IPM – Drilling Engineering Manual - IDPT

Table of Contents

3. Rig Systems ........................................................................................................... 55

3. 1. Training Objectives ................................................................................... 55
3. 2. Introduction ............................................................................................. 55
3. 3 Power System Overview ............................................................................ 57
3. 3. 1. Primary Power Source ....................................................................... 57
3. 3. 2. Power Transmission .......................................................................... 58
3. 3. 2. 1 Mechanical Transmission (The Compound) .................................... 58
3. 3. 2. 2 Electrical Transmission ................................................................. 59
3. 4. Rotating System Overview ......................................................................... 60
3. 4. 1. Rotary Table System .......................................................................... 60
3. 4. 2. Top Drive System .............................................................................. 63
3. 4. 3. Drill Stem ......................................................................................... 64
3. 4. 3. 1. Drill Pipe .................................................................................... 65

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3. 4. 3. 2. Heavy Weight Drill Pipe ............................................................... 68
3. 4. 3. 3. Drill Collar .................................................................................. 69
3. 4. 3. 4. Drill Bit ...................................................................................... 70
3. 4. 4. Auxiliaries ........................................................................................ 71
3. 4. 4. 1. Lifting Subs and Lifting Heads ...................................................... 71
3. 4. 4. 2. Bit Sub ....................................................................................... 71
3. 4. 4. 3. Cross-over Sub ............................................................................ 71
3. 4. 4. 4. Stabilizer .................................................................................... 72
3. 4. 4. 5. Roller Reamer ............................................................................ 73
3. 4. 4. 6. Jar ............................................................................................. 74
3. 4. 4. 7. Accelerator ................................................................................ 75
3. 4. 4. 8. Shock Sub .................................................................................. 75
3. 4. 4. 9. Hole Opener and Under-Reamer .................................................. 75
3. 4. 5. Rotary Shouldered Connections ......................................................... 77
3. 4. 5. 1. Connection Types ....................................................................... 78
3. 4. 5. 2. Torsional Yield Strength .............................................................. 78
3. 4. 5. 3. Stress Concentration ................................................................... 78
3. 4. 5. 4. Stress Relief Groove .................................................................... 79
3. 4. 6. Make-Up Torque ................................................................................ 79
3. 4. 7. Drill String Weight.............................................................................. 81
3. 4. 8. Basics of BHA Design in a Vertical Well ................................................ 81
3. 5. Hoisting System Overview ......................................................................... 82
3. 5. 1. Supporting Structure .......................................................................... 82
3. 5. 1. 1. Substructure .............................................................................. 82
3. 5. 1. 2. Drilling Tower – Derrick or Mast................................................... 83
3. 5. 1. 3. Rig Floor .................................................................................... 84
3. 5. 2. Hoisting Equipment............................................................................ 84
3. 5. 2. 1. Drawworks................................................................................. 85

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3. 5. 2. 2. Overhead Tools .......................................................................... 86

3. 5. 2. 3. Hook .......................................................................................... 87
3. 5. 2. 4. Elevator ..................................................................................... 88
3. 5. 3. Drilling Line ....................................................................................... 88
3. 5. 3. 1. Wire Rope Nomenclature ............................................................ 89
3. 5. 3. 2. Factors Affecting Service Life of Wire Rope ................................... 92
3. 5. 4. Tension on Fastline, Deadline and Hook............................................... 96
3. 5. 5. Ton-Miles .......................................................................................... 97
3. 5. 5. Slip and Cut Program .......................................................................... 97
3. 6. Circulating System Overview ...................................................................... 99
3. 6. 1. Drilling Fluid .................................................................................... 100
3. 6. 1. 1. Drilling Fluid Major Functions .................................................... 100
3. 6. 1. 2. Drilling Fluid Composition.......................................................... 100
3. 6. 2. Preparation Area ............................................................................. 101
3. 6. 2. 1. Preparation Routine.................................................................. 101

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3. 6. 2. 2. Treatment and Testing .............................................................. 102
3. 6. 2. 3. Mud Monitoring Instruments..................................................... 103
3. 6. 3. Circulation Equipment ...................................................................... 105
3. 6. 4. Conditioning Equipment ................................................................... 107
3. 6. 4. 1. Solids Control Equipment .......................................................... 108
3. 6. 4. 2. Gas Separator Equipment .......................................................... 110
3. 6. 5. Capacity and Volume ....................................................................... 111
3. 6. 5. 1. Annular Capacity ...................................................................... 111
3. 6. 5. 2. Hole Volume ............................................................................ 111
3. 6. 6. Slug Calculations .............................................................................. 112
3. 7. Blowout Prevention (BOP) System Overview ............................................. 113
3. 7. 1. Major Components .......................................................................... 115
3. 7. 2. BOP Stack........................................................................................ 116
3. 7. 2. 1. Annular Preventer .................................................................... 116
3. 7. 2. 2. Ram Preventer ......................................................................... 117
3. 7. 2. 3. Drilling Spool ............................................................................ 119
3. 7. 2. 4. Wellhead ................................................................................. 119
3. 7. 3. Choke Manifold .............................................................................. 119
3. 7. 4. Kill Line .......................................................................................... 120
3. 7. 5. Accumulator ................................................................................... 120
3. 7. 5. 1. Accumulator Bottle ................................................................... 121
3. 7. 5. 2. Accumulator Sizing ................................................................... 122
3. 7. 5. 3. Accumulator Parts .................................................................... 124
3. 8. Chapter Summary ................................................................................... 128
3. 9. Exercises ................................................................................................ 129

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Table of Figures

Figure 3. 1: Rig Systems ........................................................................................ 56

Figure 3. 2: Power System .................................................................................... 57
Figure 3. 3: Generator .......................................................................................... 58
Figure 3. 4: Compound Power System ................................................................... 59
Figure 3. 5: Diagram and Photograph of Engine and Generator ................................ 59
Figure 3. 6: Electric Motor .................................................................................... 59
Figure 3. 7: Rotary Table System ........................................................................... 60
Figure 3. 8: Rotary Table Assembly ........................................................................ 61
Figure 3. 9: Master Bushing .................................................................................. 61
Figure 3. 10: Master and Kelly Bushing .................................................................. 62
Figure 3. 11: Master Bushing and Rotary Slips ........................................................ 62
Figure 3. 12: Top Drive System .............................................................................. 63
Figure 3. 13: Drill Stem ......................................................................................... 64

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Figure 3. 14: Drill Pipe .......................................................................................... 65
Figure 3. 15: Hardbanding .................................................................................... 66
Figure 3. 16: Tool Joints........................................................................................ 66
Figure 3. 17: Heavy Weight Drill Pipe ..................................................................... 68
Figure 3. 18: Drill Collars....................................................................................... 69
Figure 3. 19: Lifting Sub ........................................................................................ 71
Figure 3. 20: Lifting Head ...................................................................................... 71
Figure 3. 21: Bit Sub ............................................................................................. 71
Figure 3. 22: Cross-over Sub.................................................................................. 72
Figure 3. 23: Stabilizer .......................................................................................... 72
Figure 3. 24: Roller Reamer of 3 and 6 Points ......................................................... 73
Figure 3. 25: Hydraulic Jar .................................................................................... 74
Figure 3. 26: Accelerator ...................................................................................... 75
Figure 3. 27: Shock Sub ........................................................................................ 75
Figure 3. 28: Hole Opener ..................................................................................... 76
Figure 3. 29: Under-Reamer .................................................................................. 77
Figure 3. 30: Stress Relief Groove .......................................................................... 79
Figure 3. 31: Drill String Handling Equipment ......................................................... 80
Figure 3. 32: Derrick ............................................................................................. 83
Figure 3. 33: Mast ................................................................................................ 83
Figure 3. 34: Hoisting Equipment .......................................................................... 84
Figure 3. 35: Drawworks....................................................................................... 85
Figure 3. 36: Drawworks Brake System .................................................................. 85
Figure 3. 37: Crown Block with 6 Sheaves .............................................................. 86
Figure 3. 38: Crown Block with Fast Line Sheave ..................................................... 86
Figure 3. 39: Top of Traveling Block ....................................................................... 86
Figure 3. 40: Traveling Block Exploded View ........................................................... 86
Figure 3. 41: Hook................................................................................................ 87

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Figure 3. 42: Bottle Neck or Drill Pipe Elevator ....................................................... 88

Figure 3. 43: Side Door or Casing Elevator .............................................................. 88
Figure 3. 44: Drilling Line ...................................................................................... 88
Figure 3. 45: Typical Wire Rope Construction: 6x19 classification, API Spec 9A .......... 90
Figure 3. 46: Typical Strand Construction ............................................................... 90
Figure 3. 47: Different Kinds of Wire Rope Twisting ................................................ 90
Figure 3. 48: Diameter Measurements ................................................................... 91
Figure 3. 49: Dead Line ......................................................................................... 94
Figure 3. 50: Schematic of the Hoisting System....................................................... 96
Figure 3. 51: Wire Rope – Wear Points................................................................... 98
Figure 3. 52: Circulating System ............................................................................ 99
Figure 3. 53: Mixing Jet Hopper........................................................................... 102
Figure 3. 54: Mud Balance .................................................................................. 102
Figure 3. 55: Marsh Funnel ................................................................................. 103
Figure 3. 56: Driller’s Console ............................................................................. 103

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Figure 3. 57: PVT................................................................................................ 104
Figure 3. 58: Pump Stroke Indicator .................................................................... 104
Figure 3. 59: Mud Flow Meter ............................................................................. 104
Figure 3. 60: Triplex Pump, Pump Liner and Piston ............................................... 106
Figure 3. 61: Conditioning Equipment .................................................................. 108
Figure 3. 62: Shale Shaker................................................................................... 108
Figure 3. 63: Desander ....................................................................................... 109
Figure 3. 64: Desilter .......................................................................................... 109
Figure 3. 65: Vacuum Degasser ........................................................................... 110
Figure 3. 66: Mud Gas Separator ......................................................................... 110
Figure 3. 67: Annular .......................................................................................... 111
Figure 3. 68: Drill String Volumes ........................................................................ 112
Figure 3. 69: Slug ............................................................................................... 113
Figure 3. 70: Blowout ......................................................................................... 114
Figure 3. 71: BOP System .................................................................................... 115
Figure 3. 72: BOP Stack ...................................................................................... 116
Figure 3. 73: Annular Preventer .......................................................................... 116
Figure 3. 74: Ram Preventer (Cameron Type-U) .................................................... 117
Figure 3. 75: Exploded View of a Ram Preventer................................................... 117
Figure 3. 76: Shear Ram Assembly ....................................................................... 118
Figure 3. 77: Variable Ram Assembly ................................................................... 118
Figure 3. 78: Conventional Pipe Rams .................................................................. 119
Figure 3. 79: Choke Manifold .............................................................................. 120
Figure 3. 80: Accumulator Bottle ......................................................................... 121
Figure 3. 81: Typical BOP Accumulator Parts ........................................................ 127

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3. Rig Systems

3. 1. Training Objectives

At the end of this training session, you will be able to:

- Name the five (5) important systems on a drilling rig.
- Identify various drill string components and handling equipment, and define
their uses.
- Calculate drill string weight and the neutral point.
- Name the components of the hoisting system.
- Calculate the pull required to make up connections.
- Calculate the work done by the drill string in ton miles.
- Describe the importance of slip and cut.
- Name the components of the circulating system.
- Calculate hole, string and annular volumes.

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- Describe the reason for slug and calculate slug volumes.
- Identify kick detection equipment.
- Identify the main BOP equipment.

3. 2. Introduction

There are 5 main equipment systems on a rotary drilling rig:

1. The Power System

Generates and distributes the primary power required to operate almost all other
component systems and their sub-components in a modern rotary drilling complex.

2. The Rotating System

Rotates the drill stem and makes the bit drill a subsurface hole, called a wellbore, until it
penetrates a potentially productive formation below.

3. The Hoisting System

Supports the rotating system in drilling the well by providing the appropriate equipment
and working areas needed for lifting, lowering and suspending the tremendous weight
required by the rotating system.

4. The Circulating System

Supports the rotating system by providing the equipment, material and working areas to
prepare, maintain and revise the drilling fluid (mud).

5. The Blowout Prevention System (BOP)

Helps to control one of the major problems that may be encountered when drilling a
well, i.e. a kick which may develop into a blowout.

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Figure 3. 1: Rig Systems

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3. 3 Power System Overview

A drilling rig cannot operate without power. The primary function of the power system
is to support all other systems by providing a source for the energy required to perform
their operations.

Figure 3. 2: Power System Schlumberger Private

3. 3. 1. Primary Power Source

The most common source of power comes from internal-combustion engines. These
engines, or prime movers, are normally fuelled by diesel and can provide more torque
than a gasoline-powered engine.

The number of prime movers required will depend on the rig size and its drilling
capability. Modern rigs may have up to eight or more engines. The power provided
from these engines is transferred to the rig equipment through either mechanical or
electrical transmission.
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Figure 3. 3: Generator
3. 3. 2. Power Transmission

There are two main methods for distributing the power from the prime movers.
1. Mechanical Transmission

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2. Electrical Transmission
The method used will depend on the type of engine and will affect the physical
arrangement of the rig itself.

The majority of the power supplied is used by the main drilling systems and their
equipment, such as drawworks, rotary and mud pumps. The remaining power is
distributed for use by the auxiliary equipment, such as lighting, mud preparation and
conditioning equipment, rig instrumentation and air conditioning equipment.

3. 3. 2. 1 Mechanical Transmission (The Compound)

A mechanical rig uses a combination of belts, chains, pulleys, sprockets and gears to
transfer the power to the rig equipment. This type of system is called a compound
power system. Apart from older rigs, mechanical transmission system is not much in
use today.

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Figure 3. 4: Compound Power System

3. 3. 2. 2 Electrical Transmission
Electric rigs do not use a chain and sprocket system but uses an electric generator
connected directly to each prime mover.

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Figure 3. 5: Diagram and Photograph of Engine and Generator

The generators produce electricity that is transferred to the rig equipment through a
system of cables to individual electric motors.

Figure 3. 6: Electric Motor

Most modern rigs have electric power transmission due to the advantage of greater
flexibility in positioning the units and are generally more compact.

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3. 4. Rotating System Overview

The rotating system is one of the most important components on the rig. Its primary
function is to rotate the drill stem and bit.

The rotating system has three major sub-components:

1. The rotary and/or top drive assembly
2. The drill stem
3. The bit

3. 4. 1. Rotary Table System

The rotary table is located in the rig floor over the hole. The rotary table, master
bushing and kelly bushing are used together to rotate the drill stem. From the hook, the

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swivel and the kelly are threaded to the drill pipe.

Figure 3. 7: Rotary Table System

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The rotary table assembly cannot turn the kelly directly. Instead, the master bushing
and the kelly bushing transfer the motion of the rotary table to the kelly.

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Figure 3. 8: Rotary Table Assembly

Figure 3. 9: Master Bushing

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Figure 3. 10: Master and Kelly Bushing

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Hand Slips

Leg Slips
Air-Operated Slips

Figure 3. 11: Master Bushing and Rotary Slips

The rotary table, master bushing and rotary slips (hand slips, leg slips or air-operated
slips) are used to suspend the drill stem in the hole while adding and removing sections
of drill pipe with the assistance of the make-up and break-up tongs. Tapered insert
bowls can be changed to accommodate different sizes of pipe.
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3. 4. 2. Top Drive System

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Figure 3. 12: Top Drive System

The Top Drive System, or TDS, replaces the rotary table, the kelly and the swivel. It
hangs from the hook on the traveling block. A heavy-duty motor located on the TDS
provides the power. The uppermost stand of drill pipe threads into a drive shaft on the
TDS. The TDS rotates the entire drill stem and bit directly. This action eliminates the
need for a turning rotary table assembly and a kelly. Due to its design, the top drive can
speed up the rotary drilling process.

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3. 4. 3. Drill Stem

The drill stem includes:

- The kelly, with square or
hexagonal cross-section, is
suspended beneath the swivel,
and it passes through the kelly
bushing and the rotary table. It
transmits torque to the drill stem.
- The saver sub which is connected
to the bottom of the kelly saves
wear and tear on the lower kelly
connection threads.
- Drill string

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- Bit

The drill stem is suspended beneath

the hook and traveling block by the
swivel bail.

The drill string is a column, or string,

of drill pipe attached at the tool
joints.
The drill string is normally used for
two basic purposes:
1. To serve as a conduit for the
drilling fluid.
2. To transmit the rotation of the
rotary table or TDS to the bit on
bottom.

Figure 3. 13: Drill Stem

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3. 4. 3. 1. Drill Pipe
Drill pipe used in the oilfield are typically 2-3/8” to 6-5/8” OD.
Most drill pipe is made of steel that is forged into a solid bar
and then pierced to produce a seamless tube. The tool joint is
a separate piece of metal welded onto the drill pipe and
Box
provides threaded ends so that the pipe can be screwed Tong
together. Area

The main factors involved in the design of the drill string are:
1. Collapse and burst resistance.
2. Tensile strength (tension).
3. Torque (torsion).
4. Resistance against crushing by action of the slips. Hardbanding
5. Corrosion resistance, especially in the presence of

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corrosive fluids (e.g. H2S and CO2).

The forces acting on the drill string include:

1. Tension, i.e. the combined weight of drill collars and drill
pipe, plus any overpull. An overpull safety margin should
be available to pull on a stuck drill string.
2. Torsion. High torque values can be obtained in tight hole
conditions. The recommended tool joint make-up torque Tube
should not be exceeded.
3. Fatigue associated with mechanical notches.
4. Cyclic Stress Fatigue is produced while rotating through
crooked holes. Dogleg severity of more than 3 deg/30m
(or 3 deg/100ft) should be avoided, if possible.
5. Abrasive friction.
6. Vibration at critical rotary speeds.

The drill pipe is not ordinarily used to put weight on the bit as
they are smaller and lighter than the drill collar. In addition, in
Pin
vertical hole drilling, the drill string is suspended in the hole Tong
under tension, not compression. It is kept in tension by two Area
opposing forces, i.e. the weight of the drill collar pulling on it
from below and the hoist pulling on it from the surface.
Keeping the drill string in tension prevents it from bending
and buckling, and prolongs its life.

Figure 3. 14: Drill

Pipe
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Hardbanding (also called hard-facing) is applied on the tool joints to limit the degree of
circumferential wear on the tool joints. Hardbanding is proven to be effective, and may
greatly increase the life of a tool joint because an abrasive formation can reduce its size
and weaken it. But, it can also provide considerable casing wear, leading to a reduction
in casing performance properties.

Figure 3. 15: Hardbanding

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If new hardbanded pipe or pipe that has been hardbanded again is used, every effort
should be made to run this pipe in the open hole section. This will result in a degree of
roughness being taken off from the new surface finish and will minimize any adverse
impact on casing wear.

The wall of the tool joint is, typically, about 2” thick and about a foot long. Each tool
joint pin and box includes:
1. The tong area: This refers to the part of the tool joint to which drilling crews attach
the tong that make up or break out the tool joints.
2. The elevator shoulder: Manufacturers produce tool joints with tapered elevator
shoulders so that the pipe can more easily past doglegs and curves in the wellbore.
Normally, the shoulder has an 18º taper.

Pin Box

Pin

Shoulder

Pin
Base benchmark
(1/8” from Box
shoulder)
Box benchmark
(1/8” from
shoulder inside
box)
Figure 3. 16: Tool Joints

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Drill Pipe Ranges:

Manufacturers make drill pipe in one of the three API recommended ranges of length.

Range Length (feet) Length (m)

1 18 – 22 5.5 – 6.7
2 27 – 32 8.2 – 9.8
3 38 – 45 11.6 – 13.7

These three ranges of length are produced because derrick heights vary, and drilling
contractor must be able to buy drill pipe which can fit inside the derrick once the drill
pipe is made up into stands. The most common drill pipe in use today in the oil industry
is Range 2. Range 1 is now obsolete and has been replaced by pup joints of 5 feet to 10
feet in length.

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Drill Pipe Grades:

Different grades of steel are available to meet the expected condition downhole. The
most common grades are G105 and S135. G105 is most commonly used in shallow or
H2S environments. S135 is considered a standard for offshore operations. V150 is a
relatively new grade that is being used for deepwater operations. There are four API
grades:

The pipe grade has a symbol used for identification.

Grade Symbol Minimum Yield Strength (psi)

D55 D 55,000 – Not API
E75 E 75,000
X95 X 95,000
G105 G 105,000
S135 S 135,000
V150 V 150,000 – Not API

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3. 4. 3. 2. Heavy Weight Drill Pipe

Heavy weight drill pipe (HWDP), also called

heavy wall drill pipe, are manufactured
with walls that are thicker than those in
standard drill pipe and fitted with special
extra length tool joints.

The extra length of the tool joint allows

room for re-cutting connections when the
original ones are damaged, and reduces
the rate of wear on the OD of the tube by
keeping the wall of the tube away from
the side of the hole.

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The OD of the tube is also protected from
abrasive wear with a center wear pad.

HWDP is frequently used in the drill stem

just above the drill collar, i.e. in the
transition zone between the stiffer collars
and the more limber drill pipe.

Fatigue failure often occurs in the first few

joints above the drill collars. This area of
the drill string is referred to as the
transition zone.

The design of HWDP decreases the effects

of torque and drag as there are only 3
contact points with the wellbore, i.e. both
tool joints and the central upset / wear
pad.

HWDP can be run in compression in

certain cases. Figure 3. 17: Heavy Weight Drill Pipe

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3. 4. 3. 3. Drill Collar

Drill collars are heavy walled metal tubes positioned

directly above the bit. Drill collars are used primarily to
apply weight to the bit. Their large wall thickness gives
them a greater resistance to buckling than drill pipe.
Therefore, they also provide weight to keep the drill
string in tension and avoid it from being subjected to
bucking forces.

They will be used to provide a pendulum effect that

causes the bit to drill a more nearly vertical hole, and
support and stabilize the bit so that it will drill the new
hole that is aligned with the hole already drilled.

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The lower part of the drill collar section is under
compression, and therefore, subjected to buckling. This
generates high stresses and potential fatigue, particularly
at the connections. Therefore, the drill collars are
designed to work in compression (whereas drill pipe is
designed to work in tension). However, a safety factor
will be kept - commonly 15 to 20% of the weight of the
drill collars. This means that when calculating the
amount of drill collars required to be run with a new bit,
the maximum Weight On Bit (WOB) will represent 80-
85% of the weight of the drill collars.

Drill collars typically range in size from 4-3/4” to 9-1/2”

OD and in weight from 16 to 379 pounds per foot (ppf).
Most of them are round and are 30-31 feet long. Well
planner determines how many drill collars are needed
above the bit by taking into consideration how much
weight is needed to drill efficiently and how much each
drill collar weighs.

The clearance between drill collars and the wellbore is

smaller than the clearance between drill pipe and the
wellbore, thus increasing the possibility of differential
sticking. Differential sticking is a condition in which the
drill stem becomes stuck against the wall of the wellbore
because of the difference in pressure between the drilling Figure 3. 18: Drill Collars
fluid in the wellbore and that of a permeable formation.

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Some drill collars have spiral grooves machined into the outside surface. These drill
collars are used in holes in which the clearance between the drill collar and the wall of
the hole is small, and in directional drilling where the drill collars will most likely contact
the side of the hole. If it is thought to be a potential problem, spiral drill collars can be
used to reduce the contact area with the wellbore, and consequently, reduce the
chance of different sticking.

3. 4. 3. 4. Drill Bit

There are two main types of drill bit available.

1. Roller Cone Bits (or Rock Bits)
These can be subdivided into Milled Tooth Bits and Insert Bits
2. Fixed Cutter Bits

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These can be subdivided into Natural Diamond Bits, Polycrystalline Diamond
Compact (PDC) Bits, Thermally Stable Polycrystalline (TSP) Bits, and Impregnated
Diamond Bits.

Bit Selection
Factors to be considered for the bit selection are:
1. Durability: We want the bit to last for a reasonable number of rotating hours.
2. Effectiveness: Related to durability, we need a bit that will give the longest footage.
3. Nature of formation: We need a bit to perform formations of different lithology.

Bit Design
The bit designer will consider different variables such as heavy duty bearings, high
resistant cone shell, full length cutting teeth, etc. For instance, if the designer wants a
bit with short teeth, the cone shell must be thinner and the bearings smaller. At the
end, the final desirable product will be a bit which will last for the planned time with no
premature failures of one of these elements.

Jet Nozzles
With all drill bit designs, nozzle size plays an important role in the bit hydraulics. The
benefits of correct selection include improved bottom hole cleaning, reduced risk of bit
balling, faster rate of penetration (ROP) and lower drilling cost. Nozzle sizes are stated
in 1/32 of an inch increments. The largest nozzle size is one inch in size – often termed
open.

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3. 4. 4. Auxiliaries

3. 4. 4. 1. Lifting Subs and Lifting Heads

Since some drill collars do not have the elevator recess, lifting subs / heads are used.

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Figure 3. 19: Lifting Sub Figure 3. 20: Lifting Head

3. 4. 4. 2. Bit Sub

Bits come with a pin rather than a box. A bit sub has a box connection on each end,
thus allowing the make-up of the bit to the drill collar.

Figure 3. 21: Bit Sub

3. 4. 4. 3. Cross-over Sub

Two different items in the drill stem may not have the same thread. A cross-over sub is
then used to connect them together.
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Figure 3. 22: Cross-over Sub
3. 4. 4. 4. Stabilizer

Used in the drill collar string, stabilizers keep the hole straight
or to intentionally curve it from vertical. Blades on the
stabilizer contact the wall of the hole as the drill string rotates.

Full gauge stabilizers provide a fixed stand-off distance from

the wall of the hole and keep the drill collars concentric with
the wellbore, thus reducing the buckling and bending.
Stabilizers may, however, increase torque and drag.

- The integral blade stabilizer is the preferred type of

stabilizer.
- Although integral blade stabilizers are generally preferred,
welded blade stabilizers can also be used depending on the
formation. Generally, welded blade stabilizers are used in
soft formations; above the kick off point for directional
wells; or, for the conductor and surface hole sections.
- Replaceable sleeve stabilizers are used only in areas of the
world where logistic is a problem (economical
considerations). Their main disadvantage is that they
restrict the flow circulation, especially in smaller hole size.
Figure 3. 23: Stabilizer

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The position, size (full gauge, under gauge or adjustable gauge stabilizer) and number of
the stabilizers in the bottom hole assembly (BHA) are determined by the directional
drilling requirements. In the vertical section, their purpose is to maintain the drift angle
as low as possible.

Note:
1. The near bit stabilizer may be replaced by a full size roller reamer, if excessive toque
is experienced.
2. Do not place a stabilizer at the transition zone from drill collars to HWDP.
3. The use of stabilizers inside casing should be avoided as much as possible (or limited
to a short period of time), e.g. while drilling out cement in the shoe track.

3. 4. 4. 5. Roller Reamer

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Roller reamers can be used for drill string stabilization where
it is difficult to maintain the gauge of the hole, and in hard
deep formation where torque presents a problem.

Roller reamers do not stabilize as well as integral blade

stabilizers. Field experience has shown that more walk is,
sometimes, experienced when they are being used,
especially when a near-bit roller reamer is in the BHA. When
roller reamers are used in a building BHA, they often increase
the build rate.

The type of cutters used on the roller reamers will depend on

the formation type. The same roller reamer body can be
used for different applications.

Figure 3. 24: Roller Reamer of 3 and 6

Points

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3. 4. 4. 6. Jar

A jar is run in the BHA in order to free the drill string in the event
that it becomes stuck. There are three basic types of jar, namely
mechanical, hydraulic and hydro-mechanical jar. Mechanical jars
have a preset load that causes the jar to fire. Hydraulic jars use a
hydraulic fluid to delay the firing of the jar until the appropriate
load to the string is applied to give a high impact. The hydro-
mechanical jar is a hybrid of the mechanical and hydraulic jar.
The jar comprises a mechanically operated jar section which is
connected with a hydraulically operated jar section by a flexible
tubular connector. The connector provides flexibility in between
them to relieve bending moment on the jar sections during use.

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For practical purposes, double acting (can fire up and down) jars
are preferred. Jars are generally used from below the conductor
or surface casing. The number of drilling hours and jarring hours
should be recorded to enable replacement of the jar at the
recommended time provided by the manufacturer. This varies
according to jar manufacturer, hole size and deviation.

Figure 3. 25: Hydraulic Jar

Jar Position
Run a jar placement program, then optimize the jar position by considering all aspects of
the BHA:
1. The location of the neutral point in the drill string should be known, and jar should
be kept away from the neutral point.
2. When appropriate, place the jar in the drill collar section above the top stabilizer.
Jar should not be run directly next to a stabilizer – minimum of one drill collar
between them.
3. Place a couple of drill collars above the jar for hammer weight, where possible.
HWDP are flexible and will not transmit downward blows as efficient as drill collars.
4. The anticipated problem can also influence the location of the jar:
a) If it is differential sticking or key seating, the jar should be run in the HWDP to
avoid being stuck with the rest of the BHA.
b) If it is bit / stabilizer balling, and/or hole swelling, the jar should be positioned in
the drill collar above the top stabilizer.
c) When drilling in a new area where common hole problems have yet to be
identified, a good compromise is to run some smaller OD spiral drill collars above
the jar.
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5. If the pumps are running when an attempt is made to cock a jar, the pump open
force must be subtracted from the firing force, and added to the set down weight
used to cock the jar.
Pump Open Force = Pressure Drop below a Jar x Wash Pipe Area
The Wash Pipe Area can be obtained from the jar manual.

3. 4. 4. 7. Accelerator

Figure 3. 26: Accelerator

An Accelerator (also called Jar Booster) is run in the drill string above the jar, it is used to

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increase the impact force exerted by a jar. They consist of a slip joint that, as extension
of the tool occurs, causes further compression of an inert gas (generally nitrogen) in a
high-pressure chamber. Then, the gas under pressure forces the tool back to its original
length. It allows the drill collars below the accelerator to move rapidly upwards.
Accelerators are useful in a fishing string or drilling BHA, particularly in high angle wells,
where the string is in contact with the side of the hole and large amount of friction may
be developed.

3. 4. 4. 8. Shock Sub

Floating Piston Spring Stack

Figure 3. 27: Shock Sub

A shock sub is placed in the drill string, ideally directly above the bit to absorb vibration
and shock loads. They are useful, especially at shallow depth, when drilling hard rocks,
fractured formations or intermittent hard and soft streaks, to limit the wear and failure
of the drill string components (MWD, bit, etc.)

3. 4. 4. 9. Hole Opener and Under-Reamer

Hole openers and under-reamers are used to enlarge holes. An under reamer is never
as robust as a hole opener but can pass through obstructions (e.g. casing string) of a
smaller diameter than the hole it will open up to.

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Hole Openers

A hole opener is used to enlarge a pilot hole, which may be

required for one of the following reasons:
1. A core is required (the standard coring equipment size
starts from 12 ¼”).
2. High quality wireline log is required, and it is not likely to
achievable in large diameter hole.
3. It is easier to control the trajectory of a smaller hole,
especially in very soft formation.
4. Drilling through a potential pressure transition zone or a
gas pocket. In small hole, circulation bottoms up takes less
time and kicks are easier to control due to the reduced
volume.

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Figure 3. 28: Hole Opener

A hole opener may also be required if the diameter of the hole has been reduced by the
formation expanding into it. As a result, the full size bit can no longer pass through. It
may happen, particularly, in sections containing plastic shales or salt.

A hole opener is run either with a pilot bit or with a bull nose that guides the hole
opener along the pilot hole. Thus, there is no need to steer a hole opener, and no risk
to drill away from the pilot hole. The bull nose can be fitted directly to the hole opener
or one joint below it to give more flexibility.

As an alternative to a hole opener, especially in hole sizes less than 17 ½”, a regular bit
may be used to enlarge the hole. This is not recommended in soft formation. In harder
formations, the bit is more likely to follow the path of least resistance. But, it is
necessary to measure the deviation of the well at frequent intervals to check that it is
following the trajectory of the pilot hole.

The majority of hole openers still use roller cones, with either steel teeth or tungsten
carbide inserts, depending on the formation. These are available from 8 3/8” (6” pilot
hole) to 48” (17 ½” pilot hole). The number of cones (from 3 to 8) is a function of the
size of the hole.

Fixed blade hole openers are available for smaller (less than 17 ½”) hole sections. They
eliminate the risk of cones falling off and can be used for backreaming, if necessary,
through tight hole sections (“squeezing formation”).

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Under-Reamers

Typical applications include:

1. Opening the hole below a casing shoe to provide a larger annular
space for cementing the next casing string. This permits, for
example, the use of a larger intermediate casing string than
could be used otherwise.
2. Overcome BOP or wellhead size diameter restriction.
3. Enlarging the hole annulus within the producing zone for gravel
pack completion.
4. Opening a pocket to start a sidetrack.
5. Reducing dogleg severity.
6. Enlarging “heaving areas” through problematic fault zone.

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Figure 3. 29: Under-Reamer

Since the under-reamer has to pass through a restricted bore, it incorporates

expandable cutters which stay collapsed when the tool is run in hole (RIH). The cutters
are then expanded into the formation by utilizing the differential pressure of the drilling
fluid. Once the hole is under-reamed to the desire depth, the pumps are turned off,
allowing the arms to collapse back into the body for pulling out of hole (POOH).

Under-reamers used to have rolling cones on extending arms, but nowadays, the
tendency is to use extending arms fitted with PDC cutters. They can be run with a bull
nose or a small drilling bit.

Should limited oversize is required, an alternative would be a bi-centered bit (e.g. 8 ½” x

9 7/8”) which eliminates the risks associated with under-reamer.

3. 4. 5. Rotary Shouldered Connections

The primary requirement of a tool joint is to allow the connection of a number of

tubular, thereby facilitating a continuous length of pipe. However, the joint must also
be able to provide several critical requirements if it is to be used in the drilling
environment.
1. It must satisfactorily connect two joints of pipe together and not unscrew under the
action of normal drilling operations.
2. It must provide a hydraulic seal such that drilling fluid can be pumped down inside
the string of pipe under high pressure without leakage.

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3. It must be able to withstand normal drilling torque and bending from reasonable
rotation and doglegs without parting or unscrewing.
4. It must be able to resist reasonable conditions of being made up and broken out that
exist in the drilling environment.
5. It must have a reasonable service life.

3. 4. 5. 1. Connection Types

FH = Full Hole
NC = Numbered Connection
IF = Internal Flush
Reg = Regular
H-90 = Hughes

3. 4. 5. 2. Torsional Yield Strength

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The torsional strength of a tool joint is a function of several variables. These include the
strength of the steel, connection size, thread form, taper and coefficient of friction on
mating surfaces, threads, shoulders, etc. The theoretical torsional yield strength of a
tool joint connection can be determined from curves that can be found in
“Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits” (API).

3. 4. 5. 3. Stress Concentration

During drilling, the drill string is constantly under tensional, compressional and torsional
stresses. When run in tension, it is held relatively straight, and bending and wear is kept
to a minimum. When run in compression, however, the drill string bends severely. Both
the tool joints and the pipe body wear against the wall of the hole. In addition,
continuous flexing produces fatigue failure in the body of the pipe. Since the tool joint
is stiffer and stronger, bending is concentrated in the pipe body, and failure occurs
where the bending occurs.

Drill collars are also subject to fatigue as a result of bending while rotating in the hole.
However, there is a difference. The body of the drill collar is stiffer than the tool joint.
As a result, most of the flexing occurs at the connection. Therefore, most drill collar
failures occur in the connection.

Whenever any tubular is bent, the fibers on the outside of the bend are stretched in
tension. The fibers on the inside of the bend are placed in compression. If the piece
rotates while bent, each fiber passes from maximum tension to maximum compression
and back to maximum tension in each revolution. If the stress level is high enough,
minor surface defects begin to grow and get deeper each time the defect reaches the
tension side of the bend. This progressive growth of surface defects into cracks is called

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fatigue failure. Fatigue failure may occur although the average stress level is less than
half the yield strength of the steel. It is a matter of localized stresses, near a notch or
other surface defect, becoming great enough to produce local failure. Stress
concentration is the term used to describe such a condition where a local area is highly
stressed because bending or flexing occurs at this locality.

3. 4. 5. 4. Stress Relief Groove

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Figure 3. 30: Stress Relief Groove

The API standardization committee has established a recommended practice of cutting

stress relief grooves in the tool joints. These are located near the base of the pin and in
the bottom of the box just beyond the last engaged thread of the pin. These relief
grooves are intended to release stress concentration in the critical bending areas of the
pin and box. They do this by removing unnecessary threads, which are notches, and
replacing them with smooth, large radius contours. It is essential that the surfaces of
the stress relief areas are free of tool marks, stencil marks or other notches.

3. 4. 6. Make-Up Torque

The connections on a drill string is made up and broken out by using drill string handling
equipment such as tong, pipe spinner or Big Foot” as shown below.
Tong Pipe Spinner Big Foot

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Figure 3. 31: Drill String Handling Equipment

The most common drill string handling equipment is the tong. When a stand of drill
pipe is pulled out of hole in the rotary table, slips are inserted between the drill pipe and
the rotary table to prevent the drill pipe from slipping back into the hole. The
connection between the stand of drill pipe above the rotary table and the drill pipe
remaining in the hole is broken by means of two tongs.

One tong, known as the “back-up tong”, is secured to the drill pipe below the
connection and tied off by means of a snub line to a derrick leg or another stationary
part of the rig. The snub line restrains the movement of the back-up tong. A load cell is
usually installed in series with the snub line to measure the restraining force. The
angular position between the snub line and the tong is maintained constant so that the
moment arm utilized for torque calculation is constant. Therefore, the linear force is

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directly proportional to the torque, and adjustment for angular deviation is not
required.

The second tong, called the “break-out tong,” is attached to the stand of drill pipe above
the connection. A tong line is run through a tong pin at the outermost end of the break-
out tong arm. The tong line is attached to a winch or “cat-head”. When the winch is
engaged, the break-out tong exerts force on the top segment of drill pipe, causing it to
turn, and break out the connection.

For example,
Load Cell

A stationary structure.

Back-Up Tong Snub Line

Break-Out Tong

Drill Pipe Connection

4 feet

Tong line attached to Cat-Head

If the pulling force on the tong line is 4000 lbf, the load
cell on the snub line will also register 4000 lbf. Torque
is calculated by multiplying the force vector by the
radius vector from the axis of rotation to the point of
application of the force. Therefore, the torque applied Page 80
on the connection is 4000 lbf x 4 feet = 16000 ft-lbf
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3. 4. 7. Drill String Weight

Calculations and predictions of drill string weight is a critical step before starting any
drilling operation, and also before selecting a suitable rig for a drilling campaign.
Nowadays, most of these calculations are run by accurate computer programs.

Buoyancy Factor:

Steel Density (ppg) – Mud Weight (ppg)

Buoyancy Factor =
Steel Density (ppg)

Where,
Steel Density is taken as 65.44 ppg.

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For example, if the mud weight is 12.0 ppg, the buoyancy factor will be 0.8166.

The buoyancy factor is used to calculate the buoyed weight of a drill string inside mud of
certain density in a vertical well. This is done by multiplying the buoyancy factor to the
weight of the drill string in air.

For example, if the weight of a joint of drill pipe is 13.30 ppf in air, the buoyed weight of
it inside 12.0 ppg mud is 10.86 ppf.

The weight of drill pipe is normally expressed in its nominal weight, e.g. 19.5 ppf for 5”
drill pipe, and 15.5 ppf for 3 ½” drill pipe (note that “ppf” means pounds per foot, lb/ft).
When the drill string weight needs to be determined, the adjusted weight of the drill
pipe, which takes into account the weight of the tool joints, should be used. For
instance, 22.0 ppf for 5” drill pipe, and 17.0 ppf for 3 ½” drill pipe.

3. 4. 8. Basics of BHA Design in a Vertical Well

An important function of the BHA is to protect the drill pipe from buckling. In vertical
holes, buckling of the pipe is prevented by using a drill collars of sufficient weight to
ensure that the neutral point of bending is kept within the drill collars.

When a drill string is run into a vertical hole, the forces acting on the string are the string
weight itself and the buoyancy force which results from the pressure exerted vertically
on the cross-sectional area of the drill string. Buoyancy acting at the bottom of the drill
string places the lower portion of the drill string in compression and reduces the
hookload (thus, the concept of buoyed weight).

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If weight is placed on the bit, there is additional compression at the bottom of the drill
string, and the neutral point of tension and compression moves up the drill string. The
neutral point of bending also moves up the drill string.

General field practice is to use only 80% - 90% of the drill collar weight as Weight On Bit
(WOB). Therefore, after deciding the WOB to be run, the number of drill collars to be
used in the BHA can be calculated.

WOBmax (lb) = 80% x Length of Drill Collar (ft) x Weight of Drill Collar (ppf) x Buoyancy F

The height of the neutral point of bending above the bottom of the drill string can be
calculated as follows
WOB (lb)

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Neutral Point (ft) =
Weight of Drill Collar in Mud (ppf)

3. 5. Hoisting System Overview

The hoisting system provides the equipment and working areas for hoisting, lowering
and suspending the equipment used in the rotating system.

The hoisting system is divided into two main parts:

1. The supporting structure
2. The hoisting equipment

The supporting structure consists of:

1. The substructure
2. The drilling tower
3. The rig floor

3. 5. 1. Supporting Structure

3. 5. 1. 1. Substructure

Assembled directly over the drilling site, the substructure is a large steel framework
that:
1. Supports the assemblage of tools and equipment used in the rotary drilling process.
2. Provides a workspace for equipment and men on and below the rig floor.
The substructure is capable of supporting tremendous weight, including the derrick or
mast, hoisting equipment, the rotary table, the drill stem and casing load. Its height is
determined by rig type and blowout preventer stack height.
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3. 5. 1. 2. Drilling Tower – Derrick or Mast

Derricks have been used for wells on land, but now they are
commonly used on offshore locations as well. The derrick is
larger than a mast and is erected and dismantled piece by
piece. The derrick consists of 4 legs connected by horizontal
structural members called girts. The derrick is further
strengthened by bracing members connecting the girts.

The entire rig floor is enclosed under the derrick frame work,
and it provides a large working area.
Figure 3. 32: Derrick

The Mast has all but replaced the derrick on most land rigs

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because of its portability. It can be pre-assembled, erected
and moved more efficiently from one site to another than a
derrick. The mast is pivoted at its base and is lowered to the
horizontal by the use of the drawworks after completing a well.
During rig move, the mast can be dismantled into a number of
pin-jointed sections, each of which is usually a truck load.

The mast is narrower and it encloses only part of the rig floor.
The mast is usually mounted toward the back and near the
Figure 3. 33: Mast pipe ramp.

The characteristics of drilling towers vary in height, load capacity and wind load rating.

1. Height: The height varies from 66 feet. It is an indicator of the ability to handle drill
stem sections called stands. Stands can be made up by 2 joints of drill pipe or drill
collars with the total length of about 60 feet (doubles). Stands can also be made up
by 3 joints of drill pipe or drill collars (triples) giving a total length of 90 feet. Some
of the new generation rigs have quadruples with stands up to 135 feet long.

2. Load capacity: Derricks and masts are rated in terms of the vertical load they can
suspend. This rating, called the rig capacity, is the total weight it is designed to
carry. Based on this capacity rating, rigs are referred to as light, heavy-duty, etc.

3. Wind load rating: Derricks and masts are rated in terms of how much wind they can
stand from the side while suspending a fully-loaded drill stem. This rating is called
rig loading. Most rigs can withstand 100 to 130 mph wind. (Derricks installed on
floating structures such as drillships and semi-submersibles must be able withstand
dynamic stresses due to rolling, pitching and heaving of the rig as well.)
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3. 5. 1. 3. Rig Floor

The rig floor is placed over the substructure framework. It provides a working platform
for most drilling operations, and supports the needed equipment and tools.

The major items found on the rig floor are:

1. The rotary table rotates and suspends the drill stem which turns the bit on bottom
in the wellbore.
2. The drawworks provides the hoisting mechanism.
3. The rotary drive transmits power from the drawworks to the rotary table.
4. The driller’s console is the instrumentation center that provides the driller with a
comprehensive view of what is happening in each of the major subsystems.
5. The make-up and break-up tong, which are suspended just above the floor are large
wrenches used to torque (make up) or de-torque (break out) the connections of drill

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pipe, drill collars or casing.
6. The rathole is the cased hole in the rig floor where the kelly is placed while making a
trip.
7. The mouse hole is the cased hole next to the rotary table in rig floor where a joint of
drill pipe is placed for connection to the kelly and drill stem.
8. The dog house is a small shed used as the driller’s office and to store small items.

3. 5. 2. Hoisting Equipment

Figure 3. 34: Hoisting Equipment

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3. 5. 2. 1. Drawworks

The drawworks is a powerful hoisting assembly located on the rig floor. It consists of:
1. A large revolving drum.
2. Manual, electric or hydraulic brakes for stopping the drilling line.
3. A series of shafts.
4. Chains and gear drives for changing speed and for reversing.

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Figure 3. 35: Drawworks

The major functions of the drawworks are to:

1. Perform lifting and lowering operations known as “trip out” and “trip in”,
respectively.
2. Transmit power to cathead for connecting (make-up) or disconnecting (break out)
drill stem sections.

Figure 3. 36: Drawworks Brake System

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3. 5. 2. 2. Overhead Tools

They are the connecting links within the hoisting system, and they consists of:

Crown block:

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Figure 3. 37: Crown Block with 6 Sheaves Figure 3. 38: Crown Block with Fast Line Sheave

An assembly of pulleys, called sheaves, which is located on a frame, work at the top of
the mast or derrick. Drilling line is reeved over the sheaves of the crown block and
under the sheaves of the traveling block.

Traveling block

Figure 3. 39: Top of Traveling Block Figure 3. 40: Traveling Block Exploded
View

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An arrangement of sheaves through which drilling line is reeved. This allows the
traveling block to travel up and down while suspended below the crown block and
above the rig floor. The number of drilling line sheaved is called “string”. For example,
a 10-line string means that 5 sheaves on each block are alternatively threaded. The
number of sheaves required on the crown block is one greater than the number to be
strung. This extra sheave is for the dead line, which is anchored to the substructure
base.

3. 5. 2. 3. Hook

A hook is a large device located beneath

the traveling block from which the kelly or
TDS is suspended. The hook carries the
entire load during drilling operations. It

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contains a spring inside, which helps
absorb shock. The elevator links or bails
are latched to the hook for use during
hoisting operations. Hooks are rated by
the maximum weight they can carry.

Figure 3. 41: Hook

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3. 5. 2. 4. Elevator

Figure 3. 42: Bottle Neck or Drill Pipe Figure 3. 43: Side Door or Casing Elevator
Elevator

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Elevators are extremely rugged, heavy duty clamps that grip drill pipe and drill collars in
sections so that they can be lowered into or pulled out of the hole.

There are two basic type of elevators:

Bottle-neck which is used for most drill pipe.
Square shoulder which is used for casing and some drill collar.

3. 5. 3. Drilling Line

Figure 3. 44: Drilling Line

The term “drilling line” and “wire lines” are often used interchangeably with the term
“wire rope”. Wire rope is an intricate network of close tolerance, precision made steel
wire, much on the order of a machine, where each part has a job to do. Each part must
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work in a perfect relationship with the other part for the wire rope to function properly.
Proper care and handling of it is mandatory to obtain the highest service at the highest
level of safety.

The drilling line is a heavy-duty wire rope made out of six strands of improved plow
steel. It is an assembly of precision parts. Each part can move independently, and it
requires lubrication. The assembly is static until an external force is applied, and it
transmits energy. The drilling line connects all components in the hoisting system as it is
reeved alternately over the crown block sheaves and through the traveling block
sheaves. Then, it is spooled onto the rotating drawworks drum.

The drilling line generally ranges from 1/2 inch to 2 inches in diameter and is stored on
large spools in lengths of 1500 to 7500 feet. The length needed for a well program is
dependent on three basic variables, i.e. the derrick height, the number of line strung
and well depth, plus a reserve for use in the slip and cut program.

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3. 5. 3. 1. Wire Rope Nomenclature

Wire rope is composed of three parts, i.e. the Core, the Strand and the Wire. A wire
rope is made up of strands wound around a steel core. Each strand contains a number
of small wires wound around a central core.

Basic Strand Constructions

Single Layer
The “Single Layer Principle” is the basis of this strand construction. The most common
example is a single wire center with six wires laid around it. It is called a 7-wire (1-6)
strand.

Filler Wire
This construction has two layers of same size wires around a center wire, with the inner
layer having half the number of wires than the outer layer. Small filler wires, equal in
number to the inner layer, are laid in the valleys of the inner layer.

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Figure 3. 45: Typical Wire Rope Construction: 6x19 classification, API Spec 9A

SINGLE LAYER FILLER WIRE SEALE WARRINGTON MIXED

WARRINGTON-
e.g. strand 1-6 Inner layer Two layers with Two layers with SEALE
contains filling the same number wires of the same
wires of wires diameter. The The first two
e.g. 1-6-6f-12 e.g. 1-9-9 outside layer layers are
(f : filler wires) contains filler Warrington and
wires the last two Seale
e.g. 1-6-(6+6) e.g. 1-5-(5+5)-10

Figure 3. 46: Typical Strand Construction

Figure 3. 47: Different Kinds of Wire Rope Twisting

In ropes with Regular Lay, the wires are twisted in one direction, and the strands in the
opposite direction. In ropes with Lang Lay, the wire and strands are twisted in the same
direction.

Wire rope is described and identified with numerals and abbreviations. The following is
an example description of a drilling line:

1” x 5000’ 6 x 19 S PRF RRL IPS IWRC

1” = Diameter of line
5000’ = Length of line
6 = Number of strands per line

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19 = Number of wires per strand

S = Seale pattern (i.e. all layers contain the same number of wires)
PRF = Preformed strand
RRL = Right Regular Lay
IPS = Improved Plow Steel (i.e. steel with breaking strength between 1770 and
1960 MPa)
IWRC = Independent Wire Rope Core

This translates to a 1” diameter, 5000 foot length of 6-strand rope with 19 filler wires in
each strand laid in a Seale pattern (S). The strands are preformed (PRF) in a helical
shape before being laid in a Right Regular Lay (RRL) pattern. The grade of the rope is
Improved Plow Steel (IPS) and it has an Independent Wire Rope Core (IWRC).

Diameter

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Figure 3. 48: Diameter Measurements
Diameter measurements are correct only when made across the “Crowns” of the rope
strands so that the true diameter is the widest diameter of the rope. Always measure
the diameter of any rope at its widest point by turning the caliper on the rope.

Most ropes are manufactured larger than the nominal diameter. When first placed in
operations, strands of new unused rope will “scat in” and “pull down” from its original
diameter. Therefore, measurements recorded for future reference and comparison
should be taken after the rope has been in service for a short period of time. A question
may develop as to whether or not the wire rope complies with the oversize tolerance. In
such cases, a tension of not less than 10 percent and not more than 20 percent of
nominal strength is applied to the rope, and the rope is again measured while under this
tension.

Wire rope differs in the number of strands, and the number and pattern of wires per
strand. Most common wire rope constructions are grouped into four standard
classifications, based on the number of strands and wires per strand. The number of

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strands and the number of wires per strand determine the classification of a wire rope.
Within each classification, there are specific rope constructions.

For example, in the 6 x 19 class some of the rope constructions are 6 x 19 S (Scale), 6 x
25 FW (Filler Wire) and 6 x 26 WS (Warrington Scale). Characteristics, such as fatigue
resistance and resistance to abrasion, are directly affected by the design of strands. As
a general rule, a strand made up of a few large wires will be more abrasion resistant and
less fatigue resistant than a strand of the same size made up of many smaller wires.

3. 5. 3. 2. Factors Affecting Service Life of Wire Rope

To keep the wire rope cost at a minimum, the rig crews and all levels of operation
management should know how to obtain the maximum safe life from the drilling line.
The following is basic to that objective:

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1. Select the proper size and type line to meet the requirements.
2. Care for the line to prevent damage.
3. Compute the service obtained from the line in Ton-Miles.
4. Choose a cut off program which best suits the conditions and follow it carefully.

This will greatly increase the service obtained from the line. When a new line is
received, the reel number, make and description of the line should be recorded on the
daily drilling report. The ton-mile service should be computed daily and a record kept so
that cut-offs can be made at a proper interval of service.

Some of the factors that have a direct effect upon the drilling line service are as follows.
Although they are elemental, they are critical. When we take these elemental factors
into consideration, it will become apparent why we must tailor a drilling line service
program to each individual rig.

1. Mast or Derrick Height

The mast or derrick height will vary from approximately 65’ to 185’ (or more). The
height governs the total amount of drilling line in the String-Up, and determines
whether “doubles”, “triples” or “quadruples” of drill pipe will be handled during trips.

2. Crown Block Sheaves

Sheave diameters should be large enough to minimize the bending fatigue which occurs
on a drilling line. Worn grooves will not properly hold the drilling line, whereas worn
bearings set up undue wear on both the sheaves and the line.

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3. Traveling Block Sheaves

The same conditions concerning the sheaves apply here as with the Crown Block
Sheaves. In addition, the traveling block must be of sufficient weight to give tight
spooling on the drum as the block assembly is being raised or lowered.

4. Drawworks Drum
The diameter and length of drum is important. A drum of small diameter and length
requires more drum wraps to raise the traveling blocks. This leads to more layers of
drilling line on the drum, and therefore, more “cross-over” wear points. A grooved
drum increases the drilling line service by supporting the drilling line and giving a tighter
wrap. The condition of the drum clutch and brake greatly affects line life. If these are
not properly adjusted, the resulting jerking and shock loads must be borne by the
drilling line.

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5. Type of String-Up – 6, 8, 10 or 12 lines
The type of String-Up will govern the load each part of the drilling line must carry. It
also determines the total lines in the String-Up, and the length of time wear points
would remain in the system.

6. Drilling Line Stabilizer and Turn-Back Rollers

The Drilling Line Stabilizer and Turn-Back Rollers help extend the life of the drilling line.
The drilling line stabilizer relieves vibration or whip on the fastline. The turn-back rollers
help relieve shock at the “cross-over” points on the drum and prevent line piling up at
the drum flanges. Weight box type stabilizers are considered far superior as far as drum
spooling is concerned. Deadline stabilizers reduce vibration in the deadline adjacent to
the deadline to the deadline anchor and deadline sheave.

7. Dead Line Anchor of Clamp

The size, type and condition of the anchor has a direct effect on the drilling line. If it is
too small, it may distort the drilling line, and form a “dogleg” in the line which will set up
a stress point. This stress point will result in undue wear and early fatigue, necessitating
a long cut to remove it from the system.

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Figure 3. 49: Dead Line

8. Experience of Crew
The experience of crew will affect the drilling line life in the manner in which they
handle the drilling line. For example, how they unspool the reel, how they reeve the
string-up, what steps are taken to keep the line out of mud and dirt, what method is
used to spool new line on the drum, and how the driller start and stop the drum when
making trips, etc.

9. Depth of Well
The depth of well will govern the total weight of drill pipe and drill collars, the number
of connections required, the number of bits required, and also the number of round
trips needed.

10. Drilling Conditions

Certain types of earth strata cause bit “chatter” or vibration which is passed through the
drill pipe and traveling blocks to the drilling line. The intermittent shock loads must be
absorbed by the drilling line, and are a source of undue wear particularly at the dead
line sheave. Also, certain strata cause crooked hole drilling (high tortuosity), which
results in considerable strain on the drilling line when pulling out of the hole during a
round trip.

11. Size of Drill Pipe

The size of the drill pipe determines the total load for calculating the ton mile service
per round trip and in making connections.

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12. Size and Number of Drill Collars

The size and number of drill collars is one of the variable factors in determining the total
excess weight when figuring ton-mile service per round trip.

13. Drill Stem Test

Conducting drill stem test means extra round trips over and above those necessary to
change bit.

14. Coring
Coring also means extra round trips and more drilling line wear.

15. Stuck Pipe

Jarring and manipulation to free stuck pipe causes extreme strain and wear on drilling
line. No ton-mile method of service wear can determine the damage here! Careful
visual inspection should be used, and damaged line removed from the system regardless

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of the length of cut required.

16. Twist-off and Fishing Jobs

Twist-off and fishing jobs often mean several extra round trips to completely
remove/retrieve the fish or obstruction before normal drilling can be resumed.

17. Setting Casing

While the length and size of casing may vary, it still means additional trips, connections,
and line wear.

18. Fleet Angle

The fleet angle is the angle formed between the drilling line running to or from the
extreme left or right of the drum and a line drawn from the center of the sheave normal
to the axis of the drum. For optimum efficiency, the angle here should not exceed 1 1/2
degrees for a smooth drum, or 2 degrees for a grooved drum. If the fleet angle is larger
than the recommended limits, it can cause bad winding on smooth drums and rubbing
against the flanges of the grooved drums. Too small a fleet angle should also be avoided
since it will cause the drilling line to pile up against the flange head. Considerations
should be taken on the proper fleet angle and drilling line stabilizer for drilling line
spooling.

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3. 5. 4. Tension on Fastline, Deadline and Hook

The drilling line is connected from the drum in the drawworks (fastline), reeved round
the crown block and traveling block sheaves, and then anchored with the end line
(deadline) going to the Dead Line Anchor. While the deadline is static, the fastline
travels while spooling and unspooling the drilling line from the drawworks. Hence, if
there 4 lines between the crown and the traveling block, the fastline travels 4 times
faster than the speed of the traveling block.

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Figure 3. 50: Schematic of the Hoisting System

The principal function of such hoisting system is to provide a mechanical advantage

which permits easier handling of large loads. Referring to the figure above, for a system
consisting of 4 lines supporting the hookload (HL), under static conditions, the tensions
in the fastline and deadline are:

Fastline Load (FL) = Hookload / 4

Deadline Load (DL) = Hookload / 4
Therefore, the Static Derrick Loading (SDL) = FL + HL + DL = 1.5 x HL

For N lines, the SDL is given by ( N + 2 ) x HL

N

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3. 5. 5. Ton-Miles

Each time the traveling block is raised or lowered, the drilling line performs some work.
This work is measured in ton-miles. A drilling line is said to have rendered one tone-
mile of service when the traveling block has moved 1 US ton (2000 lbs or 907.18474 kg)
for a distance of 1 mile. Note that, for simplicity, this parameter is independent of the
number of lines strung. Ton-miles need to be calculated after every trip. There are
several ton-mile calculations available. The common one is as follows:

WP x D x (LP + D) + 2 x D x (2 WB + WC)
RTTM
= 5280 x 2000
Where,
RTTM = Round Trip Ton-Miles
WP = Buoyed Weight of Drill Pipe in Mud (lb/ft)

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D = Depth of Hole (feet)
LP = Average Length of One Stand of Drill Pipe (feet)
WB = Weight of the Traveling Block assembly (lb)
WC = Buoyed Weight of Drill Collars minus the Buoyed Weight of same length
of Drill Pipe (lb)
2000 = Number of Pounds in One Ton
5280 = Number of Feet in One Mile

3. 5. 5. Slip and Cut Program

Since drilling line is considered as a machine, it needs to be maintained. As the drilling

line wears out with use, it must be replaced. This process is known as slip and cut. After
the ton-miles are calculated, an appropriate amount of drilling line is slipped and cut.

Each rig has its slip and cut program. The idea is to shift the critical wear points on the
drilling line at the pick-up and cross-over (or lap) points at the Drawworks, Crown Block,
Traveling Block, and Deadline Anchor.

The pick-up points are the points in the drilling line which are on the top of the crown
block sheaves or the bottom of the traveling block sheaves when the weight of the drill
string is lifted from its supports in the rotary table during tripping operations. The rapid
acceleration of the heavy drill string causes the most severe stress at these points. The
lap points are the points in the drilling line where a new layer or lap of wire rope begins
on the drum of the drawworks.

The number of ton-miles between slip and cut will vary with the drilling conditions and
the drilling line diameter, and must be determined through field experience. For

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instance, in hard rock drilling, slip and cut may be more frequent because vibrational
problems may cause more rapid line wear than when the rock types are relatively soft.

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Figure 3. 51: Wire Rope – Wear Points

Procedure:
1. Slip the line at the dead line anchor.
2. Hang off the traveling blocks.
3. Un-reeve the line from the drawworks.
4. Seize the wire rope and cut off the appropriate length.
5. Back reeve the wire rope into the drawworks.
6. Release the traveling block.
7. Reset Crown-O-Matic (a device used to stop the drawworks before the traveling
blocks hit the crown block).

Slipping the line changes the pick-up points, and cutting the line changes the cross-over
points. Care must be taken not to slip the line a multiple of the distance between the
pick-up points. Otherwise, the points of maximum wear are just shifted from one
sheave to the next. Likewise, the line must not be cut a section equal in length to a
multiple of the distance between cross-over points.

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3. 6. Circulating System Overview

MUD
HOSE

STANDPIPE

PUMP

MIXING
HOPPER DISCHARGE

SUCTION

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MUD RETUN
LINE

CHEMICAL
TANK

SHALE
SHAKER

SETTLING
PIT

SHALE
SLIDE

Figure 3. 52: Circulating System

The circulating system provides the equipment, materials and working areas to prepare,
maintain and condition the drilling fluid. There are four main components of the
circulating system:
1. The drilling fluid
2. The preparation area
3. The circulating equipment
4. The conditioning area

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3. 6. 1. Drilling Fluid

The drilling fluid is a mixture of various components which can include: water (fresh or
salt), oil, clay, chemical additives, gas or air. In the drilling field, it is commonly called
mud.

3. 6. 1. 1. Drilling Fluid Major Functions

1. Provides hydraulic horsepower (HHP) to bit for cleaning the bottom of wellbore:
Fluid leaving the bit under pressure removes the cuttings (pieces of broken, dislodged or
fragmented rock formation created by the bit’s cutting action) from the wellbore, thus
helping to maintain the maximum penetration rate.

2. Transports cuttings out of the hole:

Cuttings flushed from the bottom of the hole are suspended in the drilling fluid and

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moved up the annulus (space between drill stem and wellbore wall) to the surface. The
fluid viscosity may suspend the cuttings even when the circulation stops.

3. Supports wellbore wall:

Drilling fluid lines the side of the wellbore by forming a wall cake / filter cake. This wall
cake reduces fluid losses to the formations, contamination and cave-in. The wall cake
thickness needs to be carefully monitored and controlled since it may decrease the
wellbore diameter.

4. Prevents entry of formation fluids into the wellbore:

The hydrostatic pressure created by the density and height (well vertical depth) of the
fluid column presses against the wellbore wall, and prevents formation fluids from
entering the wellbore.

5. Cools and lubricates bit and drill stem:

The drilling fluid cools and lubricates the bit. In addition, it also lubricates the drill stem
and wellbore wall. In both cases, it reduces downhole friction.

3. 6. 1. 2. Drilling Fluid Composition

Downhole conditions, the types of formations being drilled and environmental issues
determine the drilling fluid composition used in a given wellbore.

There are three basics types of drilling fluid:

Water-based drilling fluid:

This is the most commonly used drilling fluid because it is cheaper to maintain, easier to
use and forms filter cake to protect the hole. It is made up of various combinations and

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amounts of fresh or salt water, clay and chemical additives as determined by the
downhole conditions.

Oil-based drilling fluid / synthetic-based drilling fluid / non-aqueous drilling fluid:

Oil-based drilling fluids are used to drill water soluble formations, deep and hot wells,
areas subject to differential pressure sticking, or when better lubrication is required.
Oil-based drilling fluids are generally more expensive to make and maintain.

Air or gas-based drilling fluid:

Only about 1% of all drilling fluid is air or gas-based. Its primary advantage is that a
faster penetration rate is achieved.

3. 6. 2. Preparation Area

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This is the area where drilling fluid is initially prepared and maintained. Drilling fluid
preparation and maintenance is essential to any successful drilling operation.

3. 6. 2. 1. Preparation Routine

There are four major drilling fluid preparation routines carried out by the crew.
1. Initial preparation
2. Weigh-up (increasing mud weight)
3. Water-back / dilution (reducing the mud weight)
4. Break over / treatment (change in the chemistry of the mud)

The drilling fluid preparation area consists of an assembly of specialized equipment that
is carefully arranged to facilitate the preparation and treatment of drilling fluid.

It generally includes:
1. Mud house: a storage shed for additives.
2. Mud pits/tanks: steel containers that facilitate the storage and handling of mud.
3. Bulks storage bins: large funnel shaped storage bins containing additives used in
large quantities such as clays and weight material. They operate on a gravity-feed
principle or air-assisted.
4. Mixing hopper: a funnel-shaped device used to rapidly add solid materials to the
drilling fluid by vacuum. Mud flowing through the nozzle creates a venturi suction
effect.

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Figure 3. 53: Mixing Jet Hopper

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3. 6. 2. 2. Treatment and Testing

The two major variables, i.e. viscosity and density, are controlled by treating the drilling
fluid with various additives, and are then constantly monitored.

Weight or Density:

Figure 3. 54: Mud Balance

Additives are used to control the weight or density of the drilling fluid. A mud balance is
used and converts a measured amount of drilling fluid into unit weight in pounds per
gallon (ppg) or kilogram per liter (kg/l).

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Viscosity:

Figure 3. 55: Marsh Funnel

Viscosity refers to the fluid’s resistance to flow. Resistance is brought about by internal
friction resulting from the combined efforts of cohesion and adhesion. Viscosity is

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measured with a marsh funnel which is used to determine the number of seconds
required for one quart of drilling fluid to flow out from the funnel.

3. 6. 2. 3. Mud Monitoring Instruments

In addition, the drilling fluid is monitored by a series of instruments located on or near

the mud pits and at the driller’s console.

Figure 3. 56: Driller’s Console

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The instruments include:

The Pit Volume Totalizer (PVT)

measures loss or gain in drilling fluid
volume in the hole by means of a
flotation device attached to each mud
pit.

Figure 3. 57: PVT

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The mud pump stroke indicator
measures the rate of circulation by
recording the number of strokes being
produced by the mud pump each
minute.

Figure 3. 58: Pump Stroke Indicator

The mud flow meter measures the fluid

flow through a pipe from the well. An
increase in flow may indicate that a kick
is taking place.

Figure 3. 59: Mud Flow Meter

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The fluid is moved from the preparation area, down the drill stem, up the annulus to the
conditioning area on surface before being placed back into the mud pits for re-
circulation.

3. 6. 3. Circulation Equipment

The circulation equipment basically consists of:

1. Suction mud pit: A steel container used to hold and control drilling fluid.

2. Mixing hopper: A device used to rapidly add solid materials to the drilling fluid.

3. Suction line: A line which connects the mud pit and the mud pump.

4. Pump discharge line: A line which carries the drilling fluid to the standpipe.

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5. Standpipe: A steel pipe clamped vertically to the side of the derrick. It is fitted with
a goose-neck where the rotary hose is attached.

6. Rotary hose: A strong and flexible rubber hose that connects the standpipe to the
swivel.

7. Drill stem: This includes the swivel, kelly or top drive system, drill string and bit.

8. Annulus: The space between the drill stem and the wellbore wall.

9. Return line: This line carries the drilling fluid by gravity from the wellbore to the
conditioning area.

10. Setting tanks: These are steel containers used to hold the drilling fluid during
conditioning. They are also known as sand traps.

11. Conditioning area: This includes equipment used to clean up the drilling fluid after
it has been brought up from the wellbore.

12. Mud pumps: The mud pumps are the heart of the circulating system, providing
power to move the fluid at the required pressure and volume. A basic pump
consists of a piston reciprocating inside a cylinder. Pump liners fit inside the pump
cavity. Pump liners affect the pressure rating and flow rate from the pump. For a
given pump, a liner has the same outside diameter (OD), but different inside
diameter (ID). The smaller ID liner is usually used in the deeper part of the well
where lower flow rate is required, but at a much higher operating pressure.

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Mud pumps are powered by individual electric motors, by belt or chain drives off the
main drawworks, or by belt drives off separate gas or diesel engines. Generally, at
least one extra auxiliary pump is provided for rate and pressure control in case of
mechanical malfunction during critical periods. For the same reason, separate
auxiliary power is also often provided. Mud pumps are either duplex (two cylinders)
or triplex (three cylinders). Triplex pumps are by far the type most commonly used
on modern rigs.

Correct pump output is critical to many drilling operations, such as bit hydraulics and
kick control, where an error in pump output can cause either an underbalance or
overbalance during circulation of kill-weight mud from surface to bit. Pump output
can be accurately determined by pump tests completed at expected operating
pressures. Regular tests are necessary to ensure accurate pump output values.
Worn liners, swabs, and ineffective valves may produce continuous changes in pump
output. Theoretical pump output at 100% efficiency can be determined

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mathematically by relating the cylinder volume to the displacement volume as
follows:

Displacement volume, bbl = (0.000081)  ID² x L

Where,
ID = Pump Liner Inside Diameter (inches)
L = Length of Pump Stroke (inches)

Liner

Piston Rod
Piston

Figure 3. 60: Triplex Pump, Pump Liner and Piston

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Triplex pumps are generally single-acting with three cylinders (a few triplex pumps
are double-acting). A single-acting pump puts pressure on only one face of the
piston, i.e. it pumps fluid on the forward stroke. For a double-acting pump, it pumps
fluid on both forward and backward strokes. Triplex pumps are much lighter than
duplex, double-acting pumps for specific power ratings; yet they produce more
power because they operate at higher speeds. The equation for triplex, single-acting
pump output at 100% volumetric efficiency is:
Displacement volume, bbl = 3 x (0.000081)  ID² x L
After pump output has been accurately measured, the pump output volumetric
efficiency can be determined by

ID² x L x EFF
Volumetric Pump Output =
411

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Where, 6
EFF = Pump Volumetric Efficiency (%)

For example, for a single-acting triplex pump with a stroke length of 12” and liner
diameter of 6”, and assuming 95% of pump volumetric efficiency, the Volumetric
Pump Output is 0.09971 bbl/stroke.

3. 6. 4. Conditioning Equipment

The amount and type of formation solids in the drilling fluid affect the entire circulating
system. Therefore, the effective use of the conditioning equipment will significantly
reduce the mud pump wear, and the amount of additives or chemicals needed to treat
the drilling fluid.

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Desilter
Shale Shaker
Desander

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Figure 3. 61: Conditioning Equipment

3. 6. 4. 1. Solids Control Equipment

Shale Shaker:

Figure 3. 62: Shale Shaker

The drilling fluid comes directly to the shale shaker from the wellbore. Its primary
function is to remove larger cuttings and broken formation pieces from the drilling fluid.
This is done by moving the drilling fluid over vibrating screens that separate the
unwanted cuttings.

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Desander:
Lighter particles
Mud mixture exit here
enters here.

Heavier particles
exit here

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Figure 3. 63: Desander
The desander consists of a number of cone-shaped cylinders that remove smaller solid
particles that pass through the shale shaker screens. The drilling fluid is forced through
the cylinder under pressure with the heavier particles being removed and discharged
through the bottom by centrifugal force.

Desilter:

The desilter is similar to the desander in operation and function except that the desilter
can remove very minute formation particles from the drilling fluid.

Figure 3. 64: Desilter

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3. 6. 4. 2. Gas Separator Equipment

Vacuum Degasser:

Figure 3. 65: Vacuum Degasser

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Its function is to remove gases from the drilling fluid because gases:
1. Reduce density of the drilling fluid.
2. Reduce pump efficiency.
3. Decrease hydrostatic pressure in the well.
4. Increase drilling fluid volume.
Mud Gas Separator:

Figure 3. 66: Mud Gas Separator

It is a container that is attached to the choke manifold by high-pressure lines. Its
primary functions are to:

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1. Eliminate larger quantities of free gases entrained in the drilling fluid.

2. Save any usable fluid by returning it to the degasser.
3. Pipe any flammable and/or poisonous gases to a safe distance away from the rig.

3. 6. 5. Capacity and Volume

3. 6. 5. 1. Annular Capacity

The annulus is the space between drill string and wellbore.

Annulus

Drill String (d)

Wellbore (D) d D

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Figure 3. 67: Annular

D² - d²
Annular Capacity (bbl/ft) =
1029.4

3. 6. 5. 2. Hole Volume

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Drill Pipe

ID of drill pipe = d1
OD of drill pipe = D1
Length of drill pipe = l1

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Drill Collar
ID of drill collar = d2
OD of drill collar = D2
Length of drill collar = l2

Hole Size = D3

Figure 3. 68: Drill String Volumes

A = Drill pipe inside volume (bbls) = l1 x d1² / 1029.4

B = Drill collar inside volume (bbls) = l2 x d2² / 1029.4
C = Annular volume around drill collar (bbls) = l2 x (D3² – D2²) / 1029.4
D = Annular volume around drill pipe (bbls) = l1 x (D3² – D1²) / 1029.4
Total volume of mud in the well (bbls) = A + B + C + D

3. 6. 6. Slug Calculations

In drilling operations, before hoisting the drill stem out of the hole, it is desirable to
pump in to the top of the drill stem a certain quantity of very heavy mud. The heavy
mud will cause the level of the fluid in the drill stem to fall as the drill stem is hoisted.
Thus, when a stand of the drill stem has been unscrewed, the fluid will have been

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evacuated from it. This prevents the crew members and tools from being covered with
drilling fluid when connections are broken out.

Shown below is a way to calculate the adequate volume of slug necessary to have
certain amount of dry pipe without losing the hydrostatic pressure due to the “U” tube
effect:

Empty PIpe

Slug

H SlUG

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H MUD

Figure 3. 69: Slug

Height, H MUD = TVD – Empty Pipe - H SLUG

Hydrostatic Pressure, PH = P SLUG + P MUD

Or, PH = G SLUG x H SLUG + G MUD x H MUD , where G refers to the fluid pressure gradient.

Substituting H Mud into the equation,

PH = G SLUG x H SLUG + G MUD x (TVD – Empty Pipe – H SLUG )

Therefore,
PH - G MUD x (TVD – Empty Pipe)
H SLUG =
G SLUG – G MUD

Slug Volume = H SLUG x Drill Pipe Capacity

3. 7. Blowout Prevention (BOP) System Overview

A blowout is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluid (oil, gas or water) under high
pressure from a subsurface formation to the surface. The occurrence of a blowout is a
drilling disaster. Lives may be endangered, and severe damage may occur to the rig and
the surrounding environment. A blowout usually begins as a kick which is an intrusion
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of any high-pressure subsurface formation fluid into the wellbore. If the crew does not
handle it immediately and correctly, this intrusion may lead to a blowout.

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Figure 3. 70: Blowout
In order to stop a kick from becoming a blowout, the blowout prevention (BOP) system
is used. The BOP system has two major functions:
1. To seal off the wellbore when a kick occurs.
2. To maintain sufficient back pressure in the wellbore to prevent further intrusion of
formation fluids while steps are being taken to restore the well to a balanced /
overbalanced condition.

Controlling formation fluid intrusion:

If the intrusion of formation fluid is minor, it can be handled by directing the circulation
of drilling fluid through the conditioning equipment, which will assist in expelling the
entrained gases more rapidly. If the intrusion of formation fluid is severe, the BOP is
activated. This action is called Shutting In the well. The choke manifold is used to
control the back pressure when a kick occurs by limiting the escape of fluid from the
wellbore, as well as preventing any further intrusion. Once the intrusion is stopped,
heavy drilling fluid is pumped into the well, thus preventing any further intrusion, and
regaining control over the wellbore.

Blowout prevention and control:

The best prevention against possible blowout is the use of drilling fluid that is properly
weighed and has the correct density so that sufficient hydrostatic pressure is exerted
against the wellbore walls. This prevents any formation fluids from entering (fluid
intrusion) the wellbore.

Kick:
When the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the wellbore becomes less than the
formation pressure, formation fluid enters the wellbore and begins to rise to the

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surface. This is called a kick. There are a number of observable warning signs when a
kick occurs:
• An unexplained increase occurs in the drilling rate of penetration (drilling break),
and decrease in circulating pressure.
• The mud flow meter shows an unexplained increase in the return flow of drilling
fluid from the wellbore.
• The mud Pit Volume Totalizer (PVT) indicates rapid rise in pit volume.
All of the above are indicators of formation fluid intrusion into the wellbore. If left
uncontrolled, a blowout will occur.

3. 7. 1. Major Components

The BOP system on a rotary drilling rig is a pressure control system designed specifically
to control a kick. The system consists of four major components:
1. The blowout preventer (BOP) stack

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2. The accumulator unit
3. The choke manifold
4. The kill line

Figure 3. 71: BOP System

BOP is rated by API as 3M (3000 psi), 5M, 10M and 15M. For HPHT, BOP is either 15M
or 20M. All BOP equipment must be rated to the highest pressure to be expected at the
well during a kick or during controlled testing and production.

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3. 7. 2. BOP Stack
For a surface blowout preventer (BOP)
stack, it is located at the casing or
wellhead directly under the rotary table.

The BOP stack is an assembly of special

devices that may include:
- Annular preventer Annular
Preventer
- Pipe ram preventer
- Drilling spool
- Blind / shear ram preventer
- Variable bore ram preventer
- Casing head housing

The BOP stack can be assembled in any

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number of arrangements and it is usually
dictated by the potential problems that
are anticipated at a particular drilling
site.
Figure 3. 72: BOP Stack

3. 7. 2. 1. Annular Preventer

Figure 3. 73: Annular Preventer

The annular preventer is located at the top of the BOP stack assembly. It contains a
steel-reinforced rubber packing element that closes to seal on drill pipe, drill collar, kelly
or open hole. The annular preventer employs a ring of reinforced synthetic rubber as a
packing unit that surrounds the wellbore to effect a shut-off. In the full-open position,

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the inner diameter of the packing unit initially equals the diameter of the annular
preventer bore. The annular preventer has the ability to exert pressure shut-off on any
shape or diameter that might be in the hole, and even the open hole itself (though this
is not encouraged). They can exert a shut-off on square or hexagonal kelly, and permit
slow rotation as well as vertical movement of the drill pipe while under pressure.

3. 7. 2. 2. Ram Preventer

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Figure 3. 74: Ram Preventer (Cameron Type-U)

Figure 3. 75: Exploded View of a Ram Preventer

1 Bonnet Seals 7 Ram Assembly 13 Operating Piston
2 Bonnet 8 Operating Cylinder 14
3 Fluid Port 9 Locking Screw Housing 15 Ram Change Piston
4 Ram Assembly 10 Locking Screw 16 Ram change Cylinder
5 Seal rings 11 Bonnet Bolt 17 Intermediate Flange
6 Bottom Flange 12 Pad Eye 18 Weep Hole

The ram preventer closes the annular space outside a string of drill pipe in a well by
moving the rams from a retracted position (clear of the bore) into a position where they
close around the pipe. Rams operate in pairs and seal the space below them when they
are closed. Pipe rams will have openings that match the diameter of the pipe for which
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they are designed. The majority of ram preventers close only on specific sizes of pipe,
tubing, and casing or on an open hole. They are designated as follows.
1. Pipe rams which close only on pipe of sizes which they match.
2. Variable rams which close only on pipe of a range of sizes for which they match.
3. Shear rams which cut the drill pipe and seal the resulting open hole.
4. Blind rams which close only on an open hole.
Upper Shear Ram Top Seal

Blade

Side Packer

Lower Shear Ram

assembly

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Face Seal

Figure 3. 76: Shear Ram Assembly

Top Seal

Packer

Body
Figure 3. 77: Variable Ram Assembly

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Schlumberger Private
Figure 3. 78: Conventional Pipe Rams

3. 7. 2. 3. Drilling Spool

A drilling spool is a spacer between the preventers. They provide hook-ups for the
choke line and kill line.

3. 7. 2. 4. Wellhead

The wellhead or casing head is an attachment at the top of the casing on which the BOP
stack is engaged. A wear bushing (sleeve) is placed across the wellhead connection to
prevent damage while drilling and tripping with the drill pipe and downhole equipment.

3. 7. 3. Choke Manifold

The choke manifold is an assembly of high pressure flanged pipe fittings with several
lateral outlets controlled by manual valve and/or remote operated valve (controlled
from a choke panel on the rig floor). It is attached to the BOP stack by a high pressure
line called the choke line. When activated, the choke manifold assists in maintaining
sufficient back pressure in the wellbore to prevent any further formation fluid intrusion.

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The drilling fluid can then be diverted from the BOP stack to a series of valves which
restrict the flow and direct it to the pits / mud-gas separator.

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Figure 3. 79: Choke Manifold
3. 7. 4. Kill Line

The kill line is attached to the blowout preventer stack directly opposite the choke line.
Heavy weight drilling fluid is pumped into the wellbore until balance is restored or if
losses occur, fluid is being pumped to keep the hole full.

3. 7. 5. Accumulator

The two main functions of an accumulator unit are to store hydraulic fluid under
pressure and to operate of all BOP functions. The reason for having stored pressure is
that, in case of a major incident with loss of power supplies on the rig, the well can still
be secured by operating the required BOP function. The unit can be activated from a
remote panel on the rig floor or from the accumulator on the unit itself in case the crew
must evacuate the rig floor.

The power supply for the accumulator unit is:

Electrical:
A triplex pump with a micro switch (starts at 2950 psi and cuts out at 3000 psi)
Air:
Two air pumps powered by rig air pressure (120 psi)

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The triplex and air pump suction lines are connected to the reservoir tank which is filled
with a light hydraulic oil or a mixture of fresh water with some kind of anti-freeze / anti-
corrosion fluid. The pumps are used for accumulator charging.

When a function is operated, the hydraulic fluid will pass through a regulator which
reduces the pressure to 1500 psi into the manifold to operate the Rams and HCR valves
only. The hydraulic fluid to operate the annular preventer will be provided through a
separate line with a regulator set at the normal operating range of 600 psi to 1200 psi.
The annular preventer can be operated at pressure between 600 psi and up to a
maximum of 1500 psi, depending on the size and type of tubular in the wellbore and the
condition of the packing element.

A bypass valve is located on the manifold line. In normal operating condition, the valve
is at the low pressure (1500 psi) position. If the use of the shear rams is required, the
lever can be moved to the high pressure position (3000 psi). This allows full

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accumulator pressure to bypass the regulator and energizes the manifold up to 3000 psi
(maximum operating pressure).

3. 7. 5. 1. Accumulator Bottle

The part of the accumulator which stores hydraulic fluid under pressure is the
accumulator bottles. A bank of these bottles store pressure at 3000 psi (accumulator
pressure). Each bottle has a 10-gallon capacity and consists of a shell, a bladder
assembly and a fluid port assembly. The bottle is pre-charged with 1000 psi of nitrogen.

Figure 3. 80: Accumulator Bottle

Shell
The shell of a bladder accumulator is manufactured from a homogeneous, seamless
tubing with one or both ends formed hemispherically by either spinning or hammering
operation. Strict heat treatment and stress relieving is performed on all shells after the
forging operation to ensure compliance with the required mechanical properties.

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Bladder
Bladders are made from the most advanced elastomers capable of meeting exceptional
stresses found in aeronautics and aerospace: low temperature of –45 OF and high
temperature up to 400 OF.

Fluid Port Assembly

The fluid port assembly incorporates a poppet valve which prevents the extrusion of the
Bladder. Special care is taken in the design to prevent turbulent flow, pressure drop,
and potential pre-closure of the poppet valve. A heavy duty spring prevents the pre-
closure of the poppet valve.

3. 7. 5. 2. Accumulator Sizing

Accumulator volume of the BOP systems should be sized to keep a remaining stored
accumulator pressure of 1380 kPa (200 psi) or more above the minimum recommended

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precharge pressure after conducting the following operations (with pumps inoperative).

1. To close from a full open position at zero wellbore pressure, one (1) annular
preventer and all ram preventers in the BOP stack.
2. Open the valve(s) of one side outlet on the BOP stack.
If more than one annular preventer is present, the larger closing volume requirement
shall be used for sizing purposes.

For surface installations, the BOP control system should be capable of closing each ram
BOP within 30 seconds. Closing time should not exceed 30 seconds for annular BOP
smaller than 18-3/4” nominal bore and 45 seconds for annular BOP of 18-3/4” nominal
bore and larger. Response time for choke and kill valves (either open or close) should
not exceed the minimum observed ram closing time.

This operation can be performed, for inspection purposes, at the beginning of each well
with all power supplies switched off as an efficiency test. The time taken and fluid
volume used for each function should be recorded.

To satisfy the requirements above, it is important to know how much useable hydraulic
liquid can be obtained from a bottle at a given pressure. Once that is known, the
number of bottles can then be determined so that sufficient volume can be provided to
operate the BOP functions in the event of a total power supply loss. The calculations for
the volume of useable hydraulic liquid are shown below.

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Volume at Minimum Operating

Accumulator Pressure of 200 psi
Pre-Charge Operating above Pre-Charge
Pressure Pressure

Pre-Charge Operating Used

Pressure, P (psi) 1000 (1) 3000 (4) 1200 (7)
Gas Volume, V 10 (2) 3.33 (5) 8.33 (8)

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(gal)
PxV 10000 10000 10000
Liquid Volume 0 (3) 6.67 (6) 1.67 (9)
(gal)

(1) The accumulator bottle is pre-charged with nitrogen at 1000 psi.

(2) The capacity of the accumulator bottle is 10 gallons.
(3) There is no hydraulic liquid in a pre-charged accumulator bottle.
(4) The operating pressure of the accumulator bottle is 3000 psi.
(5) By using Boyle’s Law, ( P1 V1 )PRE-CHARGE = ( P2 V2 )OPERATING
1000 x 10 = 3000 x V2
V2 = 3.33 gallons of nitrogen
(6) Volume of Liquid = Bottle Capacity – Volume of Gas = 10 – 3.33 = 6.67 gallons
(7) After performing the necessary BOP functions, the accumulator pressure must be (at

least) 200 psi above the minimum recommended pre-charged pressure.

Therefore, 1000 + 200 = 1200 psi.
(8)
By using Boyle’s Law, ( P2 V2 )OPERATING = ( P3 V3 )USED
3000 x 3.33 = 1200 x V3
V3 = 8.33 gallons of nitrogen
(9) Volume of Liquid = Bottle Capacity – Volume of Gas = 10 – 8.33 = 1.67 gallons

Therefore, the useable volume of hydraulic liquid is 6.67 – 1.67 = 5.00 gals.

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3. 7. 5. 3. Accumulator Parts

A typical list of accumulator parts is given below:

1. Customer Air Supply:

Normal air supply is at 125 psi. Higher air pressure may require an air regulator.
2. Air Lubricator:
Located on the air inlet to the air operated pumps.
4. Bypass Valve:
To automatic hydro-pneumatic switch. When pressure higher than the normal 3000
psi is required, open this valve. Otherwise, keep it closed at all other times.
5. Automatic Hydro-Pneumatic Pressure Switch:
Pressure switch is set at 2900 psi cut-out when air and electric pumps are used; or
3,000 psi cut-out for air pumps alone. Adjustable spring tension control.
6. Air Shut-Off Valves:

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Manually operated to open or close the air supply to the air operated hydraulic
pumps.
7. Air Operated Hydraulic Pumps:
Normal operating air pressure is 125 psi.
8. Suction Shut-Off Valve:
Manually operated. Keep normally open. One for each air operated hydraulic pump
suction line.
9. Suction Strainer:
One for each operated hydraulic pump suction line. Has removable screens.
10. Check Valve:
One for each air operated hydraulic pump delivery line.
11. Electric Motor Driven Triplex Pump Assembly
12. Automatic Hydro-Electric Pressure switch:
Pressure switch is set at 3000 psi cut-out and 250 psi cut-in differential. Adjustable.
13. Electric Motor Starter (Automatic):
Automatically starts or stops the electric motor driving the triplex pump. Works in
conjunction with the automatic hydroelectric pressure switch and has a manual
overriding on-off switch.
14. Suction Shut-Off Valve:
Manually operated. Normally open. Located in the suction line of the triplex pump.
15. Suction Strainer:
Located in the suction line of the triplex pump.
16. Check Valve:
Located in the delivery line of the triplex pump.
17. Accumulator Shut-Off Valve:
Manually operated. Normally in open position when the unit is in operation. Closed
when testing or skidding rig or when applying pressure over 3000 psi to open side of
ram preventers.

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18. Accumulator:
Pre-charged with nitrogen to 1000 psi +/- 10%. Check nitrogen pre-charge in
accumulator system every 30 days.
19. Accumulator Relief Valve:
Valve set to relieve at 3000 psi.
20. Fluid Strainer:
Located on the inlet side of the pressure reducing and regulating valves.
21. Pressure Reducing and Regulating Valve:
Manually operated. Adjust to the required continuous operating pressure of ram
type BOP.
22. Main Valve Header:
5000 psi working pressure. 2” all welded.
22. 4-Way Valves:
With air cylinder operators for remote operation from the control panels. Keep in

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standard operating mode (Open or Close), and never in the Block position.
23. Bypass Reducing and Regulating Valve:
With air-operated actuator for remote operation from the control panel. In the
Close position, it puts regulated pressure on the Main Valve Header (21). In the
Open position, it puts full pump pressure on the header. Keep in Close position
unless 3000 psi (or more) is required on (shear) ram type BOP.
24. Manifold Relief Valve:
Valve set to relieve at 5000 psi.
25. Hydraulic Bleeder Valve:
Manually operated. Normally closed. This valve should be kept open when pre-
charging the accumulator bottles.
26. Panel – Unit Selector:
Manual 3-way valve. Used to apply pilot air pressure to the air operated pressure
reducing and regulating valve, either from the air regulator on the unit or from the
air regulator on the remote control panel.
27. Pressure Reducing and regulating Valve – Air Operated
Reduces the accumulator pressure to the required annular BOP operating pressure.
Pressure can be varied for stripping operations. Maximum recommended operating
pressure of the annular preventer should not be exceeded.
28. Accumulator Gauge.
29. Manifold Pressure Gauge.
30. Annular Preventer Pressure Gauge.
31. Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter for Accumulator Pressure.
32. Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter for Manifold Pressure.
33. Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter for Annular Preventer Pressure.
34. Air Filter:
Located on the supply line to the air regulators.
35. Air Regulator for Pressure Reducing and Regulating Valve – Air Operated.

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36. Air Regulator for Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter 933) for Annular Pressure.
37. Air Regulator for Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter (31) for Accumulator Pressure.
38. Air Regulator for Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter 932) for Manifold Pressure.
Air regulator controls for pneumatic transmitter normally set at 15 psi. Increase or
decrease air pressure to calibrate panel gauge to hydraulic pressure gauge on unit.
39. Air Junction Box:
To connect the air lines on the unit to the air lines coming from the remote control
panel through air cable.
40. Rig Test Check Valve.
41. Hydraulic Fluid Fill Port.
42. Inspection Plug Port.
43. Rig Test Outlet Isolator Valve.
High pressure. Manually operated. Close when rig testing. Open when test is
complete.
44. Rig Test Relief Valve:

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Valve set to relieve at 6500 psi.
45. Rig Test Pressure Gauge
46. (a) Rig Skid Outlet
46. (b) Valve Header Isolator Valves
Manually operated. Close valve header isolator valve and open rig skid isolator valve
when skidding the rig. Open valve header isolator valve and close rig skid isolator
during normal drilling operations.
47. Rig Skid Relief Valve:
Valve set to relieve at 2,500 psi
48. Rig Skid Pressure Gauge.
49. Accumulator Bank Isolator Valves:
Manually operated. Normally open.
50. Rig Skid Outlet:
Customer’s connection.
51. Rig Skid Outlet:
Customer’s connection.
52. Electric Power:
Customer’s connection.
53. Rig Test Outlet:
Customer’s connection.

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Schlumberger Private

Figure 3. 81: Typical BOP Accumulator Parts

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3. 8. Chapter Summary

1. A rotary drilling rig has 5 major equipment systems, i.e. Power System, Rotating
System, Hoisting System, Circulating System, and Blowout Prevention System.

2. The Power System provides the energy required by other systems to perform their
respective operations. Internal combustion engines, fuelled by diesel, are the most
common source of power. The power can be distributed via mechanical
transmission or electrical transmission.

3. The Rotary System consists of the Rotary Table or Top Drive System, Drill Stem, and
Bit. The drill stem and bit are rotated by the rotary table system which includes the
rotary table, master bushing and kelly bushing. On modern rigs, the Top Drive
System replaces the rotary table system to rotate the drill stem.

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4. The drill stem consists of the (kelly), saver sub, drill string (drill pipe, heavy weight
drill pipe, and drill collars) and bit. Drill stem auxiliary components include lifting
sub / head, bit sub, cross-over sub, stabilizer, roller reamer, jar, accelerator, shock
sub, hole opener, under-reamer, etc. The weight of the drill string in a well with
mud of certain density is its buoyed weight. The neutral point of bending can be
used to determine the number of drill collars needed to provide the required Weight
On Bit.

5. The Hoisting System consists of the Supporting Structures and Hoisting Equipment.
The Supporting Structure includes the substructure and drilling tower (derrick or
mast). The Hoisting Equipment, on the other hand, includes the drawworks, crown
block, traveling block, hook, elevator, and drilling line. The drilling line, or wire rope,
needs to undergo a Slip and Cut program based on ton-mile calculation.

6. The Circulating System consists of the Drilling Fluid, Mud Preparation Area,
Circulating Equipment, and Condition Area. The mud weight (density) and viscosity
are the two major mud properties which need to be controlled and monitored
constantly. The mud pumps move the drilling fluid in the circulating system at the
required pressure and flow rate. Mud is conditioned by the shale shaker, desander,
desilter, and gas separator equipment. A slug is normally pumped into the drill
string to cause the fluid level in it to fall (but still maintain constant hydrostatic
pressure) before hoisting the drill stem so that dry pipe is pulled out of hole.

7. The Blowout Prevention System consists of BOP stack, accumulator unit, choke
manifold and kill line. The BOP stack is an assembly of annular preventer, ram
preventers (pipe, blind/shear, variable), drilling spool and casing head housing. The
accumulator stores hydraulic fluid under pressure to operate BOP functions in case

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of rig power loss. The choke manifold is an arrangement of valves, fittings, lines and
chokes which provide several flow routes to control the flow of mud, gas and oil
from the annulus during a kick. The kill line is a high-pressure line leading from the
mud pumps / cement unit to the drilling spool, and it allows kill weight mud to be
pumped into the well via the drill string to halt further influx into the wellbore.

3. 9. Exercises

1. Basic Drill String Design calculations

Well #: IDPT
Hole Size 8 ½”
Depth: 11004 feet
Drill Collars: 6 ½” OD, 2 ¼” ID, 950 feet

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Drill Pipe: 5”, 19.5 ppf, Grade G105, New
Block Weight: 20000 lbs
Mud Weight: 12.5 ppg

USE DRILLING DATA HAND BOOK IF REQUIRED

Calculate the following:

I. The Total Buoyed weight of the drill string ____________________ lbs

II. What will the weight indicator show ________________________lbs

III. With weight on bit of 30000 lbs where is the neutral point

_________ft

Answers:
I. The weight of 6-1/2” OD / 2-1/4” ID drill collar is 99.4 ppf
Drill collar weight in air = 950 ft x 99.4 ppf = 94430 lbs.
The length of 5” drill pipe is 11004 – 950 = 10054 ft
Approximate weight for DP 5” 19.5 ppf, Grade G105: 21.87 ppf
Drill pipe weight in air = 10054 ft x 21.87 ppf = 219881 lbs.
Drill string weight in air = 94430 + 219881 = 314311 lbs.
Buoyancy factor, BF = (65.44 – 12.5)/65.44 = 0.8090
 The buoyed weight of drill string = 314311 x 0.8090 = 254 klbs

II. Hookload = Block Weight + Buoyed Weight of Drill String

= 20 klbs + 254 klbs = 274 klbs
2. The pull on the wire rope attached to the tong in each case is 2200 lbs.
III. Neutral point (ft) = WOB (lbs) / (Buoyed Weight per Foot of 129
Page DC)
= 30000 / (99.4 x 0.8090) = 373 feet
IPM – Drilling Engineering Manual - IDPT

The length of the arm of the tong is 3.5 feet.

Fill in the correct values in the boxes below

CASE 1 CASE 2

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CASE 3 CASE 4

PULL ON SENSOR (lbs) TORQUE ON TUBULAR (ft-lbs)

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

CASE 4

Answers:
Case 1: 2200 lbs / 7700 ft-lbs
Case 2: 4400 lbs / 15400 ft-lbs
Case 3: 4400 lbs / 15400 ft-lbs
Case 4: 2200 lbs / 15400 ft-lbs

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3. How much slug is needed to obtain 300 feet of dry pipe?

Empty Pipe = 300 feet

Well TVD = 8400 feet
Slug Density = 13.0 ppg
Mud Density = 10.0 ppg
Drill Pipe: 5” OD, 19.5 ppf, G-105, New, NC50

Answer:

PH = 0.052 x 10.0 x 8400 = 4368 psi

H SLUG = 4368 – 0.052 x 10.0 x (8400 – 300)

0.052 x 13.0 – 0.052 x
H SLUG = 100010.0
feet

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Slug Volume = H SLUG x Drill Pipe Capacity
= 1000 ft x 0.017376 bbl/ft
= 17.376 bbls

4. Volume and stroke calculations:

Hole Size – 8 1/2”

Drill Collar – 6 ½” OD, 2 1/2” ID, 900 feet
Drill Pipe – 5”, 4 ¼” ID
Hole depth – 10100 feet
Casing Shoe –4165 feet
Casing Details – 9 5/8”, 53.5 ppf,
Pumps 11”stroke and liner size (diameter) 7”

What is the volume (bbls) of mud in this well? How many strokes are needed for
one complete bottoms-up (from the bit to surface via the annulus) if the pump
volumetric efficiency is 97%?

Answer:

Drill pipe inside volume = (10100 – 900) x 4.252 / 1029.4 = 161.43 bbls
Drill collar inside volume = 900 x 2.52 / 1029.4 = 5.46 bbls
Annular volume around drill collar in open hole = 900 x (8.5 2 – 6.52) / 1029.4 = 26.23
bbls
Annular volume around drill pipe in open hole
= (10100 – 900 – 4165) x (8.52 – 52) / 1029.4 = 231.11 bbls

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The inside diameter of 9-5/8” 53.5 ppf casing is 8.535”.

Annular volume around drill pipe in cased hole = 4165 x (8.535 2–52)/1029.4 = 193.59
bbls
Total volume of mud in the well = 617.82 bbls

Total volume of mud in the annulus = 450.93 bbls

Volumetric Pump Output = 72 x 11 x 97% / 4116 = 0.1270 bbl/stk
Total number of pump strokes for one complete bottoms-up = 3551 strokes.

5. A company policy says that “The accumulator volume of the BOP system should be
sized to keep a remaining stored accumulator pressure of 300 psi or more above
the minimum recommended pre-charge pressure after conducting the necessary
BOP functions with pumps inoperative. If the accumulator full working pressure is
3500 psi, and the pre-charge pressure is 1500 psi, how much useable volume (in

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gallons) is available in each 10-gallon accumulator bottle if the above conditions
are met?

Answer:

Pre-Charge Operating Used

Pressure, P (psi) 1500 3500 1800
Gas Volume, V (gal) 10 4.29 8.33
PxV 15000 15000 15000
Liquid Volume (gal) 0 5.71 1.67

Therefore, the useable volume of hydraulic liquid is 5.71 – 1.67 = 4.04 gals.

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