Chapter One

Introduction
1.1. What is a project?
Organizations perform work. Work generally could be classified into either operations or
projects, although in some cases both of them may overlap. Both operations and projects share
many characteristics in common like:
 People perform both the activities.
 Both are constrained by limited resources.
 Both are planned, executed, and controlled.
However, operations and projects differ primarily in their repeatability. Operations are ongoing
and repetitive whereas projects are temporary and unique.
A project is a unique endeavor to produce a set of deliverables within clearly specified time, cost
and quality constraints.
Some definitions:
“.....a complex effort to achieve a specific objective within a schedule and budget target, which
typically cuts across organizational lines, is unique and is usually not repetitive within the
organization.” (Cleland and King; cited -Institute of Management)
“..A human endeavor which creates change; is limited in time and scope; has mixed goals and
objectives; involves a variety of resources; and is unique.” (Anderson, Grude, Haug and Turner)
“… a set of proposals for the investment of resources into a clearly identified set of actions
(frequently in the public sector) that are expected to produce future benefits of a fairly specific
kind.”
The Project Management Institute (PMI) defines a project by its two key characteristics. All
projects are temporary and undertaken to create a product, service, or result that is unique
(PMBOK® Guide 2013, p. 2).
WB DEFINITION:
A project is a proposal for an investment to create, expand and/or develop certain facilities in
order to increase the production of goods and/or services in a community during a certain period
of time.
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Note that: Projects are the smaller and separate portions of programs. Each project has limited
scope and distinct directives concerning assignments and time. Each project will become the
responsibility of designated personnel who will be given specific resources and deadlines.
For many organizations, projects are a means to respond to requests that cannot be addressed
within the organization’s normal operational limits.
Projects are undertaken at all levels of the organization. They may involve a single person or
many thousands. Their duration ranges from a few weeks to a few years.
Projects may involve a single unit of one organization or may cross-organizational boundaries.
As projects are often implemented as a means of achieving an organization’s strategic plan they
are critical for the organizations growth. Examples of projects could include:
 Developing a new product or service.
 Effecting a change in structure, staffing, or style of an organization.
 Developing a new or modified information system.
 Implementing a new business procedure or process.

1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECT

(1) Objectives: A project has a set of objectives or a mission. Once the objectives are achieved
the project is treated as completed. Projects have specific of benefits that can be identified,
quantified and valued, either socially or monetarily/commercially/.

(2) Life cycle: A project has a life cycle. The life cycle consists of five stages i.e. conception
stage, definition stage, planning & organizing stage, implementation stage and commissioning
stage.
(3) Have a defined timescale and Location boundaries: Projects have a clearly specified start
and end date within which the deliverables must be produced to meet specified customer
requirement.
 Projects are conceptually bounded. The problem and specific objective (need) that
justify the project involves conceptual delimitations.
 Projects are geographically bounded. Projects exist in space and we say that projects
are geographically (locationally) bounded.

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  Projects are organizationally bounded. Projects require the establishment of a special
organization or the crossing of traditional organizational boundaries, meaning there
should be certain organizational unit responsible for project implementation.
 Projects are time bounded. One factor that makes projects bounded is the time (life
cycle) of a project. Projects have specific lifetime, with a specific start and end time in
which a clearly defined set of objectives are expected to be achieved.
(4) Uniqueness: Every project is unique and no two projects are similar. Setting up a cement
plant and construction of a highway are two different projects having unique features. They don’t
involve repetitive processes. Every project undertaken is different from the last, whereas
operational activities often involve undertaking repetitive (identical) process.
(5)Have an Approved budget: projects are allocated a level of financial expenditure within
which the deliverables must be produced to meet specified customer requirement.
(6) Have limited resources: At the start of a project an agreed amount of labor, equipment and
materials is allocated to the project. This has an implication on management of project
implementation. The more diverse the types of resources are mobilized the more complex will
the management be. The outcome of project and hence development endeavor is sensitive to the
management of each type of resources. Ill managed resource can contribute more to cost than to
benefit.
(7) Team Work: Project is a team work and it normally consists of diverse areas. There will be
personnel specialized in their respective areas and co-ordination among the diverse areas calls
for team work.

(8) Complexity: A project is a complex set of activities relating to diverse areas.

(9) Risk and uncertainty: Risk and uncertainty go hand in hand with project. A risk-free, it only
means that the element is not apparently visible on the surface and it will be hidden underneath.
Projects entail a level of uncertainty and therefore carry business risk. Uncertainty and risks is
inherent in any project. Achieving project objectives cannot be predicted in advance with
accuracy. The factors that make project risk are:

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  Significant and multiple types of scarce resources committed today expecting outcome
in the future;
 Benefits are expected to be generated in the future, which is less predictable;
 Capital investments are irreversible; therefore, perfect exit assumption of the perfect
competition model is refuted.
(10) Customer specific nature: A project is always customer specific. It is the customer who
decides upon the product to be produced or services to be offered and hence it is the
responsibility of any organization to go for projects/services that are suited to customer needs.
(11) Change: Changes occur throughout the life span of a project as a natural outcome of many
environmental factors. The changes may vary from minor changes, which may have very little
impact on the project, to major changes which may have a big impact or even may change the
very nature of the project. The purpose of a project, typically, is to improve an organization
through the implementation of business change.

(12) Optimality: A project is always aimed at optimum utilization of resources for the overall
development of the economy. (10) Sub-contracting: A high level of work in a project is done
through contractors. The more the complexity of the project, the more will be the extent of
contracting.

(13) Unity in diversity: A project is a complex set of thousands of varieties. The varieties are in
terms of technology, equipment and materials, machinery and people, work, culture and others.

1.3. Classifications of a Project

Projects are classified based on several criteria, including: ownership, source of finance,
and forces behind the projects.

1. Based on ownership:
a. Private sector- mostly projects undertaken by business enterprises.
b. Public sector- projects undertaken by national and local government bodies.
c. NGOs- development projects are most often undertaken by non-government and non-
for profit organizations.

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 2. Based on the Sources of Finance:
a. Government treasury- projects may be entirely financed by government budget as
per its priority. For instance, construction of regional airport.
b. Government treasury and external sources- most projects are financed by the joint
partnership of the government and donor groups. For example, a road project may be
financed 50% by the government and 50% by a foreign donor.
c. External sources of Finance- projects may be financed totally by parties other than
the government but established for the well being of the citizens and the ownership
may be for the government or the public.
3. Based on the forces Behind:
a. Demand driven/need driven- based on identified unsatisfied demand project can be
created or on unsatisfied basic needs like food, water and shelter.
b. Donor driven- the force behind the financing organization. Donors will have their
own say and influence the types of projects to be established.
c. Political Driven- Projects may be established in response to some political situation
such as for example because of national elections, projects by religious organizations.
4. Based on their nature:
a. Civil engineering, construction, petrochemical, mining, quarrying, projects far away
from the contractor’s home office, and involve special risk as well as problems of
organizational communication.
b. Manufacturing projects- conducted in a factory or other home based environment
and enable exercising on the spot management.
c. Research projects- established for pure research consuming large sum of money and
lasting over years resulting in dramatic profitable discovery or proving waste of
money.
d. Management projects- projects that require the employment of an external project
manager or managing contractor for issues such as relocating head quarters,
developing and introducing a new computer system, preparing for a trade exhibition,
producing a feasibility or other study report, restructuring the organization etc.

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 OTHER TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF PROJECTS

Personal projects: Industrial projects:

 obtain an MPA/MBA construct a building

 write a report provide a gas supply to an industrial estate
 plan a wedding build a motorway
 plant a garden design a new car
 build a house extension

Business projects: Public investment projects:

 develop a new course Education

 develop a computer system Health
 introduce a new product Waste disposal
 prepare an annual report Roads
 set up a new office Electricity

Telecommunication etc..

1.4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Some definitions:

According to the project management institute (2013), “Project management is the application of
knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements”.
PMI’s definition of project management does provide a good understanding of project
management, but it does not help us understand project success. For that, we must include the
client.

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Jack Meredith and Samuel Mantel (2006) discussed project management in terms of producing
project outcomes within the three objectives of cost, schedule, and specifications. Project
managers are then expected to develop and execute a project plan that meets cost, schedule, and
specification parameters. According to this view, project management is the application of
everything a project manager does to meet these parameters. This approach to defining project
management shares PMI’s focus on the project outcomes in terms of requirements.

Meredith and Mantel (2006) added a fourth aspect of project management—the expectations of
the client. Accordingly they defined project management as: “the application of knowledge,
skills, tools, and techniques to meet or exceed the expectations of the client”. This definition
focuses on delivering a product or service to the client that meets expectations rather than project
specifications.

According to Roger Atkinson (1999), The British Standard for project management 1996 defined
project management as: “The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the
motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the
specified cost, quality and performance”.

Atkinson(1999), further provided that, The UK Association of Project Management (APM)

defines project management as: “The planning, organization, monitoring and control of all
aspects of a project and the motivation of all involved to achieve the project objectives safely and
within agreed time, cost and performance criteria”. As per this definition, the project manager is
the single point of responsibility for achieving this.

Project Management is “a management environment that is created for the purpose of delivering
one or more business products according to a specified business case…a temporary organization
that is needed to produce a unique and pre-defined outcome or result at a pre-specified time
using pre-determined resources” (Prince2)

1.5. Importance of Project Management/Why We Manage A Project?

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The importance of Project Management is an important topic because all organizations, be they
small or large, at one time or other, are involved in implementing new undertakings. These
undertakings may be diverse, such as, the development of a new product or service; the
establishment of a new production line in a manufacturing enterprise; a public relations
promotion campaign; or a major building programme.

Faster, cheaper, and better has become the mantra of not only profit-making organizations
seeking to increase market share and profits but also non-profits and governmental organizations
seeking to increase their value to clients. Organizations are increasingly using projects to meet
these goals. Projects are goal directed and time framed, and when managed well, projects deliver
on time and within budget.

Advances in technology are driving the speed of innovation and the ability of organizations to
shorten the time needed to develop and deliver new products and services that increase an
organization’s competitive advantage. This drive to develop new and unique products or services
creates a perfect environment for the application of project management methodologies and
skills. The application of ICT and outsourcing nowadays are giving rise to different independent
projects.

Large development projects in developing and developed countries are going through large
development programmes which involve different projects. e.g MDGs, SDGs-Post 2015. Large, complex
projects need project management tools, systems, and processes. All of these are increasing the
importance of project management both as a function and as a subject alike.

1.6. Project, Plan and Program

Planning can be defined as a “continuous process that involves decisions or choices about
alternative ways of using available resources with the aim of achieving a particular goal or set
of goals at some time in the future.”
The rationale for planning is that it serves as a tool that enhances the effectiveness in mobilizing
resources and enables allocation of resources into priority areas of development. In this regard,
development planning can be regarded as an attempt to raise the rationality of decision-making.

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The hierarchical relationship among development plans, programs, tasks, and work packages is
depicted below:

Development Plans

Programs

Projects

Tasks

Work Packages

Figure: Hierarchical Relationships

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Program is a definite plan or scheme of any sequence of operations aimed at the attainment of
the planned objectives. This explanation assumes that program is a plan of activities with general
objectives that would be derived from the development plan. Examples of programs, Total
Quality Management program, workplace safety program, supplier development program etc

It is necessary to distinguish between projects and programs because there is sometimes a

tendency to use them interchangeably. A project refers to an investment activity where resources
are used to create capital assets, which produce benefits over time and has a beginning and an
end with specific objectives, while a program is an ongoing development effort (plan) involving
a number of projects. Programs may or may not necessarily be time bounded. Yet programs
cannot live forever, they have limited life cycle, which however, may or may not be explicitly
stated. So in effect in terms of time delimitation, there is only relative difference between
programs and projects. For instance, a health program may include a water project as well as
construction of a health center; both aimed at improving the health of a given community that
previously lacked easy access to these essential facilities.

Note that projects can stand alone without being part of certain program. So, one can visualize
that the linkage of policies, development plans, and projects. Projects, which are not linked with
others to form a program, are sometimes referred to as “stand alone” projects.

Development plans:

 Most forward looking (futuristic)

 Broad and require systematic thinking, preparation and appraisal
 Attempts to bring welfare in the society

Programs:

 Derived from development plans

 Exceptionally large with long term objectives
 Explores specific area with broader scope

Projects:

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  Derived from a program
 Unique investigative tool
 A development activity with specific objectives
 Funded by a program
 An implementation element (entity)

Tasks:

 Work elements under a project

 Specific approaches for doing things
 Set of activities comprising a project

Work packages:

 Sub elements of a given task (or undertaking)

 Something accomplished stage by stage
 Collection of work packages defines a given task

As it can be observed from the above framework, in general, the essence of development
planning is futuristic, i.e., it is most forward looking and involves systematic thought and
preparation. Virtually, every nation, be it developed or developing, should have a systematically
elaborated national plan to hasten economic growth and further a range of social objectives.
Therefore:

1. Projects provide an important means by which investment and other development

expenditures foreseen in plans can be clarified and realized. Sound development plans
require good projects, just as good projects require sound planning. The two are
interdependent.
2. A sound plan requires a great deal of knowledge about existing and potential projects.
Sound planning rests on the availability of a wide range of information about existing and
potential investments and their likely effects on growth and other national objectives.
Thus, plans require projects. Realistic planning involves knowing the amount that can be

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 spent on development activities each year and the resources that will be required for
particular kind of project.
3. Effective project preparation and analysis must be set in the framework of a broader
development plan. Projects are part of an overall development strategy and a broader
planning process.
4. The more elaborated the plans and policies of the governments are, the easier becomes
the work of the project planner. For example, the project planner will have to refer to
such plans and policies to see whether the project being considered fits well in the plan
and contributes most to the fundamental objectives of the government. These objectives
can include self-sustaining growth, promotion of employment, income distribution, etc.
5. As projects rightly called the “Cutting Edge” of development, they are powerful means
to achieve the development objectives; they are the crucial building blocks of a
development structure.
6. Projects aim mainly at increasing the production of goods and services, which are
fundamental components of people’s welfare, and the main objective of any development
effort is, of course, to advance social well-being.

Differences:

PROJECTS PROGRAMS

specific objectives General objectives

Specific project areas No specific project areas

Specific beneficiaries group No Specific beneficiaries group

Clearly determined and allocated funds No clear and detailed financial resource allocation

Specific lifetime No specific lifetime

Similarities:
Projects and programs have similar characteristics in a way that both are:
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 Having objectives;
 Requiring financial, human, material, etc inputs (or resources);
 Generating outputs, (goods/services), of value;
 Serving as instruments for the execution of development plans in order to boost the national
economy.

CHAPTER TWO
PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
2.1. Project Life Cycle and Its Phases

Project life cycle divides the sequence of operations of project in to different phases. Regardless
of scope or complexity, any project goes through a series of stages during its life. Project
activities must be grouped into phases to facilitate project manager and his team to plan and
organize various inputs effectively. It also helps in identifying deviations and thus helps in
decision making with regard to continuation or termination of the project.

Generally, there are four stages of project life cycle which are

2.7.1. Idea Generation (Concept Phase)

Anyone who is planning to invest starts searching everywhere for new ideas. One can start a new
project by defining its objectives, scope, purpose and deliverables to be produced. He will also
hire his project team, set up the project office and review the project, to gain approval to begin
the next phase. The basic processes of this initiation phase are:

 Project document: This is a statement describing the characteristics of the project

undertaken.
 Project feasibility document: This contains constraints and alternative solutions. The four
steps in the project feasibility study are:
 Problem description
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  Approach to be used
 Alternate generations for solving the problem
 Preliminary recommendations
 Project concept document: It will answer the following questions:
 What is to be done?
 How will it be done?
 Why is it to be done?
 Project charter: Project charter formally communicates the initiation of the project. It
consists of project scope, project authority and KSF (Key Success Factors).

During this phase, project team is responsible for the following activities:

• Conducting interviews with customers and stakeholders

• Conducting research for generating more necessary information.

• Preparing project feasibility document, project concept statement and project charter.

2.1.2. Project Planning Phase

Project planning phase follows the project initiation phase. Countless hours during the
succeeding phases can be saved with proper planning. The purpose of the project planning phase
is to:

 Determine project requirements

 Decide project cost and schedules
 Search for sources of all resources

The basic processes of the project planning phase are:

 Defining the scope: Define the scope of the project and its limitations.
 Preparing the work breakdown structure: Divide the whole project into smaller activities
 Role assignment: Assign jobs to individuals or group of individuals as predefined activities
or tasks.

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 Project scheduling: Determine optimum schedule of the project and show it on a Gantt
Chart.
 Fund allocation: Allocation of funds for individual activities

Other subsidiary processes in the planning stage are:

 Risk management planning: It includes identification of possible causes and effect of the
risks and trying to reduce the impact of risk.
 Procurement planning: Decisions regarding all products, services or resources needed to
accomplish the project.

In the planning stage, various steps are taken which includes:

 Final techno-economic feasibility of the project: This is the last chance for changing the
decision, as after this stage, it proves too closely to shut down the project or change the
project.
 Basic engineering and process design: The process is selected and basic engineering is
done. The documents with respect to equipment specification are prepared.
 Division of work/responsibilities: Different activities are allocated to individuals or groups.
 Identify potential vendors and subcontractors: No project is complete without the help of
outside expert agencies called subcontractors. The potential suppliers of various equipment,
civil construction agencies and similar agencies are identified and negotiated.
 Detailed engineering design: based on the designs of equipment supplier, detailed
engineering is performed. The final layout is prepared and the work schedule prepared.
 Final estimation of the cost of the project: The above steps lead to finalizing quite
accurate cost of the project. This is essential as the next step would involve arrangement of
funds.
 Decision of capital structure and means of finance: The final decision with respect to
financing the project is needed during the planning phase. It is a crucial decision generally
taken by core strategic group with the advice of finance managers.

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 Final schedule of implementation (next phase): The next phase will be implementation. A
proper schedule of implementation is essential to avoid confusions. The schedule of
implementation tells all the members of the team when a particular activity should start and
end. It will provide the milestones of every activity.

2.1.3. Implementation or Execution Phase

Project execution is characterized by the actual work on the tasks planned and project control
involves the comparison of the actual performance with the planned performance and taking
appropriate corrective action to get the desired output. During this phase, project team is
responsible for the following activities:

 The team members perform the tasks allocated in the earlier phase under the supervision
of the project manager and report to him.
 Project manager is responsible for performance measurement, which includes finding
variances with respect to cost, schedule and scope.
 Project manager is responsible for providing project status report to all key stakeholders.
He should specifically inform the deviation from the plan to the stakeholders. He should
also determine the root cause for the deviations and suggest the alternate actions to
encounter the deviation caused or expected. This helps stakeholders to decide the
corrective action to be taken.
 All project key stakeholders are responsible for the review of the variances.
 All project key stakeholders are responsible for taking necessary action of the variances
thus determined so as to complete the project within time and cost.

The basic process of the project execution can be:

 Execution of the project plan

 Handle the changes
 Project control

The subsidiary processes during project execution can be:

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  Quality control
 Performance monitoring
 Project administration
 Risk monitoring and control
 Scope and control
 Schedule and cost control
 Management of outside agencies (subcontractors)

The key activities during this phase of execution include:

 Award contracts to contractors, vendors, subcontractors: Final selection of suppliers of

various supplies of services (generally termed contractors) and physical equipment (generally
termed vendors).
 Procure equipment and services: After continuously monitoring the suppliers, the project
team has to procure the goods and services.
 Erection of equipment: The procured equipment needs to be placed on the designed place
after preparing the required foundation.
 Control and monitor project cost, schedule and scope: As majority of efforts, time and
cost are incurred during this phase, it is critical to monitor the project schedule and cost
during this phase.
 Motivation of project team: As this phase consumes maximum energy of the team
members, motivating them during this phase is critical to the success of the project.

2.1.4. Termination Phase (Clean-up Phase)

The last step performed to say good bye to a project is the termination phase. The termination of
a project is inevitable, but how it is terminated and when may have a profound and long lasting
impact on the organization and its employees.

In the end, all projects, both successful and unsuccessful, will have to be terminated. During the
termination phase, the project’s resources are redistributed, financial records are closed, and
project personnel are reassigned. The organization’s sensitivity to the concerns of the project

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team can have a lasting impact on their commitment and productivity. Lastly, a final report,
which discusses the project’s successes and shortcomings, is prepared for senior management.
This report can significantly influence how the organization manages projects in the future.

According to Meredith and Mantel (1995), there are three ways to terminate a project: extinction,
inclusion, or integration. Termination by extinction means the project is completed. For
example, the new project has been developed and given to the client, the building has been
completed and accepted by the purchaser, or the software has been installed and is running.

By contrast, termination by inclusion is a very different process. The complete project team and
its equipment are transferred to a new division. As one might expect this type of change places
significant additional stress on the day-to-day operations of the organization. Project managers
and team members must be sensitive to these stresses until the organization is able to settle into a
new and more stable routine.

The most common, but also the most complex, method of termination is by integration. The
project’s resources, personnel, and functions are absorbed as a part of the original organization.
The major problem associated with this termination process is the ability of the organization to
blend technological differences between the project and the organization. Past experience
appears to play a key role in successfully integrating terminated projects.

WHY DO PROJECTS FAIL?

Most large-scale programs or projects do not succeed, due to:

 Inadequate governance and poor planning

 Poor Organization and Project Management Practices
 Technical Problems
 Problems with Suppliers
 Insufficient Project Personnel Resources
 Ineffective Project Planning
 Poorly Defined or Missing Project Objectives
 Poor project and program management discipline
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  Lack of executive-level support
 Wrong team members
 Poor communication
 No measures for evaluating the success of the project
 No risk management
 Inability to manage change

Regarding the classification of the aspects for the purpose of project analysis, there are many
equally valid ways in which the project cycle may be divided and the identifiable stages may be
described. There are alternative models that deal with the project cycle. However, in this text,
and exclusively in this chapter, more emphasis will be given to the two basic Models that are
widely accepted as a model of project by institutions, analysts, and mostly dealt in academic
literatures. These are: “The Baum Cycle (also called the World Bank Project Cycle)” and
“The UNIDO Project Cycle”. In addition to these two, a third model developed by
Development projects Studies Authority in Ethiopia (called “The DEPSAs Model”), which
is more or less identical with the UNIDO cycle, will be briefly discussed.

2.2. World Bank’s Project Cycle

A project with the characteristic already outlined above typically run through at least several
separable stages of activities that can be thought of as constituting a definite sequence, which
some writers and institutions have called “a project cycle”. In this regard, the first basic model of
a project cycle developed by Warren. C. Baum in 1970 was by then adopted by the World Bank
as a project cycle. Initially, this model had recognized only four main stages in the project cycle,
namely:

 Identification
 Preparation
 Appraisal and Selection
 Implementation
Later in 1978, the author has added additional two stages called “Negotiation” and
“Evaluation”. In this version of the Baum model, negotiation comes after projects pass the

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appraisal process and become a candidate for realization. It is after appropriate negotiations that
projects become implementation entity. And then, projects that are implemented will be the
concern for evaluation, which usually closes the cycle as it gives rise to the identification of new
projects. This model, therefore, includes a total of six identifiable stages in the project cycle. The
World Bank accepted the amendment and hence, this new version has been in use since then.
Thus, each of Baum’s main stages is discussed briefly below:

1. Identification :
The first stage in the project cycle and in the planning process is to find potential projects. The
sources of projects may be one or more of the following:

 Some may be “resource based” and stem from the opportunity to make profitable use of
available resources.
 Some projects may be “market based” arising from an identified demand in home or
overseas markets.
 Others may be “need-based” where the purpose is to try to make available to all people
in an area of minimal amounts of certain basic material requirements and services.
 Well-informed “technical specialists” and “local leaders” are also common sources of
projects. Technical specialists could identify many areas where they feel new investments
might be profitable, while local leaders may have suggestions about where investments
might be carried out.
 Ideas for new projects also come from “proposals to extend and/or expand existing
programs and projects” as well as from identifying technological alternatives.
In general, most projects start as an elementary idea. Eventually, some simple ideas are
elaborated into a form to which the title “project” can be formally applied.

2. Preparation:
Once projects have been identified, there begins a process of progressively more detailed
preparation and analysis of project plans. At this stage, the project is being seriously considered
as a definite investment action. Project preparation,(also called project formulation), involves
pre-feasibility and feasibility studies and covers the establishment of commercial, technical,

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institutional, financial, and socio-economic feasibility. Decisions have to be made on the scope
of the project, location and site, soil and hydrological requirements, project size (farm or factory
size), etc.

Resource based investigations are undertaken and alternative forms of projects are explored.
Complete technical specifications of distinct proposals accompanied by full details of financial
and economic costs and benefits are the outcome of the project preparation stage. The project
now exists as a set of tangible proposals. Practically, project design and formulation is an area in
which local and international consultants are very active, especially for big projects that cover
large areas and have big budgets.

3. Appraisal and Selection:

After a project has been prepared, it is generally appropriate for a critical review or to conduct an
independent appraisal. This provides an opportunity to re-examine every aspect of the project
plan and determine whether the proposal is appropriate and sound or not before large sums are
committed. Generally, internal government staffs only are used for this work and not consultants
and projects are appraised both in the field and at the desk level. Appraisals should cover at least
seven aspects of a project, each of which must have been given special consideration during the
project preparation phase:

a. Technical: here the appraisers concentrate in verifying whether what is proposed will
work in the way suggested or not.
b. Financial: the appraisers try to see if the requirements of money needed by the project
have been calculated properly, their sources are all identified, and reasonable plans for
their repayment are made where necessary.
c. Commercial: the way the necessary inputs for the project are conceived to be supplied is
examined and the arrangements for the disposal of the products are verified.

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 d. Incentive: the appraisers see to it whether things are arranged in such a way that all those
whose participation is required will find it in their interest to take part in the project, at
least to the extent envisaged in the plan.
e. Economic: the appraisers here try to see whether what is proposed is good from the
viewpoint of the national economic development interest, all project effects (positive as
well as negative) are taken into account, and check if all are correctly valued.
f. Managerial: this aspect of the appraisal examines if the capacity exists for operating the
project and see if those responsible ones can operate it satisfactorily. Moreover, it tries to
see if the responsible are given sufficient power and scope to do what is required.
g. Organizational: the appraisers examine the project it is organized internally and
externally into units, contract, policy, institution, etc so as to allow the proposals to be
carried out properly and to allow for change as the project develops.
The appraisal process builds on the project plan but may involve new information if the appraisal
team feels that some of the data used at preparation or some assumptions are faulty. The
implications of the project on the society and the environment are also more thoroughly
investigated and documented. Similarly, the technical design, financial measures, commercial
aspects, incentives, and economic parameters are thoroughly scrutinized. These issues are the
subjects of specialized appraisal report. On the basis of an appraisal report, decisions are made
about whether to go ahead with the project or not. The appraisal may also change the project plan
or develop a new plan, that is, comment made at the appraisal stage frequently give rise to
alternations in the project plan (project appraisal).

After appraisal, the viable project proposals are chosen for implementation on the basis of the
priorities of the stakeholders and the available resources. For instance, Treasury may impose a
ceiling on the ministries with a big portfolio of investments, calling for prioritization of the core
and lower priority projects. In practice, there can be quite a sequence of project selection
decisions. Following appraisal, some projects may be discarded. If the project involves loan
finance, the lender will almost certainly wish to carry out its own appraisal before completing
negotiations with the borrower.

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 4. Negotiation and Financing :
Once the project to be implemented is agreed on, for donor funded projects, discussions are held
on funding and associated aspects of funding such as conditions for grants, repayment period,
interest rates on loans, flow of funds, contributions from stakeholders, and whether there is co-
financing or not. This culminates into an “Agreement Document” for the project, which binds
all the parties involved during implementation of the project.

5. Implementation:
The objective of any effort in project planning and analysis clearly is to have a project that can
be implemented to the benefit of the society. Thus, implementation is, perhaps, the most
important part of the project cycle. In this stage, funds are actually disbursed to get the project
started and keep running. A major priority during this stage is to ensure that the project is carried
out in the way and within the period that was planned. Problems frequently occur when the
economic and financial environment at implementation differs from the situation expected
during appraisal.

Frequently, original proposals are modified, though usually only with difficulty, because of the
need to get agreement between the parties involved. It is during implementation that many of the
real problems of projects are first identified. Because of this, the feedback effects on the
discovery and design of new projects and also the deficiencies in the capabilities of the project
actor can be revealed. Therefore, to allow the management to become aware of the difficulties
that might arise, recording, monitoring, and progress reporting are important activities during the
implementation stage.

Some of the aspects of implementation that are of particular relevance to project planning and
analysis are the following:

 The first is that, the better and more realistic a project plan is, the more likely it is
that the plan can be carried out and the expected benefits realized.
 The second is that, project implementation must be flexible. Circumstances will
change and project managers must be able to respond intelligently to these

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 changes. The common ones are: technical changes (soils, water logging, and
nitrogen application); price changes; economic policy and environmental changes;
political changes, etc. and these all will alter the ways in which projects should be
implemented.
6. Evaluation:
The final phase in the project cycle is evaluation. Once a project has been carried out, it is
often useful, (though not always done), to look back over what took place, to compare actual
progress with the plans, and to judge whether the decisions and actions taken were
responsible and useful. The extent to which the objectives of a project are being realized
provides the primary criterion for an evaluation. The analyst looks systematically at the
elements of success and failure in the project experience to learn how better to plan for the
future.

Evaluation is not limited only to completed projects. It is a most important managerial tool in
on-going projects and rather, formalized evaluation may take place at several times in the life
of a project. Evaluation may be undertaken when the project is in trouble as the first step in a
re-planning effort. Careful evaluation should precede any effort to plan for new projects and
it is also needed to follow-up the progress of projects. And, finally evaluation should be
undertaken when a project is terminated or is well into routine operation.

Different groups or units may do the evaluation of projects. Among others,

 Project’s management unit often continuously evaluates its experience as

implementation proceeds.
 The sponsoring agency, perhaps, the operating ministry, the planning agency, or an
external assistance agency may undertake evaluation.
In large and innovative projects, the project’s administrative structure may provide a separate
evaluation unit responsible for monitoring the projects implementation and for bringing
problems to the attention of the projects’ management. Evaluation can help not only in the
management of the project after the initial phase, but also help in the planning of future projects.
Experience with one project can give rise to new ideas for extension of the project, repetition, the

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need for “vertically” associating projects that supply inputs to or process products from this
project, and other ideas which become the seeds to generate new project proposals.

2.3. The UNIDO Project Cycle

The UNIDO has established a project cycle comprising the following three distinct phases:

1. The pre-investment phase

2. The investment phase, and
3. The operating phase.

Each of these three phases is divided into stages, some of which constitute important
consultancy, engineering, and industrial (manufacturing) activities. In this regard, increasing
importance should be attached to the pre-investment phase as a central point of attention,
because the success or failure of an industrial project ultimately depends on the marketing,
technical, financial and economic findings and their interpretations, especially in the feasibility

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study. To reduce wastage of scarce resources, a clear comprehension of the sequence of events is
required when developing an investment proposal from the conceptual stage by way of active
promotional efforts to the operational stage.

1. The pre-investment phase:

According to the UNIDO manual, the pre-investment phase comprises several stages:

 Identification of investment opportunities (opportunity studies)

 Analysis of project alternatives and preliminary project selection as well as project
preparation (pre-feasibility and feasibility studies), and
 Project appraisal and investment decision (specialized appraisal reports)
Support or functional studies are also part of the project preparation stage and are usually
conducted separately, for later incorporation in a pre-feasibility study or feasibility study as
appropriate. Though it is easier to grasp the scope of an opportunity study, it is not an easy task
to differentiate between a pre-feasibility and feasibility study in view of the frequently inaccurate
use of these terms.

The division of the pre-investment phase into stages avoids proceeding directly from the project
idea to the final feasibility study without examining the project idea systematically or being able
to present alternative solutions. This cuts out many feasibility studies that would have little
chance of reaching the investment phase. Finally, it ensures that the project appraisal to be made
by national or international financing institutions becomes an easier task when based on well-
prepared studies. All too often, project appraisal actually amounts to project preparation, given
the low quality of the feasibility study submitted.

(A) Opportunity Studies

The identification of investment opportunities is the starting-point in a series of investment-
related activities, when potential investors (private or public) are interested in obtaining
information on newly identified viable investment opportunities. The main instrument used to
quantify the parameters, information, and data required to develop a project idea into a
proposal is the opportunity study, which should analyze:

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  Natural resources
 The existing agricultural base (it may be the basis for agro-industries)
 Future demand for consumer goods
 Imports substitution and export possibilities
 Environmental impacts (mandatory or non-revenue producing projects)
 Expansions of existing capacity
 Manufacturing sectors (successful in other countries)
 Diversification
Opportunity studies are rather sketch in nature and rely more on aggregate estimates than on
detailed analysis. Opportunity studies could be general or specific.

 General opportunity studies (“sector approach") could be area studies designed to

identify opportunities on a given area (Administrative province, backward region);
industry studies to identify opportunities in delimited industrial branch; and resource-
based studies to reveal opportunities based on the utilization of natural, agricultural, or
industrial resources.
 Specific project opportunity studies (“enterprise approach”) are seen in the form of
products with potential for domestic manufacture. A specific project opportunity study
may be defined as the transformation of a project idea into a broad investment
proposition.
A project opportunity study should not involve any substantial cost in its preparation, as it is
intended primarily to flashlight the principal investment aspects of a possible industrial
proposition. The purpose of opportunity study is to arrive at a quick and inexpensive
determination of salient facts of an investment possibility.

(B) Pre-Feasibility Studies

The project idea must be elaborated in a more detailed study. However, formulation of a
feasibility study that enables a definite decision to be made on the project is a costly and time-
consuming task. Therefore, before assigning larger funds for such a study, a further assessment
of the project idea might be made in a pre-feasibility study. This is to see if:

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 All possible project alternatives are examined,
The project concept justifies detail study,
All aspects are critical and need in-depth investigation, and
The project idea is viable and attractive or not.
A pre-feasibility study should be viewed as an intermediate stage between a project opportunity
study and a detailed feasibility study, the difference being in the degree of detail of the
information obtained and the intensity with which project alternatives are discussed. The
structure of a pre-feasibility study should be the same as that of a detailed feasibility study.

(C) Support/Functional/Studies
Support or functional studies cover aspects of an investment project, and are required as
prerequisites for, or in support of, pre-feasibility and feasibility studies, particularly for large-
scale investment proposals. This may include:

Market studies of products

Raw material and factory supply studies
Laboratory and pilot plant tests
Location studies
Environmental impact assessment.
Economies of scale studies
Equipment selection studies
The contents of a support study vary, depending on the type and nature of the projects. However,
as it relates to a vital aspect of the project, the conclusions could be clear enough to give
directions to the subsequent stage of project preparation. In most cases, a support study when
undertaken either before or together with a feasibility study, form an integral part of the latter
and lessen its burden and cost.

(D) Feasibility Studies

A feasibility study should provide all data necessary for an investment decision. The
commercial, technical, financial, economic, and environment prerequisites for an investment
project should, therefore, be defined, refined and critically examined based on alternative

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solutions already reviewed in the pre-feasibility study. The results of these efforts is then a
project whose background conditions and aims have been clearly defined in terms of its control
objective and possible marketing strategies, the possible market shares that can be achieved, the
corresponding production capacities, the palnt location, existing raw materials, appropriate
technology and mechanical equipment and, if required, an environmental impact assessment.

The financial part of the study covers the scope of the investment, including the net working
capital, the production and marketing costs, sales revenue, and the return on capital invested.
Final estimates on investment and production costs and its subsequent calculations of financial
and economic profitability are only meaningful if the scope of the project is defined
unequivocally(clearly) in order not to omit any essential part and its related cost.

There is no uniform approach or pattern to cover all industrial projects of whatever type, size or
category. The emphasis on the components varies from project to project. For most industrial
projects, however, there is a broad format of general application-bearing in mind that the larger
the project the more complex will be the information required. Although feasibility studies are
similar in content to pre-feasibility studies, the industrial investment project must be worked out
with the greatest accuracy in an iterative optimization process, with feedback and inter-linkages,
including the identification of commercial, technical, and entrepreneurial risks.

The sensitive parameters such as the size of the market, the production program, or the
mechanical equipment selected should be examined more closely. A feasibility study should be
carried out only if the necessary financing facilities, as determined by the studies, can be
identified with a fair degree of accuracy. There would be little sense in a feasibility study without
the reliable assurance that, in the event of positive study findings, funds could be made available.
For that reason, possible project financing must be considered as early as the feasibility study
stage because financing conditions have a direct effect on total costs and, thus, on the financial
feasibility of the project.

(E)Appraisal Report

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When a feasibility study is completed, the various parties will carry out their own appraisal of
the investment project in accordance with their individual objectives and evaluation of expected
risks, costs, and gains. Large investment and development finance institutions have a formalized
project appraisal procedure and usually prepare appraisal reports. This is the reason why project
appraisal should be considered an independent stage of the pre-investment phase, marked by the
final investment and financing decisions taken by the project promoters.

The appraisal report will prove whether the pre-production expenditures spent since the initiation
of the project idea were well spent or not. Project appraisal as carried out by financial institutions
concentrates on the health of the company to be financed, the returns to be obtained by equity
holders and the protection of its creditors. The techniques applied to appraise projects in line
with these criteria center around technical, commercial, market, managerial, organizational, and
financial and possibly also economic aspects.

2. The Investment/implementation Phase

The investment or implementation phase of a project provides wide scope for consultancy and
engineering work, first and foremost in the field of project management. The investment phase
can be divided into the following stages:

 Establishing the legal, financial, and organizational framework

 Tendering, evaluation of bids, and negotiations
 Technology acquisition and transfer
 Detailed engineering design and contract, including tendering, evaluation of bids and
negotiations
 Acquisition of land, construction work and installation
 Pre-production marketing, including the securing of supplies and suppliers and setting up
the administration of the firm.
 Recruitment and training of personnel
 Plant commissioning and start-up

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Detailed engineering design comprises preparatory work for site preparation, the final selection
of construction planning and time scheduling of factory construction, as well as the preparation
of flow charts, scale drawing, and a wide variety of layouts.

During the stage of tendering and evaluation of bids, it is especially important to receive
comprehensive tenders for goods and services for the project from a sufficiently large number of
national and international suppliers of proven efficiency and with good delivery capacity.

Negotiations and contracting are concerned with the legal obligations arising from the
acquisition of technology the construction of buildings, the purchase and installation of
machinery and equipment and financing. This stage covers the signing of contracts between the
investor or entrepreneur, on the one hand, and the financing institutions, consultants, architects
and suppliers of raw materials and required inputs, on the other.

The construction stage involves the site preparation, construction of buildings and other civil
works, together with the erection and installation of equipment in accordance with proper
programming and scheduling.

The personnel recruitment and training stage, which should proceed simultaneously with the
construction stage, may prove very crucial for the expected growth of productivity and efficiency
in plant operations.

Of particular relevance is the timely initiation of marketing arrangements to prepare the

market for the new products (pre- production marketing) and secure critical supplies (supply
marketing).

Plant commissioning and start up is usually a brief but technically critical span in project
implementation. It links the proceeding construction phase and the following operational
(production) phase.

In general, it is to be noted that in the pre-investment phase, the quality and dependability
of the project are more important than the time factor, while in the investment phase, the

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time factor is more critical in order to keep the project within the forecast made in the
feasibility study.

3. The Operating Phase

The problem of the operating phase needs to be considered from both a short and a long-term
view point.

 The short-term view relates to the initial after commencement of production when a
number of problems may arise concerning such matters as the applications of production
techniques, operation of equipment, or inadequate labor productivity owing to lack of
qualified staff and labor. Most of these problems have their origin in the implementation
phase.
 The long-term view relates to chosen strategies and the associated production and
marketing costs as well as sales revenues. These have a direct relationship with the
projections made at the pre-investment phase. If such strategies and projection prove
faulty, any remedial measures will not only be difficult but may prove highly expensive.
The given outline of the investment and operating phases of an industrial project is undoubtedly
an oversimplification for many projects, and, in fact, certain other aspects may be revealed that
even greater short or long term impacts.

There are various ways in which the project cycle may be viewed and portrayed depending on
the purpose, emphasis, and detail required to illustrate. According to the Guidelines to project
planning in Ethiopia (1990) of Development Project Studies Authority (DEPSA), the project
cycle comprises three major phases,

1. Pre-investment
2. Investment, and
3. Operating phase.
Each of these three phases may be divided into stages. The Guidelines has divided the Project
cycle into six stages as follows:

1. Identification

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 2. Preparation
3. Appraisal/decision
4. Implementation
5. Operation
6. Ex-post evaluation.
The pre-investment phase consists of the first three stages, the investment phase includes the
fourth stage, and the operation phase covers the last two stages. The project cycle means the
various stages of information gathering and decision-making, which take place between a
project’s inception and completion.

In reality, these are somewhat artificial, but do serve to emphasize the need to think of project
planning as a process of decision-making taking place overtime. Broadly speaking, what is
important about this process is that it should begin with the identification of number of
alternatives, using existing information and gathering new data in such a way as to limit
alternatives under consideration to those few, which are more promising.

Throughout the project cycle, the primary preoccupation of the analyst is to consider alternatives,
evaluate them, and to make decisions as to which of them should be advanced to the next stage.
In short, the project planning process is essentially a task of eliminating less viable ideas and
alternatives; and in the continuum, planner naturally hopes that the best alternative will emerge.
In this process:

 The results and/or outputs of a given stage serve as the input or part of the input of the
next stage, if it is decided to proceed to the next stage;
 The output or part of the output of one stage may be used as new input (feedback) to
reconsider or revise, where necessary, the result of proceeding stages; and
 Most importantly, the results of the implementation, operation, and ex-post evaluation
stages of a project constitute valuable experienced for the preparation of subsequent
projects provided these inputs are systematically documented and analyzed.

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