Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
City of Ilagan Campus

ENGINEERING UTILITIES 1 (CE 313)

MODULE 2

Introduction

The course focuses on the environmental systems in buildings. Lecture discussions include
building electrical systems, natural and artificial lighting, and building telecommunications. Reducing
operational loads and integrating high performance energy systems into buildings offers solutions towards
achieving a sustainable and secure energy future. Engineers must understand the interrelationship
between a building and its subsystems, and need sufficient knowledge of building systems and design
alternatives to recommend appropriate solutions that suit the site, climate, building type, and occupants.
They must coordinate the work of the engineering disciplines that carry the sustainability concept forward
through building design, construction, commissioning, operation and, ultimately, demolition, recycling
and reuse.

\DEFINITIONS

Discussion Proper

Batteries

A battery converts chemical energy into electric energy. It is a connected bunch (or “battery”) of electro-
chemical devices. The Italian inventor Alessandro Volta invented the first battery in 1799. Volta’s battery
was called a pile—a messy stack of disks made of two types of metal. The discs were separated from each
other by pieces of cloth soaked in salt water. The chemical reaction between the different metals and the
salt water generated electricity. Volta gave his name to the unit of electromotive force, the “volt.”

Every battery (or cell) has a cathode, or positive plate, and an anode, or negative plate.
These electrodes must be separated by and are often immersed in an electrolyte that permits the passage
of ions between the electrodes. The electrode materials and the electrolyte are chosen and arranged so that
sufficient electromotive force (measured in volts) and electric current (measured in amperes) can be
developed between the terminals of a battery to operate lights, machines, or other devices. Since an
electrode contains only a limited number of units of chemical energy convertible to electrical energy, it
follows that a battery of a given size has only a certain capacity to operate devices and will eventually
become exhausted. The active parts of a battery are usually encased in a box with a cover system (or
jacket) that keeps air outside and the electrolyte solvent inside and that provides a structure for the
assembly.

Commercially available batteries are designed and built with market factors in mind. The quality of
materials and the complexity of electrode and container design are reflected in the market price sought for
any specific product. As new materials are discovered or the properties of traditional ones improved,
however, the typical performance of even older battery systems sometimes increases by large
percentages.

Batteries are divided into two general groups: (1) primary batteries and (2) secondary, or storage,
batteries. Primary batteries are designed to be used until the voltage is too low to operate a given device
and are then discarded. Secondary batteries have many special design features, as well as particular
materials for the electrodes, that permit them to be reconstituted (recharged). After partial or complete
discharge, they can be recharged by the application of direct current (DC) voltage. While the original
state is usually not restored completely, the loss per recharging cycle in commercial batteries is only a
small fraction of 1 percent even under varied conditions.

Principles of operation

The anode of an electrochemical cell is usually a metal that is oxidized (gives up electrons) at a potential
between 0.5 volt and about 4 volts above that of the cathode. The cathode generally consists of a metal
oxide or sulfide that is converted to a less-oxidized state by accepting electrons, along with ions, into its
structure. A conductive link via an external circuit (e.g., a lamp or other device) must be provided to carry
electrons from the anode to the negative battery contact. Sufficient electrolyte must be present as well.
The electrolyte consists of a solvent (water, an organic liquid, or even a solid) and one or more chemicals
that dissociate into ions in the solvent. These ions serve to deliver electrons and chemical matter through
the cell interior to balance the flow of electric current outside the cell during cell operation.
Battery usefulness is limited not only by capacity but also by how fast current can be drawn from it. The
salt ions chosen for the electrolyte solution must be able to move fast enough through the solvent to carry
chemical matter between the electrodes equal to the rate of electrical demand. Battery performance is thus
limited by the diffusion rates of internal chemicals as well as by capacity.
The voltage of an individual cell and the diffusion rates inside it are both reduced if the temperature is
lowered from a reference point, such as 21 °C (70 °F). If the temperature falls below the freezing point of
the electrolyte, the cell will usually produce very little useful current and may actually change internal
dimensions, resulting in internal damage and diminished performance even after it has warmed up again.
If the temperature is raised deliberately, faster discharge can be sustained, but this is not generally
advisable, because the battery chemicals may evaporate or react spontaneously with one another, leading
to early failure.
The fundamental relationship of electrochemical cell operation, put forth by the English physicist-
chemist Michael Faraday in 1834, is that for every ampere that flows for a period of time, a
matching chemical reaction or other change must take place. The extent of such changes is dependent on
the molecular and electronic structure of the elements constituting the battery electrodes and electrolyte.
Secondary changes may also occur, but a primary pair of theoretically reversible reactions must take
place at the electrodes for electricity to be produced. The actual energy generated by a battery is measured
by the number of amperes produced × the unit of time × the average voltage over that time. For a cell
with electrodes of zinc and manganese dioxide (e.g., the common flashlight dry cell), one finds that a
chemical equivalent of zinc weighs 32.5 grams (1.4 ounces) and that of manganese dioxide about 87
grams (3.1 ounces). The discharge of one equivalent weight of each of these electrodes will cause 32.5
grams of zinc to dissolve and 87 grams of manganese dioxide to change into a different oxide containing
more hydrogen and zinc ions. Some of the electrolyte also will be consumed in the reaction. One
chemical equivalent of each electrode produces one faraday, or 96,485 coulombs of current equal to
26.8 amperes per hour. If the cells operate at an average of 1.2 volts, this would yield 32.2 watt-hours of
DC energy. Expressed another way, where n equals the number of chemical

necessarily constant) voltage of the cell for the period of the discharge, and 1 joule ≅ 2.78 × 10−4 watt-
equivalents discharged, F is the Faraday constant (9.6485 × 10 4 coulombs per mole), V is the average (not

hours.

Types of Batteries

The Dry Cell

Eveready Dry Cell, 1923

The pile or battery remained a laboratory curiosity for years, until the newly invented telegraph and
telephone created a demand for reliable electrical power. After many years of experimentation, the “ dry
cell” was invented in the 1860s for use with the telegraph. The dry cell is not completely dry, but it seems
dry in comparison to the voltaic pile. It holds a moist paste inside a zinc container. The interaction of the
paste and the zinc creates a source of electrons. A carbon rod is inserted into the paste and conducts
electrons to the outside of the cell, where wires or metal contacts carry the electrons that power the
device. A single dry cell produces about 1.5 volts. Dry cells can be stacked inside a single container to
produce batteries with other voltages. The small 9-volt batteries used today are a good example of this.
Rechargeable Batteries

The telephone, invented in the 1870s, also needed batteries and the success of the telephone system led to
more battery research. Large, rechargeable batteries were developed to supply the needs of the telephone
system after the 1880s. Most telephone systems, even today, supply power directly to the telephone from
batteries rather than relying on commercial electric power lines. The batteries are located in the telephone
company’s central offices and the electricity is carried to your home on the telephone wires. That’s why
telephones usually continue to work during bad weather, when the lights go out. At the telephone central
station, where switchboard operators worked, large banks of acid-filled batteries supplied current to all
the telephones in the area.

The Car Battery

After 1900 automobile designers also began demanding better batteries. Thomas Edison worked
on smaller, "alkaline" batteries (based on nickel and iron) in the early 1900s, because he believed they
could be excellent sources of power for electric cars. At that time, the superiority of the gasoline
automobile had not yet been demonstrated, and there were many electric cars on the market. Edison’s
work on batteries advanced the state of the art, but electric cars never achieved much success, and in fact
almost disappeared by 1930. But the battery did become a permanent feature of every automobile. It was
not used to power the car itself, but to operate the starter and to supply energy to the ignition systems of
the rapidly evolving gasoline automobile. Today, the battery is an essential part of every automobile. In
many ways, most auto batteries still resemble the lead-acid batteries that powered most electric cars in the
early 1900s. Inside a sturdy box are heavy lead plates, separated by a liquid acid solution. As in other
batteries, the chemical reaction between the metal and the chemicals that are dissolved in the liquid
creates a source of usable electricity. Today’s automobiles carry with them a small electric generating
system that partially reverses the chemical processes in the battery which are responsible for generating
electricity, and the effect is to "recharge" the battery while the engine is running.

Lead-Acid Batteries

The next big boost for the battery was the invention of radio broadcasting in the 1920s. Most homes in the
1920s still did not have electric service, so it was necessary to use batteries to power a radio. Many
early radios required two or three batteries of different voltages to supply various circuits. These were
usually designated as the “A,” “B,” and “C” batteries. Two of these batteries could be small dry cells, but
one of them was usually a large, acid-filled battery that could ruin furniture and carpets if it was knocked
over. Later, in the 1930s, engineers designed more efficient radios that used much smaller dry cell
batteries, but these still had to supply up to 90 volts or more to operate the radios’ vacuum tube circuits.
That is very high voltage compared to today’s radios, which need only a 9-volt battery to operate.
Fortunately, most homes got central station electric power by around 1940, but portable radios continued
to rely on batteries.

The batteries that most people used in their homes from the 1930s through the 1950s were the familiar C
or D cells that we still sometimes use for flashlights—in fact we still call these “flashlight batteries.”
These batteries have to be changed often, and if “dead,” can leak chemicals.

In the 1950s after engineers at Bell Laboratories invented the transistor, new kinds of battery-operated
electronic devices began to appear. The transistor was a replacement for the vacuum tube, which was
used in all electronic circuits prior to the invention of the transistor. The transistor was much smaller than
the vacuum tube and consumed very little power, making it ideal for things like portable radios. Soon,
portable electronics took off, and people were using battery-powered radios, phonographs, televisions,
and tape players. Transistors needed 6 to 9 volts to operate, but most flashlight batteries were only 1.5
volts, so engineers designed a small 9-volt battery just for transistor radios. This new “transistor battery”
is still popular today—the small, rectangular type with two round terminals on the top.

Alkaline Dry Cell Batteries

 Assortment of Alkaline Batteries

Small dry cell batteries used in portable electronics in the 1970s were more or less the same as they had
been in the 1930s. The Duracell Company was the first to offer an improvement in the form of its
“alkaline” dry cell. Although similar in size and shape to the earlier dry cells, it lasted significantly
longer. Still later, as cordless telephones, laptop computers, Walkmans, and other portable devices
became more common, there was a great need for good rechargeable batteries. Since the 1950s, some
portable electronic devices came equipped with expensive rechargeable batteries. Earlier rechargeable
batteries were considered too large for the new generation of miniaturized devices. Designing good
rechargeable batteries is still a very difficult problem that faces engineers as the drive toward more
portable electronics continues.

AC Circuit
The circuit that is excited using alternating source is called an AC Circuit. The alternating current (AC)
is used for domestic and industrial purposes. In an AC circuit, the value of the magnitude and the
direction of current and voltages is not constant, it changes at a regular interval of time.

It travels as a sinusoidal wave completing one cycle as half positive and half negative cycle and is a
function of time (t) or angle (θ=wt).

In DC Circuit, the opposition to the flow of current is the only resistance of the circuit whereas the
opposition to the flow of current in the AC circuit is because of resistance (R), Inductive Reactance
(XL=2πfL) and capacitive reactance (XC = 1/2 πfC) of the circuit.

In AC Circuit, the current and voltages are represented by magnitude and direction. The alternating
quantity may or may not be in phase with each other depending upon the various parameters of the circuit
like resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The sinusoidal alternating quantities are voltage and current
which varies according to the sine of angle θ.

For the generation of electric power, all over the world the sinusoidal voltage and current are selected
because of the following reasons are given below.

 The sinusoidal voltage and current produce low iron and copper losses in the transformer and
rotating electrical machines, which in turns improves the efficiency of the AC machines.
 They offer less interference to the nearby communication system.
 They produce less disturbance in the electrical circuit.

Alternating Voltage and Current in an AC Circuit

The voltage that changes its polarity and magnitude at regular interval of time is called
an alternating voltage. Similarly, the direction of the current is changed and the magnitude of
current changes with time it is called alternating current.

When an alternating voltage source is connected across a load resistance as shown in the figure below, the
current through it flows in one direction and then in the opposite direction when the polarity is reversed.
 Alternating Current Circuit Diagram

The waveform of the alternating voltage with respect to the time and the current flowing through the
resistance (R) in the circuit is shown below.

There are various types of AC circuit such as AC circuit containing only resistance (R), AC circuit
containing only capacitance (C), AC circuit containing only inductance (L), the combination of RL
Circuit, AC circuit containing resistance and capacitance (RC), AC circuit containing inductance and
capacitance (LC) and resistance inductance and capacitance (RLC) AC circuit.

The various terms which are frequently used in an AC circuit are as follows

Amplitude
The maximum positive or negative value attained by an alternating quantity in one complete cycle is
called Amplitude or peak value or maximum value. The maximum value of voltage and current is
represented by Em or Vm and Im respectively.

Alternation
One-half cycle is termed as alternation. An alternation span is of 180 degrees electrical.

Cycle
When one set of positive and negative values completes by an alternating quantity or it goes through 360
degrees electrical, it is said to have one complete Cycle.

Instantaneous Value
The value of voltage or current at any instant of time is called an instantaneous value. It is denoted by (i
or e).

Frequency
The number of cycles made per second by an alternating quantity is called frequency. It is measured in
cycle per second (c/s) or hertz (Hz) and is denoted by (f).
Time Period
The time taken in seconds by a voltage or a current to complete one cycle is called Time Period. It is
denoted by (T).

Wave Form
The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of an alternating quantity such as voltage and
current along the y-axis and the time (t) or angle (θ=wt) along the x-axis is called a waveform.

AC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS
Magnetism, phenomenon associated with magnetic fields, which arise from the motion of electric
charges. This motion can take many forms. It can be an electric current in a conductor or charged
particles moving through space, or it can be the motion of an electron in an atomic orbital. Magnetism is
also associated with elementary particles, such as the electron, that have a property called spin.

Fundamentals

Basic to magnetism are magnetic fields and their effects on matter, as, for instance, the deflection of
moving charges and torques on other magnetic objects. Evidence for the presence of a magnetic field is
the magnetic force on charges moving in that field; the force is at right angles to both the field and
the velocity of the charge. This force deflects the particles without changing their speed. The deflection
can be observed in the torque on a compass needle that acts to align the needle with the magnetic field of
Earth. The needle is a thin piece of iron that has been magnetized—i.e., a small bar magnet. One end of
the magnet is called a north pole and the other end a south pole. The force between a north and a south
pole is attractive, whereas the force between like poles is repulsive. The magnetic field is sometimes
referred to as magnetic induction or magnetic flux density; it is always symbolized by B. Magnetic fields
are measured in units of tesla (T).

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Prepared by:

ENGR. JEAN CLAUDE M. BENITEZ, RME

Instructor