Izmir Institute of Technology

Dept. of ChE.

Process Dynamics
and Control-ChE 402

Chapter06 –
Feedback control &
control modes

Asst. Prof. Dr. Can Kızılkaya

Learning objectives for Chapter06

• Draw a representative diagram for feedback control

systems indicating components (elements).

• Explain how a controller works.

• Define basic control modes, together with their

advantages and disadvantages.

• Analyze direct or reverse action for controllers.

• Outline features, options and dynamic responses for

PID controllers.
Quote of the week

• Power is nothing without control.

• TV advertisement slogan
Diagram for composition control system
Process: Stirred-tank blending process
System: Composition control system
Control objective: Keep the tank exit composition (x) at the desired set-point (xsp)
by adjusting mass flow wate of species A (w2) via the control valve, despite
changes in x1.
 Components of control loop
Transducer
(only for systems where
3. Actuator
• Process being controlled both electronic and
(Final Control element (FCE) ) pneumatic signals exist)
• Sensor-transmitter
combination (AT) 2. Controller
• Feedback controller (AC)
• Current-to-pressure
transducer (I/P)
• Final control element
(FCE) [e.g. control valve]
• Transmission lines 1. Sensor
between various (Measuring element)
instruments (electrical
cables and pneumatic
tubing)
AT: Analysis (concentration) Transmitter = Concentration sensor
AC: Analysis (concentration) controller
Signals

• Signals: Small, detectable quantities of current, voltage or pressure

that are transmitted between elements of the system to carry
information.

• For electronic devices such as sensors and controllers: the standard

ranges for input and output signals are 4-20 mA and 1-5V (DC).

• For a pneumatic instrument, the input and output signals are air
pressures in the range of 0.2 to 1 barg (3-15 psig).

• Both electronic and pneumatic (air) signals can be used in the same
control loop. Then a transducer has to be used to convert theses
signals to each other.
Working principle for feedback controllers

Flow control system i) Flow rate of a process stream is

measured and transmitted
electronically to a flow controller.
ym p
ii) The controller compares the
measured value (ym) to the set-
point (ysp) and takes corrective
y y action by calculating the controller
output and and transmitting it as
an electronic signal to the control
valve.
Basic control modes

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the error

signal to zero

Basic control modes

• Proportional (P) Different control modes = Different control laws

• Integral (I) Control law = The equation that calculates

output signal of the controller (p) according to
• Derivative (D) the input signal of the controller (e)
Proportional control

• The controller output is proportional to the error

signal.

For proportional control: p(t) = p + K ce(t) p = p - p

where,

p(t) = controller output

p = bias value (adjustable)
Kc = controller gain (adjustable)
Proportional control

Transfer function for

proportional controller
Careful!

• Control law can be written in two different forms.

Input1
Output

Input2

Either ym(t) or e(t) can be defined as input signal of the controller.

e(t) is defined as input to derive the transfer function.

ym(t) is defined as input for determining controller action mode

(direct or reverse action)
Proportional control

Concepts

i) Controller gain can be adjusted (tuned) to make the

controller output changes as sensitive as desired to
deviations between set point & controlled variable.

ii) Sign of Kc can be chosen to make the controller output

increase (or decrease) as the error signal increases.
Sign of Kc has to be chosen after the signs of all other
control equipment gains are chosen. This will have an
effect on system stability.
Proportional control

Concepts

• Offset:Steady state error

• Bias: Steady-state value of controller output ( )

• Adjusting of bias: Manual reset

( is adjusted so that the controller output (and the value of
manipulated variable) are at their st. st. values when the error is zero. )

• Saturation of controller: When the disturbance or set-point change

is so large, it is beyond the range of manipulated variable.
Proportional control

Controller
saturates above
pmax or below pmin

Ideal behaviour Actual behaviour

Proportional control

Concepts

• Units of Kc:
• Dimensionless (If both input and output are from electronic
or pneumatic instruments)
• Not dimensionless: It includes gain from another component
of control loop such as transmitter or control valve

• Proportional band: (only for dimensionless Kc)

Proportional control

• Advantages:

• Simple. Attractive for processes where offset (steady-state

error) can be tolerated (e.g., Level control systems)
• Takes immediate action as soon as the error is detected.

• Disadvantages:

• Offset occurs after a set point change or sustained

disturbance
Integral control

• The controller output depends on the integral of

error sign over time.

P(s) 1
t
1
p( t )  p   e( t )dt  
I 0 E(s)  Is

• Synonyms: "reset", "floating control

• I  reset time (or integral time) – adjustable
• Some controllers are calibrated in 1/I
("repeats per minute") instead of I .
Integral control

• Advantages:

• Eliminates offset (unless controller of

FCE saturates).

• Disadvantages:

• Little control action takes place until the

error signal has persisted (continued) for
some time.
• Produces oscillatory response (reduces
stability).
Proportional-Integral (PI) controller

• Integral control action is usually used together with

proportional control.

 1
t

p( t )  p  K c e( t )   e( t )dt 
 I 0 
Proportional-Integral (PI) controller

Unit step change in input (e) Change in output (p) for PI controller
Derivative control

• Controller output is proportional to the derivative

(rate of change) of the error signal for controlled
variable.

de
p( t )  p   D
dt

 Used to predict the future behavior of the error signal by

considering its rate of change.
Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller

de
Control law for derivative control p( t )  p   D
dt

If e is constant , so it is never used alone.(It is used

combined with proportional or proportional-integral control)

Transfer function for PD controller

Derivative control

• Advantages:

• Stabilizes the controlled process (It is used to counteract

the destabilizing tendency of integral mode.)

• Disadvantages:

• If the process measurements are noisy derivative mode can

amplify the noise and cause instability.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control

• Almost all (>97%) of industrial operations use a form

of PID controller.

• Most common forms:

• Parallel

• Series
PID controller (parallel)

 1 t de  t  
p  t   p  K c  e  t    e  t * dt *  τ D  (8-13)
 τI 0 dt 
P  s   1 
 K c 1   τDs (8-14)
E s  τI s 
PID controllers (series)
Key characteristics for PID controller
PID control

• Advantages:
• Combines the advantages of all three control modes.
− Proportional : Immediate response to error.
− Integral: Eliminates offset (reduces st. st. error to zero)
− Derivative: Increases system stability (reduces
oscillations due to integral mode)
• Disadvantages:
• Has 3 adjustable ( parameters. Can result in an
unstable system (instability) for incorrectly chosen
parameters.
• Performance of the control system (response speed and
sensitivity to disturances) depends strongly on adjustable
parameters. Therefore, controller tuning is necessary
(essential) to obtain desired performance.
Reverse or direct action for controllers

 Reverse or Direct Acting Controller

 Kc can be made positive or negative
 Recall for proportional FB control:
p(t) = p + K c e(t)

or 
p( t )  p  K c Ysp ( t )  Ym ( t ) 
Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)
“output decreases as input increases "
p(t) ym(t)

Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)

“output increases as input increases"
p(t) ym(t)
Careful!

• Control law can be written in two different forms.

Input1
Output

Input2

Either ym(t) or e(t) can be defined as input signal of the controller.

e(t) is defined as input to derive the transfer function.

ym(t) is defined as input for determining controller action mode

(direct or reverse action)
Reverse or direct action for controllers

a) Reverse action (Kc>0)

Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)

“output decreases as input increases "
p(t) ym(t)

Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)

“output increases as input increases"
p(t) ym(t)

b) Direct action (Kc<0)

 Reverse or direct action for controllers

Choosing the correct controller action (the correct sign for Kc) is essential to
have a stable control system

Sign of Kc has to be chosen after the signs of all other control equipment
gains are determined.

If the wrong sign is selected for Kc, we will have an unstable system.

We will discuss how to select the correct sign for Kc after discussing other
control equipments.

Unstable system = Unsafe situations (Equipment failure or Explosions)

On-off controllers

• Simple & Cheap

• Used in residential heating and domestic
refrigerators (thermostats)
• Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable  excessive wear on
control valve.
 Typical responses of feedback controllers
(for a positive step change in disturbance var.)
𝑒 =𝑦 𝑡 −𝑦 𝑡
𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 𝑜𝑠 = 𝑦′ ∞ − 𝑦′ ∞

Proportional control: Speeds up response & reduces offset

Integral control: Eliminates offset but increases oscillations and response time
Derivative control: Reduces oscillations and response time (compared to PI control)
Typical responses of feedback controllers
(for a positive step change in disturbance var.)

Increasing Kc:
Advantages:
Response gets faster
Reduces off-set

Disadvantages:
For too-high values, results in
oscillations and therefore may cause
instability

BEST control: Intermediate (optimal)

values of Kc
 Typical responses of feedback controllers
(for a positive step change in disturbance var.)

Increasing : Increasing Kc:

Advantages: Advantages:
Oscillations decrease Response gets faster

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
Response gets slower For too-high values, results in oscillations and
therefore may cause instability
Typical responses of feedback controllers
(for a positive step change in disturbance var.)

Increasing :
Advantages (for small ):
Oscillations decrease
Response gets faster

Disadvantages (for large ) :

Oscillations may increase
(not shown in graph)
Learning objectives for Chapter06

• Draw a representative diagram for feedback control

systems indicating components (elements).

• Explain how a controller works.

• Define basic control modes, together with their

advantages and disadvantages

• Analyze direct or reverse action for controllers.

• Outline features, options and dynamic responses for

PID controllers.