7) Application layer
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step

process:
Application Layer: Applications create the data.
Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable
delivery.
Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and
routed.
Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next
device.
Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and
transmitted physically.
Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications
Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

●The application layer

This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the
user. Software applications like web browsers and email clients
rely on the application layer to initiate communications. But it
should be made clear that client software applications are not
part of the application layer; rather the application layer is
responsible for the protocols and data manipulation that the
software relies on to present meaningful data to the user
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Department of Electronics and Communications

●. The presentation layer

This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so

that it can be used by the application layer; in other
words, layer 6 makes the data presentable for
applications to consume. The presentation layer is
responsible for translation, encryption, and compression
of data.
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Department of Electronics and Communications

●5. The session layer

This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication

between the two devices. The time between when the communication is
opened and closed is known as the session. The session layer ensures
that the session stays open long enough to transfer all the data being
exchanged, and then promptly closes the session in order to avoid
wasting resources
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

4. The transport layer

● Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two

devices. This includes taking data from the session layer and breaking it
up into chunks called segments before sending it to layer 3. The transport
layer on the receiving device is responsible for reassembling the
segments into data the session layer can consume.
● The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control.
Flow control determines an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that
a sender with a fast connection does not overwhelm a receiver with a
slow connection.
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

. The network layer

The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two
different networks. If the two devices communicating are on the same
network, then the network layer is unnecessary. The network layer breaks up
segments from the transport layer into smaller units, called packets, on the
sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on the receiving device. The
network layer also finds the best physical path for the data to reach its
destination; this is known as routing.
Network layer protocols include IP, the Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP), the Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP), and the IPsec suite.
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Department of Electronics and Communications

●The data link layer

The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data
link layer facilitates data transfer between two devices on the same
network. The data link layer takes packets from the network layer and
breaks them into smaller pieces called frames. Like the network layer,
the data link layer is also responsible for flow control and error control in
intra-network communication
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Department of Electronics and Communications

●The physical layer

This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the

data transfer, such as the cables and switches. This is also
the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream,
which is a string of 1s and 0s. The physical layer of both
devices must also agree on a signal convention so that the
1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.
 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications

● Internet protocol suite: The Internet protocol suite is yet

another conceptual framework that provides levels of
abstraction for ease of understanding and development
of communication and networked systems on the
Internet.
● However, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI
model and provides only four levels of abstraction: 1)
Link layer, 2) Internet layer, 3) transport layer, and 4)
application layer.
● This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as
the TCP/IP protocol suite as the foundation technologies
of this suite are transmission control protocol (TCP) and
Internet protocol (IP)
Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering &Technology, Mysuru-28
Department of Electronics and Communications
● Link Layer: The first and base layer of the TCP/IP
protocol suite is also known as the network interface
layer. This layer is synonymous with the collective
physical and data link layer of the OSI model. It
enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the
physical medium. According to its design principles,
the link layer is independent of the medium in use,
frame format, and network access, enabling it to be
used with a wide range of technologies such as the
Ethernet, wireless LAN, and the asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM).
● Internet Layer: Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is
somewhat synonymous to the network layer of the OSI
model. It is responsible for addressing, address
translation, data packaging, data disassembly and
assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking
operations. Some core protocols associated with this
layer are address resolution protocol (ARP), Internet
protocol (IP), Internet control message protocol (ICMP),
and Internet group management protocol (IGMP).
Traditionally, this layer was built upon IPv4, which is
gradually shifting to IPv6, enabling the accommodation
of a much more significant number of addresses and
security measures
● Transport Layer: Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is
functionally synonymous with the transport layer of the
OSI model. This layer is tasked with the functions of
error control, flow control, congestion control,
segmentation, and addressing in an end-to-end manner;
it is also independent of the underlying network.
Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram
protocol (UDP) are the core protocols upon which this
layer is built, which in turn enables it to have the choice
of providing connection-oriented or connectionless
services between two or more hosts or networked
devices
● Application Layer: The functionalities of the application
layer, layer 4, of the TCP/IP protocol suite are
synonymous with the collective functionalities of the OSI
model’s session, presentation, and application layers.
This layer enables an end-user to access the services of
the underlying layers and defines the protocols for the
transfer of data. Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file
transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail transfer protocol
(SMTP), domain name system (DNS), routing information
protocol (RIP), and simple network management
protocol (SNMP) are some of the core protocols
associated with this layer
 Emergence of IoT
Introductions
Definition of IOT: The Internet of things is the network of physical objects
that contain embedded technology to communicate and sense or
interact with their internal states or the external environment
Overview of IOT
The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to
the popular paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT).
Each second, the present-day Internet allows massively heterogeneous
traffic through it. This network traffic consists of images, videos, music,
speech, text, numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking messages,
data from sensors and actuators, healthcare data, data from vehicles,
home automation system status and control messages, military
communications, and many more
● IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything (as shown in
Figure 4.2) network of Internet-connected physical
devices or systems capable of sensing an environment
and affecting the sensed environment intelligently. This
is generally achieved using low-power and low-form-
factor embedded processors on-board the “things”
connected to the Internet. In other words, IoT may be
considered to be made up of connecting devices,
machines, and tools; these things are made up of
sensors/actuators and processors, which connect to the
Internet through wireless technologies. Another school
of thought also considers wired Internet access to be
inherent to the IoT paradigm.
IoT is speculated to have achieved faster and higher
technology acceptance as compared to electricity and
telephony. These speculations are not ill placed as evident
from the various statistics shown in Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5.
Evolution of IoT
● The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological
paradigm shifts over a few decades.
● The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by
achieving easy integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance,
and massive benefits by using connected solutions can be considered
as the founding solutions for the development of IoT.
● Figure 4.6 shows the sequence of technological advancements for
shaping the IoT as it is today. These sequence of technical
developments toward the emergence of IoT are described in brief:
● ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash
distribution machines, which are linked to a user’s bank
account. ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the
identity of a user and their account through a specially
coded card
● Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and
communication platform. The Web became operational for
the first time in 1991. Since then, it has been massively
responsible for the many revolutions in the field of
computing and communication.
● • Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power
meter, which became operational in early 2000. These
power meters were capable of communicating remotely
with the power grid.
● Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier
attempts at connected home-automation systems. Present-day digital
locks are so robust that smartphones can be used to control them
● Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals,
doctors, and relatives to alert them of medical emergencies and take
preventive measures. The devices may be simple wearable
appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and pulse of the wearer, as
well as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals
● Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the
Internet or with other vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators
contained within it. These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert
owners about system failures.
● Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing,
monitoring, and actuation systems. The city-wide infrastructure
communicating amongst themselves enables unified and
synchronized operations and information dissemination.
● Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of
sand each, they can be used in numerous beneficial ways, where
regular computers cannot operate.
● Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes,
assembly lines, distribution lines, and manage factory floors all on their
own. The reduction in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or
unoptimized processes is drastically reduced.
● UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust
publicdomain solutions tasked with applications ranging from
agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset
management, and other tasks
Technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and
networking paradigms
The present-day IoT spans across various domains and applications. The
major highlight of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-
domain technology enabler. Multiple domains can be supported and
operated upon simultaneously over IoT-based platforms.
Figure 4.7 shows the various technological interdependencies of IoT
with other domains and networking paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the
Internet of environment (IoE), the Internet of people (IoP), and Industry
4.0. Each of these networking paradigms is a massive domain on its
own, but the omnipresent nature of IoT implies that these domains act as
subsets of IoT. The paradigms are briefly discussed here:
● M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a
system of connected machines and devices, which can talk amongst
themselves without human intervention. The communication between
the machines can be for updates on machine status (stocks, health,
power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall
knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.
● CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a
closed control loop—from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation
—using a feedback mechanism. CPS helps in maintaining the state of
an environment through the feedback control loop, which ensures that
until the desired state is attained, the system keeps on actuating and
sensing.
● IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even
reversing the ill-effects of the permeation of Internet-based
technologies on the environment [3]. The major focus areas of this
paradigm include smart and sustainable farming, sustainable and
energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems
and processes, and others
Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial
revolution pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry. The
previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass
production, and the industrial revolution, respectively. This paradigm
strongly puts forward the concept of smart factories, where machines
talk to one another without much human involvement based on a
framework of CPS and IoT.

● IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims

to decentralize online social interactions, payments, transactions, and
other tasks while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s
data.
●IoT versus M2M
● M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications
and interactions between various machines and devices. These
interactions can be enabled through a cloud computing infrastructure,
a server, or simply a local network hub. M2M collects data from
machinery and sensors, while also enabling device management and
device interaction. Telecommunication services providers introduced
the term M2M, and technically emphasized on machine interactions
via one or more communication networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite,
public networks) IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader
range of interactions such as the interactions between devices/things,
things, and people, things and applications, and people with
applications; M2M enables the amalgamation of workflows
comprising such interactions within IoT
●IoT versus CPS
Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation,
and feedback as a complete package. In other words, a digital twin is
attached to a CPS-based system
a digital twin is a virtual system–model relation, in which the system
signifies a physical system or equipment or a piece of machinery, while
the model represents the mathematical model or representation of the
physical system’s behavior or operation. Many a time, a digital twin is
used parallel to a physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for the
comparison of the physical system’s output, performance, and health.
In contrast, the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback or a
digital twin system. IoT is more focused on networking than controls.
Some of the constituent sub-systems in an IoT environment (such as
those formed by CPS-based instruments and networks) may include
feedback and controls too. In this light, CPS may be considered as one of
the sub-domains of IoT
IoT versus WoT
From a developer’s perspective, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm
enables access and control over IoT resources and applications. These
resources and applications are generally built using technologies such
as HTML 5.0, JavaScript, Ajax, PHP, and others. REST (representational
state transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT. The use of RESTful
principles and RESTful APIs (application program interface) enables
both developers and deployers to benefit from the recognition,
acceptance, and maturity of existing web technologies without having
to redesign and redeploy solutions from scratch IoT is focused on
creating networks comprising objects, things, people, systems, and
applications, which often do not consider the unification aspect and the
limitations of the Internet, the need for WoT, which aims to integrate
the various focus areas of IoT into the existing Web is really invaluable.
Technically, WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based hat
added over the network layer
● Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of
Technologies
● IoT is a paradigm built upon complex
interdependencies of technologies (both legacy and
modern), which occur at various planes of this
paradigm.
● The IoT paradigm into four planes: services, local
connectivity, global connectivity, and processing. If
we consider a bottom-up view, the services offered
fall under the control and purview of service
providers. The service plane is composed of two
parts: 1) things or devices and 2) low-power
connectivity
● Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of
things and lowpower connectivity. For example, any IoT
application requires the basic setup of sensing, followed by
rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range
network, which is mainly built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones,
household appliances, smart glasses, factory machinery,
vending machines, vehicles, UAVs, robots, and other such
contraptions (which may even be just a sensor).
● The immediate low-power connectivity, which is responsible for
connecting the things in local implementation, may be legacy
protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular. In contrast,
modern-day technologies are mainly wireless and often
programmable such as Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN,
LoRA, DASH, Insteon, and others. The range of these
connectivity technologies is severely restricted; they are
responsible for the connectivity between the things of the IoT
● IoT Networking Components
● An IoT implementation is composed of several
components, which may vary with their
application domains. five broad categories of IoT
networking components.
● we outline the broad components that come into
play during the establishment of any IoT network,
into six types: 1) IoT node, 2) IoT router, 3) IoT
LAN, 4) IoT WAN, 5) IoT gateway, and 6) IoT proxy.
A typical IoT implementation from a networking
perspective is shown in Figure 4.9. The individual
components are briefly described here:
(i) IoT Node: These are the networking devices
within an IoT LAN. Each of these devices is typically
made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure
(either within the LAN or outside it). The nodes may
be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or
by means of a common gateway for that LAN.
Connections outside the LAN are through gateways
and proxies.
● IoT Router: An I oT router is a piece of networking
equipment that is primarily tasked with the routing of
packets between various entities in the IoT network; it
keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network. A
router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its
functionalities.
IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local
connectivity within the purview of a single gateway.
Typically, they consist of short-range connectivity
technologies. IoT LANs may or may not be connected
to the Internet. Generally, they are localized within a
building or an organization.
● IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects
various network segments such as LANs. They are
typically organizationally and geographically wide, with
their operational range lying between a few kilometers to
hundreds of kilometers. IoT WANs connect to the
Internet and enable Internet access to the segments they
are connecting.
● IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router
connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.
Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs. Their
primary task is to forward packets between LANs and
WANs, and the IP layer using only layer 3.
● IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer
and performs application layer functions between IoT
nodes and other entities. Typically, application layer
proxies are a means of providing security to the network
entities under it ; it helps to extend the addressing range
of its network