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Vector Space
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For B. Tech

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n CONTENTS
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Contents 3
1 Vector spaces and Subspaces 7
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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2 Definition of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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3 Properties of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Examples of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5 Definition of Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Properties of Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7 Examples of Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
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2 Linear Combination of Vectors 15

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4 Examples of Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 Span of Vectors 17
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Examples of Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4 Linear Independence 19
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4 Examples of Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5 Using the Wronskian to Check Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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5.1 Definition of the Wronskian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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5.2 Properties of the Wronskian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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5.3 Examples Using the Wronskian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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5 Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces 29
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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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4 Examples of Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
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5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6 Row Echelon Form and Row Reduced Echelon Form 37
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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2.1 Properties of Row Echelon Form (REF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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2.2 Properties of Row Reduced Echelon Form (RREF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1 Example 1: Convert to REF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Example 2: Convert to RREF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Example 3: Convert to REF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4 Example 4: Convert to RREF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
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3.5 Example 5: Convert to REF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
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7 Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space 43

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1 Row Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Column Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Null Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1 Example 1: Matrix A (4x5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2 Example 2: Matrix B (4x5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Other Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
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5.3 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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8 Rank-Nullity Theorem 51

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VECTOR SPACES AND SUBSPACES

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1 Introduction
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In the realm of linear algebra, vector spaces and their subspaces are fundamental concepts that
provide a framework for understanding linear systems, transformations, and more. They form
the backbone for various applications in mathematics, physics, engineering, computer science,
and numerous other disciplines. This comprehensive guide delves into the definitions, properties,
and examples of vector spaces and subspaces, offering a detailed understanding of these essential
mathematical structures.
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2 Definition of Vector Spaces

A vector space (also known as a linear space) is a collection of objects called vectors, which can
be added together and multiplied by scalars (elements from a field, typically the real numbers R
or complex numbers C), satisfying specific axioms. Formally, a vector space V over a field F is
defined by two operations:
• Vector Addition: An operation that takes two vectors u and v in V and assigns to them
a vector u + v in V .
• Scalar Multiplication: An operation that takes a scalar a in F and a vector v in V and
assigns to them a vector a · v in V .
Definition 2.1 (Vector Space). A vector space V over a field F is a set equipped with two
operations satisfying the following axioms:

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 8 Vector spaces and Subspaces

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1. Closure under Addition: For all u, v ∈ V , u + v ∈ V .

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2. Commutativity of Addition: For all u, v ∈ V , u + v = v + u.

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3. Associativity of Addition: For all u, v, w ∈ V , (u + v) + w = u + (v + w).

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4. Existence of Additive Identity: There exists an element 0 ∈ V such that for every v ∈ V ,
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v + 0 = v.

5. Existence of Additive Inverses: For every v ∈ V , there exists an element −v ∈ V such

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that v + (−v) = 0.
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6. Closure under Scalar Multiplication: For every scalar a ∈ F and every vector v ∈ V ,
a·v ∈V.
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7. Distributivity of Scalar Multiplication with respect to Vector Addition: For all

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a ∈ F and u, v ∈ V , a · (u + v) = a · u + a · v.

8. Distributivity of Scalar Multiplication with respect to Field Addition: For all

a, b ∈ F and v ∈ V , (a + b) · v = a · v + b · v.

9. Compatibility of Scalar Multiplication with Field Multiplication: For all a, b ∈ F

and v ∈ V , a · (b · v) = (a · b) · v.
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10. Identity Element of Scalar Multiplication: For all v ∈ V , 1 · v = v, where 1 is the

multiplicative identity in F .
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3 Properties of Vector Spaces

Vector spaces possess several key properties derived from their defining axioms. Understanding
these properties is essential for manipulating vectors and performing linear algebra operations
effectively.

1. Uniqueness of the Additive Identity: There is exactly one zero vector in a vector space.

2. Uniqueness of Additive Inverses: For each vector, its additive inverse is unique.

3. Distributive Properties: Scalar multiplication distributes over both vector addition and
field addition.
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4. Associativity of Scalar Multiplication: The order of scalar multiplication does not affect

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5. Existence of Scalar Multiplicative Identity: Multiplying a vector by 1 leaves it un-

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6. Subspace Inheritance: Any subspace inherits the properties of the parent vector space.
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4 Examples of Vector Spaces
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Here are five examples illustrating different types of vector spaces:

1. Euclidean Space Rn
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Example 4.1. Definition: The set of all n-tuples of real numbers.

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Example: R3 consists of all ordered triples (x, y, z) where x, y, z are real numbers.
Operations:

• Addition: (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )

• Scalar Multiplication: a · (x, y, z) = (a · x, a · y, a · z)
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2. Polynomial Space Pn
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Example 4.2. Definition: The set of all polynomials of degree at most n with coefficients
in R.
Example: P2 consists of polynomials of the form a + bx + cx2 , where a, b, c are real numbers.
Operations:

• Addition: Polynomial addition is performed by adding corresponding coefficients.

• Scalar Multiplication: Multiply each coefficient by the scalar.

3. Matrix Space Mm×n (R)

Example 4.3. Definition: The set of all m × n matrices with real entries.
Example: M2×3 (R) consists of all 2 × 3 matrices with real numbers.
Operations:
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• Addition: Add corresponding entries of two matrices.

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• Scalar Multiplication: Multiply each entry of a matrix by the scalar.

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4. Function Space C([a, b])

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Example 4.4. Definition: The set of all continuous real-valued functions defined on the
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Example: All continuous functions f : [0, 1] → R.
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Operations:
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• Addition: (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

• Scalar Multiplication: (a · f )(x) = a · f (x)
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5. Sequence Space ℓ2
Example 4.5. Definition: The set of all infinite sequences of real numbers (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .)
such that the series ∞n=1 n converges.
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Example: The sequence (1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .) is in ℓ2 because ∞
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• Addition: Add corresponding terms of two sequences.

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• Scalar Multiplication: Multiply each term of a sequence by the scalar.

5 Definition of Subspaces
A subspace is a subset of a vector space that is itself a vector space under the same operations
of vector addition and scalar multiplication. In other words, a subspace inherits the structure of
the parent vector space and satisfies all the axioms required for a vector space.
Definition 5.1 (Subspace). Let V be a vector space over a field F . A subset W of V is called a
subspace of V if W satisfies the following three conditions:
1. Non-emptiness (Contains the Zero Vector): The zero vector of V is in W .

2. Closed under Addition: For any u, v ∈ W , the sum u + v ∈ W .

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3. Closed under Scalar Multiplication: For any scalar a ∈ F and any vector v ∈ W , the

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product a · v ∈ W .

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Alternatively, W is a subspace of V if it is closed under linear combinations, meaning that for

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any vectors u, v ∈ W and scalars a, b ∈ F , the linear combination a · u + b · v ∈ W .

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6 Properties of Subspaces
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Subspaces inherit many properties from their parent vector spaces, and they possess additional
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characteristics that make them integral to the study of linear algebra.

1. Contains the Zero Vector: Every subspace must contain the zero vector of the parent
vector space.
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2. Closure Under Addition and Scalar Multiplication: Ensures that linear combinations
of vectors in the subspace remain within the subspace.

3. Intersection of Subspaces: The intersection of any collection of subspaces of V is also a

subspace of V .

4. Sum of Subspaces: The sum of two subspaces U and W (defined as {u + w | u ∈ U, w ∈

W }) is also a subspace of V .
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5. Dimension: A subspace’s dimension cannot exceed that of the parent vector space.
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7 Examples of Subspaces
Here are five examples illustrating different types of subspaces within various vector spaces:

1. Zero Subspace
Example 7.1. Definition: The set containing only the zero vector.
Parent Vector Space: Any vector space V .
Example: In Rn , the zero subspace is {0} = {(0, 0, . . . , 0)}.
Properties: It is the smallest subspace of V .

2. Line Through the Origin in R2

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Example 7.2. Definition: All scalar multiples of a non-zero vector in R2 .

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Parent Vector Space: R2 .
Example: The set {a · (1, 2) | a ∈ R} forms a line through the origin.

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Properties: It is one-dimensional.

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3. Plane Through the Origin in R3
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Example 7.3. Definition: All linear combinations of two linearly independent vectors in
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R3 .
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Parent Vector Space: R3 .

Example: The set {a · (1, 0, 0) + b · (0, 1, 0) | a, b ∈ R} forms the xy-plane.
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Properties: It is two-dimensional.
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4. Solution Set of a Homogeneous Linear System

Example 7.4. Definition: All solutions to a system of homogeneous linear equations.

Parent Vector Space: Depends on the number of variables, typically Rn .
Example: The set of all vectors (x, y, z) ∈ R3 satisfying x + y + z = 0 forms a subspace.
Properties: It is closed under addition and scalar multiplication.
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5. Even Functions in C([a, b])

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Example 7.5. Definition: The set of all continuous even functions on [a, b], where an even
function satisfies f (−x) = f (x).
Parent Vector Space: C([a, b]).
Example: Functions like f (x) = x2 , f (x) = cos(x), etc., are even functions.
Properties: Closed under addition and scalar multiplication.

8 Conclusion
Vector spaces and their subspaces are pivotal in understanding and solving linear problems across
various fields. Vector spaces provide a structured environment where vectors can be manipulated
through addition and scalar multiplication, adhering to specific axioms. Subspaces, being subsets
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that themselves form vector spaces, allow for more focused analysis within a larger vector space.

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Mastery of these concepts is essential for delving deeper into linear algebra and its applications,

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from solving linear systems and performing transformations to exploring advanced topics like
eigenvalues, inner product spaces, and beyond.

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Understanding the definitions, properties, and diverse examples of vector spaces and subspaces

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equips you with the foundational tools necessary for both theoretical exploration and practical
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problem-solving in mathematics and related disciplines.
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Vector spaces and Subspaces
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LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS

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1 Introduction
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A linear combination is a fundamental concept in linear algebra, involving the addition of scaled
vectors. It serves as the building block for many other concepts such as span, linear independence,
and bases. Understanding linear combinations allows us to describe how vectors relate to each
other within a vector space or a subspace.
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2 Definition
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Definition 2.1 (Linear Combination). Let V be a vector space over a field F . Given vectors
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn in V and scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an in F , the expression
a1 v 1 + a2 v 2 + · · · + an v n
is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn .

3 Properties
1. Closure: Linear combinations of vectors in a vector space remain within the vector space.
2. Scalars: The coefficients ai are scalars from the underlying field.
3. Additivity: The operation of forming linear combinations preserves vector addition and
scalar multiplication.

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4. Generates Subspaces: The set of all possible linear combinations of a given set of vectors

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forms a subspace known as the span.

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5. Dependence on Coefficients: Different sets of coefficients can produce different linear

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combinations, enabling the construction of a variety of vectors within the span.

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4 Examples of Linear Combinations
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Here are five examples illustrating different aspects of linear combinations:

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1. Simple Linear Combination in R2

Example 4.1. Let u = (1, 0) and v = (0, 1) in R2 . A linear combination of u and v is

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au + bv = (a, b) for scalars a, b ∈ R.

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2. Linear Combination of Vectors in R3

Example 4.2. Let v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (4, 5, 6), and v3 = (7, 8, 9) in R3 . A linear combination
is av1 + bv2 + cv3 = (a + 4b + 7c, 2a + 5b + 8c, 3a + 6b + 9c) for scalars a, b, c ∈ R.

3. Linear Combination in Polynomial Space P2

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Example 4.3. Consider the polynomials p1 (x) = 1, p2 (x) = x, and p3 (x) = x2 in P2 . A

linear combination is ap1 (x) + bp2 (x) + cp3 (x) = a + bx + cx2 for scalars a, b, c ∈ R.
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4. Linear Combination in Function Space C([0, 1])

Example 4.4. Let f1 (x) = sin(x) and f2 (x) = cos(x) in C([0, 1]). A linear combination is
af1 (x) + bf2 (x) = a sin(x) + b cos(x) for scalars a, b ∈ R.

5. Linear Combination in Matrix Space M2×2 (R)

   
1 0 0 1
Example 4.5. Let A = and B = in M2×2 (R). A linear combination is
  0 1 1 0
a b
aA + bB = for scalars a, b ∈ R.
b a
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SPAN OF VECTORS
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1 Introduction
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The concept of span is pivotal in understanding how vectors relate to each other within a vector
space or a subspace. The span of a set of vectors encompasses all possible linear combinations
of those vectors, effectively describing the subspace they generate. This concept is fundamental
in various applications, including solving linear systems, determining dimensions, and identifying
bases.
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2 Definition
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Definition 2.1 (Span). Let V be a vector space over a field F , and let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a subset
of V . The span of these vectors, denoted by Span{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }, is the set of all possible linear
combinations of them:

Span{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } = {a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn | ai ∈ F } .

3 Properties
1. Subspace: The span of any set of vectors in V is a subspace of V .

2. Closure: The span is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication.

3. Minimality: If a subspace W contains a set of vectors, then W must contain their span.

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4. Uniqueness: The span of a set of vectors is uniquely determined by those vectors.

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5. Redundancy Removal: Removing a vector that is already in the span of others does not
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Here are five examples illustrating different aspects of the span of vectors:
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1. Span in R2

Example 4.1. Let v1 = (1, 0) and v2 = (0, 1) in R2 . The span of {v1 , v2 } is R2 itself, as
any vector (a, b) can be expressed as av1 + bv2 .
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2. Span in R3

Example 4.2. Let v1 = (1, 0, 0) and v2 = (0, 1, 0) in R3 . The span of {v1 , v2 } is the
xy-plane, consisting of all vectors (a, b, 0) for scalars a, b ∈ R.

3. Span of a Single Vector

Example 4.3. Let v = (2, 3) in R2 . The span of {v} is the set of all scalar multiples of v,
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forming a line through the origin: {a(2, 3) | a ∈ R}.

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4. Span in Polynomial Space P1

Example 4.4. Consider the polynomials p1 (x) = 1 and p2 (x) = x in P1 . The span of {p1 , p2 }
consists of all linear polynomials of the form a + bx for scalars a, b ∈ R.

5. Span in Matrix Space M2×2 (R)

   
1 0 0 1
Example 4.5. Let A = and B = in M2×2 (R). The span of {A, B} consists
0 1  1 0
a b
of all matrices of the form aA + bB = for scalars a, b ∈ R.
b a
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LINEAR INDEPENDENCE
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1 Introduction
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Linear independence is a fundamental concept in linear algebra that determines whether a set
of vectors contains any redundancy. A set of vectors is said to be linearly independent if none
of the vectors can be expressed as a linear combination of the others. This property is crucial in
identifying minimal spanning sets, forming bases, and understanding the structure of vector spaces
and subspaces.
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2 Definition
Definition 2.1 (Linear Independence). Let V be a vector space over a field F , and let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
be a subset of V . The set is called linearly independent if the only scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ F
that satisfy
a1 v 1 + a2 v 2 + · · · + an v n = 0
are a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.

3 Properties
1. Uniqueness of Zero Combination: The trivial combination (all scalars zero) is the only
linear combination that yields the zero vector.

19
 20 Linear Independence

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2. Minimality: A linearly independent set has no vector that can be removed without losing

es
its independence.

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3. Basis Formation: A basis for a vector space is a linearly independent set that spans the

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space.

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4. Expansion and Contraction: Adding a vector to a linearly independent set may make it
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dependent; removing vectors maintains independence.

5. Coordinate Representation: In a linearly independent set, each vector has a unique

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representation in terms of the basis vectors.

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4 Examples of Linear Independence

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Here are five detailed examples illustrating different aspects of linear independence:

1. Linearly Independent Vectors in R2

Example 4.1. Problem: Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, 2) and v2 = (3, 4) in R2
are linearly independent.
Solution: To determine if {v1 , v2 } is linearly independent, we set up the equation:
Sc ep

a1 v 1 + a2 v 2 = 0
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Substituting the vectors:

a1 (1, 2) + a2 (3, 4) = (0, 0)
This gives the system of equations:
(
a1 + 3a2 = 0
2a1 + 4a2 = 0

Simplify the second equation:

2a1 + 4a2 = 0 =⇒ a1 + 2a2 = 0

Now, compare with the first equation:

a1 + 3a2 = 0 and a1 + 2a2 = 0

Linear Independence 21

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Subtract the second equation from the first:

es
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(a1 + 3a2 ) − (a1 + 2a2 ) = 0 − 0 =⇒ a2 = 0
Substitute a2 = 0 into the second equation:

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a1 + 2(0) = 0 =⇒ a1 = 0
n
Since the only solution is a1 = a2 = 0, the vectors v1 and v2 are linearly independent.
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2. Linearly Dependent Vectors in R3
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Example 4.2. Problem: Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (2, 4, 6), and
v3 = (3, 6, 9) in R3 are linearly independent.
Solution: To check for linear independence, set up the equation:
a
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a1 v 1 + a2 v 2 + a3 v 3 = 0
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Substituting the vectors:

a1 (1, 2, 3) + a2 (2, 4, 6) + a3 (3, 6, 9) = (0, 0, 0)
This results in the system: 
a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 = 0

2a1 + 4a2 + 6a3 = 0
Sc ep


3a1 + 6a2 + 9a3 = 0

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Observe that the second equation is twice the first, and the third is three times the first.
This means all three equations are not independent.
To find a non-trivial solution, let’s express a1 and a2 in terms of a3 : From the first equation:
a1 = −2a2 − 3a3
Substitute a1 into the second equation:
2(−2a2 − 3a3 ) + 4a2 + 6a3 = 0 − 4a2 − 6a3 + 4a2 + 6a3 = 00 = 0
This equation holds for all a2 and a3 , indicating infinitely many solutions. For example,
choose a3 = 1 and a2 = 0:
a1 = −3
Thus, (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (−3, 0, 1) is a non-trivial solution.
Since there exists a non-trivial solution, the vectors v1 , v2 , and v3 are linearly dependent.
 22 Linear Independence

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3. Linearly Independent Polynomials in P2

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Example 4.3. Problem: Determine whether the polynomials p1 (x) = 1, p2 (x) = x, and
p3 (x) = x2 in P2 are linearly independent.

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Solution: To check for linear independence, set up the equation:

en ed he
n a1 p1 (x) + a2 p2 (x) + a3 p3 (x) = 0
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Substituting the polynomials:
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a1 · 1 + a2 · x + a3 · x 2 = 0

This must hold for all x, implying that each coefficient must be zero:
a
ol tm a


a1 = 0
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
a2 = 0

a3 = 0


The only solution is a1 = a2 = a3 = 0, hence the polynomials p1 (x), p2 (x), and p3 (x) are
linearly independent.

4. Linearly Independent Functions in C([0, 1])

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Example 4.4. Problem: Determine whether the functions f1 (x) = 1, f2 (x) = sin(x), and
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f3 (x) = cos(x) in C([0, 1]) are linearly independent.

Solution: To check for linear independence, set up the equation:

a1 f1 (x) + a2 f2 (x) + a3 f3 (x) = 0

Substituting the functions:

a1 · 1 + a2 · sin(x) + a3 · cos(x) = 0 ∀x ∈ [0, 1]

This implies:
a1 + a2 sin(x) + a3 cos(x) = 0 ∀x
For this to hold for all x, the coefficients must satisfy the following: - Let x = 0:

a1 + a3 = 0 =⇒ a1 = −a3
Linear Independence 23

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- Let x = π2 :

es
a1 + a2 = 0 =⇒ a2 = −a1 = a3

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- Let x = π:

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a1 − a3 = 0 =⇒ a1 = a3

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n
From a1 = −a3 and a1 = a3 , we conclude a1 = a3 = 0, which then implies a2 = 0.
T, dv f Mra
Since the only solution is a1 = a2 = a3 = 0, the functions f1 (x), f2 (x), and f3 (x) are linearly
independent.
VI A t o a
of en nim

5. Linearly Independent Matrices in M2×2 (R)

Example 4.5. Problem: Determine whether the matrices

a
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1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
A= , B= , C= , D=
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

in M2×2 (R) are linearly independent.

Solution: To check for linear independence, set up the equation:

a1 A + a2 B + a3 C + a4 D = 0
Sc ep

Substituting the matrices:

D

         
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

This results in the system:



 a1 =0

a
2 =0


 a3 =0

a4 =0
Since the only solution is a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = 0, the matrices A, B, C, and D are linearly
independent.

6. Linearly Dependent Set with a Redundant Vector

 24 Linear Independence

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Example 4.6. Problem: Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (2, 4, 6), and

es
v3 = (3, 6, 9) in R3 are linearly independent.

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Solution: Observe that v2 = 2v1 and v3 = 3v1 . This indicates that all vectors are scalar

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multiples of v1 , meaning they lie along the same line in R3 .

en ed he
To confirm linear dependence, set up the equation:
n
T, dv f Mra
a1 v 1 + a2 v 2 + a3 v 3 = 0
VI A t o a

Substituting the vectors:

of en nim

a1 (1, 2, 3) + a2 (2, 4, 6) + a3 (3, 6, 9) = (0, 0, 0)

This results in:

a
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
a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 = 0
ho ar M


2a1 + 4a2 + 6a3 = 0

3a1 + 6a2 + 9a3 = 0


Simplifying, notice that the second and third equations are multiples of the first:

2(a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 ) = 0 and 3(a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 ) = 0

Sc ep

This implies that the system has infinitely many solutions. For instance, let a3 = 1 and
a2 = 0:
D

a1 + 0 + 3(1) = 0 =⇒ a1 = −3
Thus, (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (−3, 0, 1) is a non-trivial solution.
Therefore, the set {v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly dependent.

7. Linearly Independent Vectors with Negative Scalars

Example 4.7. Problem: Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, −1, 2) and v2 = (3, 1, 4)
in R3 are linearly independent.
Solution: Set up the equation:
a1 v 1 + a2 v 2 = 0
Substituting the vectors:

a1 (1, −1, 2) + a2 (3, 1, 4) = (0, 0, 0)

Linear Independence 25

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This leads to the system:

es


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a1 + 3a2 = 0

−a1 + a2 = 0

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
2a1 + 4a2 = 0


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Solve the second equation for a1 :
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−a1 + a2 = 0 =⇒ a1 = a2
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Substitute a1 = a2 into the first equation:

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a2 + 3a2 = 0 =⇒ 4a2 = 0 =⇒ a2 = 0 =⇒ a1 = 0
a

Substitute a1 = a2 = 0 into the third equation:

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2(0) + 4(0) = 0

All equations are satisfied only when a1 = a2 = 0.

Therefore, the vectors v1 and v2 are linearly independent.
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5 Using the Wronskian to Check Linear Independence

The Wronskian is a determinant used in the study of differential equations to determine the linear
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independence of a set of solutions. It is particularly useful for checking the linear independence of
functions. The concept is named after the Polish mathematician Józef Hoene-Wroński.

5.1 Definition of the Wronskian

Definition 5.1 (Wronskian). Let f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fn (x) be n functions that are sufficiently dif-
ferentiable on an interval I. The Wronskian of these functions is the determinant of the matrix
whose i-th row consists of the (i − 1)-th derivatives of the functions:

f1 (x) f2 (x) ··· fn (x)

f1′ (x) f2′ (x) ··· fn′ (x)
W (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn )(x) = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
(n−1) (n−1) (n−1)
f1 (x) f2 (x) · · · fn (x)
 26 Linear Independence

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es
5.2 Properties of the Wronskian

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1. If the Wronskian W (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn )(x) is non-zero for some x in an interval I, then the func-
tions f1 , f2 , . . . , fn are linearly independent on I.

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2. If the Wronskian is identically zero on an interval I, the functions may be linearly dependent
n
on I, but this is not guaranteed unless additional conditions are met (e.g., the functions are
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solutions to a linear differential equation).

3. The converse of the first property is not always true; a zero Wronskian does not necessarily
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imply linear dependence unless the functions satisfy certain differential equations.
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5.3 Examples Using the Wronskian

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Below are several examples demonstrating how to use the Wronskian to check the linear indepen-
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dence of functions.

1. Example 1: Linear Independence of ex and e−x

Example 5.1. Problem: Determine whether the functions f1 (x) = ex and f2 (x) = e−x are
linearly independent on R.
Solution: Compute the Wronskian:
Sc ep

ex e−x
W (f1 , f2 )(x) = = ex · (−e−x ) − e−x · ex = −1 − 1 = −2
ex −e−x
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Since W (f1 , f2 )(x) = −2 ̸= 0 for all x ∈ R, the functions ex and e−x are linearly indepen-
dent on R.

2. Example 2: Linear Independence of sin(x) and cos(x)

Example 5.2. Problem: Determine whether the functions f1 (x) = sin(x) and f2 (x) =
cos(x) are linearly independent on R.
Solution: Compute the Wronskian:
sin(x) cos(x)
W (f1 , f2 )(x) = = sin(x)·(− sin(x))−cos(x)·cos(x) = − sin2 (x)−cos2 (x) = −(sin2 (x)+
cos(x) − sin(x)

Since W (f1 , f2 )(x) = −1 ̸= 0 for all x ∈ R, the functions sin(x) and cos(x) are linearly
independent on R.
Linear Independence 27

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3. Example 3: Linear Independence of 1, x, and x2

es
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Example 5.3. Problem: Determine whether the functions f1 (x) = 1, f2 (x) = x, and
f3 (x) = x2 are linearly independent on R.

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Solution: Compute the Wronskian:

en ed he
n 1 x x2
T, dv f Mra
W (f1 , f2 , f3 )(x) = 0 1 2x
0 0 2
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Expanding the determinant:

of en nim

1 2x 0 2x 0 1
W = 1· −x· +x2 · = 1·(1·2−2x·0)−x·(0·2−2x·0)+x2 ·(0·0−1·0) = 2
0 2 0 2 0 0
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Since W (f1 , f2 , f3 )(x) = 2 ̸= 0 for all x ∈ R, the functions 1, x, and x2 are linearly
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independent on R.

4. Example 4: Linearly Dependent Functions with Zero Wronskian

Example 5.4. Problem: Determine whether the functions f1 (x) = 1, f2 (x) = x, and
f3 (x) = 2x are linearly independent on R.
Solution: Compute the Wronskian:
Sc ep

1 x 2x
1 2 0 2 0 1
W (f1 , f2 , f3 )(x) = 0 1 2 = 1· −x· +2x· = 1·(1·0−2·0)−x·(0·0−2·0)+2x·(0·0−1·0) =
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0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
Since W (f1 , f2 , f3 )(x) = 0 for all x ∈ R, the Wronskian does not provide conclusive informa-
tion about linear dependence. However, observe that f3 (x) = 2f2 (x), indicating that the set
{f1 , f2 , f3 } is linearly dependent.

5. Example 5: Linearly Independent Exponential Functions

Example 5.5. Problem: Determine whether the functions f1 (x) = ex , f2 (x) = e2x , and
f3 (x) = e3x are linearly independent on R.
Solution: Compute the Wronskian:
ex e2x e3x
W (f1 , f2 , f3 )(x) = ex 2e2x 3e3x
ex 4e2x 9e3x
 28 Linear Independence

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Factor out ex , e2x , and e3x from each column respectively:

es
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1 1 1 1 1 1
x 2x 3x 6x
W =e ·e ·e · 1 2 3 =e · 1 2 3

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1 4 9 1 4 9

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Compute the determinant:
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1 1 1
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1 2 3 = 1(2·9−3·4)−1(1·9−3·1)+1(1·4−2·1) = 1(18−12)−1(9−3)+1(4−2) = 6−6+2 = 2

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1 4 9

Therefore:
W (f1 , f2 , f3 )(x) = e6x · 2 = 2e6x ̸= 0 ∀x ∈ R
a
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Since the Wronskian is non-zero for all x, the functions ex , e2x , and e3x are linearly inde-
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pendent on R.

6 Conclusion
Linear independence is a cornerstone concept in linear algebra, enabling the identification of mini-
mal and non-redundant sets of vectors that effectively describe a vector space or subspace. Through
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the examples provided, we have illustrated various scenarios where vectors, polynomials, functions,
and matrices are tested for linear independence. Mastery of this concept is essential for advancing
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in topics such as basis formation, dimension analysis, and linear transformations.

Understanding how to determine linear independence through setting up and solving linear
equations is crucial. The ability to recognize dependent and independent sets of vectors allows for
more efficient computations and deeper insights into the structure of vector spaces.

Exercises
1. Determine whether the vectors u = (2, 4, 6) and v = (1, 3, 5) in R3 are linearly independent.

2. Prove that the set {1, x, x3 } is linearly independent in P3 .

3. Check the linear independence of the functions f1 (x) = ex , f2 (x) = e−x , and f3 (x) = e2x in
C(R).
 nc cs
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n CHAPTER 5
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BASES OF VECTOR SPACES AND

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SUBSPACES
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1 Introduction
A basis of a vector space or subspace is a minimal set of vectors that both spans the space and is
linearly independent. Bases are essential for simplifying vector representations, performing coordi-
nate transformations, and facilitating computations in linear algebra. They provide a standardized
framework for analyzing vector spaces and understanding their dimensional properties.
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2 Definition
Definition 2.1 (Basis). Let V be a vector space over a field F . A set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
in V is called a basis of V if:
1. Span: The set spans V , i.e., every vector in V can be expressed as a linear combination of
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }.

2. Linear Independence: The set is linearly independent.

3 Properties
1. Uniqueness of Dimension: All bases of a vector space have the same number of vectors,
known as the dimension of the space.

29
 30 Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces

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2. Minimality: No basis contains a redundant vector; removing any vector from a basis results

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in a set that no longer spans the space.

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3. Coordinate Representation: Every vector in the space can be uniquely expressed as a

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linear combination of the basis vectors.

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4. Transformation: Changing the basis of a vector space corresponds to a coordinate trans-
T, dv f Mra
formation, facilitating various applications like diagonalization.
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5. Subspace Bases: Any subspace of a vector space has a basis, and the basis can be extended
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or reduced from the parent space’s basis.

4 Examples of Bases
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Here are five detailed examples illustrating different aspects of bases in vector spaces and subspaces:

1. Zero Subspace

Example 4.1. Definition: The set containing only the zero vector.
Parent Vector Space: Any vector space V .
Example: In Rn , the zero subspace is {0} = {(0, 0, . . . , 0)}.
Sc ep

Basis: The zero subspace contains only the zero vector. To determine its basis, we consider
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the following:

a. Spanning Set : A basis must span the subspace. Since the zero subspace contains only
the zero vector, any linear combination of basis vectors must also yield the zero vector.
The only way this is possible is if there are no vectors in the basis, i.e., the basis is the
empty set.
b. linear Independence : The empty set is trivially linearly independent because there are
no vectors to form a non-trivial linear combination. There are no scalars to satisfy a
non-trivial equation, hence the condition for linear independence is vacuously satisfied.

2. Standard Basis in Rn

Example 4.2. Problem: Identify the standard basis for R3 and verify that it is indeed a
basis.
Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces 31

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Solution: The standard basis for R3 consists of vectors where each vector has a 1 in one

es
coordinate and 0 in all others. Specifically:

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e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1)

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Verification:
n
T, dv f Mra
1. Span: Any vector v = (a, b, c) ∈ R3 can be expressed as:
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v = ae1 + be2 + ce3 = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1)

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This shows that the set {e1 , e2 , e3 } spans R3 .

2. Linear Independence: To verify linear independence, consider the equation:
a
ol tm a

xe1 + ye2 + ze3 = 0

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Substituting the vectors:

x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)

This yields the system: 

x = 0

Sc ep

y=0

z=0

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The only solution is x = y = z = 0, proving that the set is linearly independent.

Conclusion: Since the standard basis {e1 , e2 , e3 } both spans R3 and is linearly independent,
it is indeed a basis for R3 .

3. Basis for a Subspace Defined by Linear Equations

Example 4.3. Problem: Find a basis for the subspace W ⊆ R3 defined by the equation
x + y + z = 0.
Solution:
1. Express Variables in Terms of Free Variables: Solve the equation x + y + z = 0 for
one variable in terms of the others. Let’s solve for z:

z = −x − y
 32 Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces

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Thus, any vector in W can be written as:

es
na Sc ma
v = (x, y, −x − y) = x(1, 0, −1) + y(0, 1, −1)

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2. Identify Generators: The vectors:

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n v1 = (1, 0, −1), v2 = (0, 1, −1)
T, dv f Mra
generate W since any vector in W is a linear combination of v1 and v2 .
VI A t o a

3. Check for Linear Independence: Consider the equation:

of en nim

av1 + bv2 = 0

Substituting the vectors:

a
ol tm a
ho ar M

a(1, 0, −1) + b(0, 1, −1) = (0, 0, 0)

This yields the system: 

a = 0

b=0

−a − b = 0

Sc ep

The only solution is a = b = 0, proving that {v1 , v2 } is linearly independent.

Conclusion: The set {v1 , v2 } spans W and is linearly independent, hence it forms a basis
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for the subspace W .

4. Basis in Polynomial Space P2

Example 4.4. Problem: Determine a basis for the polynomial space P2 , which consists of
all polynomials of degree at most 2.
Solution:
1. Identify Candidate Vectors: Consider the set:

{1, x, x2 }

2. Check for Span: Any polynomial p(x) ∈ P2 can be expressed as:

p(x) = a · 1 + b · x + c · x2
Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces 33

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for scalars a, b, c ∈ R. This shows that {1, x, x2 } spans P2 .

es
na Sc ma
3. Check for Linear Independence: Consider the equation:

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a · 1 + b · x + c · x2 = 0

en ed he
n
This must hold for all x, implying:
T, dv f Mra
a = 0, b = 0, c=0
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Therefore, the only solution is the trivial one, proving that the set is linearly independent.
of en nim

Conclusion: Since {1, x, x2 } spans P2 and is linearly independent, it forms a basis for P2 .

5. Basis for a Function Subspace

a
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Example 4.5. Problem: Find a basis for the subspace V ⊆ C([0, 1]) consisting of all
continuous functions f (x) such that f (0) = f (1).
Solution:
1. Identify General Form of Functions in V : A function f (x) ∈ V satisfies f (0) = f (1).
To express such functions, we can write:
Sc ep

f (x) = f (0) · 1 + f (1) · g(x)

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where g(x) is a function that satisfies g(0) = 0 and g(1) = 0. For simplicity, let’s consider
g(x) = x(1 − x).
2. Choose Generators: Let:

v1 (x) = 1, v2 (x) = x(1 − x)

Any function in V can be expressed as:

f (x) = a · v1 (x) + b · v2 (x)

for scalars a, b ∈ R.
3. Check for Linear Independence: Consider the equation:

a · 1 + b · x(1 − x) = 0 ∀x ∈ [0, 1]
 34 Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces

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Evaluating at x = 0:

es
a · 1 + b · 0 = 0 =⇒ a = 0

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Substituting a = 0 into the equation:

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b · x(1 − x) = 0 ∀x ∈ [0, 1]

en ed he
n
This implies b = 0.
T, dv f Mra
Conclusion: The set {v1 , v2 } spans V and is linearly independent, thus forming a basis for
the subspace V .
VI A t o a
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6. Basis for Matrix Space M2×2 (R)

Example 4.6. Problem: Determine a basis for the space of all 2×2 real matrices, M2×2 (R).
a

Solution:
ol tm a

1. Identify Candidate Basis Matrices: Consider the following four matrices:

ho ar M

       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
E11 = , E12 = , E21 = , E22 =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

2. Check for Span: Any matrix A ∈ M2×2 (R) can be expressed as:
 
a b
A = aE11 + bE12 + cE21 + dE22 =
Sc ep

c d
where a, b, c, d ∈ R. This shows that {E11 , E12 , E21 , E22 } spans M2×2 (R).
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3. Check for Linear Independence: Consider the equation:

 
0 0
aE11 + bE12 + cE21 + dE22 =
0 0
This leads to the system: 

a=0

b = 0


c=0

d=0
The only solution is a = b = c = d = 0, proving that the set is linearly independent.
Conclusion: The set {E11 , E12 , E21 , E22 } spans M2×2 (R) and is linearly independent, hence
it forms a basis for M2×2 (R).
Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces 35

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5 Conclusion

na Sc ma
Bases are pivotal in linear algebra, providing a structured and efficient means to represent

Ch nc at J
and manipulate vectors within vector spaces and subspaces. Through the examples provided,

en ed he
we have explored various scenarios—from standard bases in Rn to more complex bases in
n
function and matrix spaces. Each example demonstrated the essential steps of identifying
T, dv f Mra
spanning sets and verifying linear independence, culminating in the establishment of a basis.
Understanding how to determine and work with bases is fundamental for further studies in
VI A t o a

linear transformations, eigenvalues, and more advanced topics in mathematics and engineer-
of en nim

ing. Mastery of this concept not only facilitates computational efficiency but also deepens
our comprehension of the underlying structure of vector spaces.
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

Exercises
1. Determine a basis for the subspace W ⊆ R4 defined by the equations:
(
x1 + x 2 + x3 + x4 = 0
2x1 + 3x2 + x3 + 4x4 = 0
Sc ep

2. Find a basis for the space of all 2 × 3 real matrices where the sum of each row is zero.
D

3. Show that the set {1, x, x3 } is not a basis for P3 and identify a suitable basis.
4. Given the functions f1 (x) = ex , f2 (x) = e2x , and f3 (x) = e4x in C(R), determine
whether they form a basis for the subspace they span.
     
1 2 0 1 1 1
5. Verify that the set , , is linearly independent in M2×2 (R)
3 4 1 0 1 1
and forms a basis for its span.
 36
D
Sc ep
ho ar M
ol tm a
of en nim
VI A t o a
T, dv f Mra
a n
Ch nc at J
en ed he
na Sc ma
i ie ti
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Bases of Vector Spaces and Subspaces
 nc cs
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na Sc ma
Ch nc at J
en ed he
n CHAPTER 6
T, dv f Mra
VI A t o a
of en nim

ROW ECHELON FORM AND ROW

REDUCED ECHELON FORM
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

1 Introduction
Sc ep

In linear algebra, a matrix is said to be in Row Echelon Form (REF) if it satisfies the following
conditions:
D

(a) All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.

(b) The leading entry (also called the pivot) of each nonzero row is 1 and is located to the
right of the leading entry of the previous row.

(c) All entries in a column below a leading 1 are zeros.

A matrix is in Row Reduced Echelon Form (RREF) if it meets the criteria of REF and also
satisfies:

(a) The leading 1 in each nonzero row is the only nonzero entry in its column.

37
38 Row Echelon Form and Row Reduced Echelon Form

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2 Properties

na Sc ma
2.1 Properties of Row Echelon Form (REF)

Ch nc at J
en ed he
• A matrix can have multiple REF forms.
n
• The process of obtaining REF from a matrix is called Gaussian elimination.
T, dv f Mra
• REF can be used to solve systems of linear equations.
VI A t o a
of en nim

2.2 Properties of Row Reduced Echelon Form (RREF)

• The RREF of a matrix is unique.
a
ol tm a

• The process of obtaining RREF is called Gauss-Jordan elimination.

ho ar M

• RREF can be used to determine the rank and nullity of a matrix.

3 Examples
Sc ep

3.1 Example 1: Convert to REF

Convert the matrix
D

 
1 2 1
2 4 2
3 6 3
to Row Echelon Form.
Steps: 1. Subtract 2 times the first row from the second row:
 
1 2 1
0 0 0
3 6 3
2. Subtract 3 times the first row from the third row:
 
1 2 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
Row Echelon Form and Row Reduced Echelon Form 39

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3.2 Example 2: Convert to RREF

na Sc ma
Convert the matrix  
1 2 1

Ch nc at J
0 0 0

en ed he
0 0 0
n
to Row Reduced Echelon Form.
T, dv f Mra
Steps: The matrix is already in RREF.
VI A t o a
of en nim

3.3 Example 3: Convert to REF

Convert the matrix
a
ol tm a

 
2 4 1
ho ar M

1 3 1
3 5 3
to Row Echelon Form.
Steps: 1. Divide the first row by 2:
 
1 2 0.5
1 3 1 
Sc ep

3 5 3
2. Subtract the first row from the second row:
D

 
1 2 0.5
0 1 0.5
3 5 3
3. Subtract 3 times the first row from the third row:
 
1 2 0.5
0 1 0.5
0 −1 1.5
4. Add the second row to the third row:
 
1 2 0.5
0 1 0.5
0 0 2
40 Row Echelon Form and Row Reduced Echelon Form

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3.4 Example 4: Convert to RREF

na Sc ma
Convert the matrix  
1 2 0.5

Ch nc at J
0 1 0.5

en ed he
0 0 2
n
to Row Reduced Echelon Form.
T, dv f Mra
Steps: 1. Divide the last row by 2:
VI A t o a
of en nim

 
1 2 0.5
0 1 0.5
0 0 1
a
ol tm a

2. Subtract 0.5 times the third row from the first and second rows:
ho ar M

 
1 2 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

3. Subtract 2 times the second row from the first row:

 
1 0 0
Sc ep

0 1 0
0 0 1
D

3.5 Example 5: Convert to REF

Convert the matrix  
3 1 1
2 3 1
1 2 3
to Row Echelon Form.
Steps: 1. Divide the first row by 3:
 1 1
1 3 3
2 3 1 
1 2 3
Row Echelon Form and Row Reduced Echelon Form 41

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2. Subtract 2 times the first row from the second row:

es
na Sc ma
 1 1 
1 3 3
0 7 − 1 

Ch nc at J
3 3
1 2 3

en ed he
n
3. Subtract the first row from the third row:
T, dv f Mra
 1 1 
1 3 3
VI A t o a

0 7 − 1 
3 3
of en nim

0 35 83

4. Multiply the second row by 73 :

a
 1 1 
ol tm a

1 3 3
0 1 − 1 
ho ar M

7
0 35 83
5. Subtract 5
3
times the second row from the third row:
 1 1 
1 3 3
0 1 − 1 
7
0 0 23
Sc ep

21
D

4 Exercises

Exercise 1: Convert the following matrix to Row Echelon Form:

 
1 1 2
2 2 4
3 1 5

Exercise 2: Convert the following matrix to Row Reduced Echelon Form:

 
1 2 1
0 1 −1
0 0 1
42 Row Echelon Form and Row Reduced Echelon Form

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Exercise 3: Convert the following matrix to Row Echelon Form:

es
na Sc ma
 
1 4 2
2 3 1

Ch nc at J
3 7 5

en ed he
n
Exercise 4: Convert the following matrix to Row Reduced Echelon Form:
T, dv f Mra
 
2 1 1
VI A t o a

4 2 2
of en nim

1 3 4

Exercise 5: Convert the following matrix to Row Echelon Form:

a
ol tm a

 
−1 0
ho ar M

1
2 1 −1
3 −1 2
Sc ep
D
 nc cs
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Ch nc at J
en ed he
n CHAPTER 7
T, dv f Mra
VI A t o a

ROW SPACE, COLUMN SPACE, AND

of en nim

NULL SPACE
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

1 Introduction
In linear algebra, the concepts of row space, column space, and null space are fundamental in
understanding the properties of matrices and the solutions to linear systems. These spaces
Sc ep

help describe the relationships among the vectors in a matrix and provide insights into the
solutions of the corresponding linear equations.
D

2 Definitions

2.1 Row Space

The row space of a matrix A is the vector space spanned by its rows. It consists of all linear
combinations of the rows of A.

2.2 Column Space

The column space of a matrix A is the vector space spanned by its columns. It consists of
all linear combinations of the columns of A.

43
44 Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space

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2.3 Null Space

na Sc ma
The null space of a matrix A is the set of all vectors x such that Ax = 0. It is a subspace of
the domain of A.

Ch nc at J
en ed he
3 Properties n
T, dv f Mra
VI A t o a

• The dimension of the row space is equal to the dimension of the column space, known
of en nim

as the rank of the matrix.

• The null space is orthogonal to the row space.
• The sum of the rank and the nullity (dimension of the null space) of a matrix equals
a
ol tm a

the number of columns in the matrix, known as the Rank-Nullity Theorem.

ho ar M

4 Examples

4.1 Example 1: Matrix A (4x5)

Sc ep

 
1 2 3 4 0
2 4 6 8 0
D

A=
3

6 9 12 0
0 0 0 0 0

Steps to Row Echelon Form

1. Initial Matrix:  
1 2 3 4 0
2 4 6 8 0
A=
3

6 9 12 0
0 0 0 0 0

2. Row Operations: - Subtract 2R1 from R2 :

R2 → R2 − 2R1
Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space 45

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- Subtract 3R1 from R3 :

es
R3 → R3 − 3R1

na Sc ma
- Resulting matrix:

Ch nc at J
 
1 2 3 4 0

en ed he
0 0 0 0 0
n 
0 0 0 0 0

T, dv f Mra
0 0 0 0 0
VI A t o a

3. Final Row Echelon Form:

of en nim

 
1 2 3 4 0
0 0 0 0 0
R=
0

0 0 0 0
a
ol tm a

0 0 0 0 0
ho ar M

Pivot Positions

- Pivot position is at (1,1). The pivot column is column 1.

Sc ep

Basic Variables and Free Variables

- Basic variable: x1 (column with pivot). - Free variables: x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 (no pivot).

D

Row Space

- Spanned by the non-zero rows:

Row Space = span {[1, 2, 3, 4, 0]}

Column Space

- Spanned by pivot column:

Column Space = span [1, 2, 3, 0]T


46 Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space

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Null Space

na Sc ma
- Solving Ax = 0:
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 0

Ch nc at J
en ed he
Substituting:
n x1 = −2x2 − 3x3 − 4x4
T, dv f Mra
- Null space:
VI A t o a
     
 −2 −3 −4 
of en nim

 
 1   0   0 

     


Null Space = span 
 0  ,  1  ,  0 
    


 0   0   1  
 
0 0 0
 
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

4.2 Example 2: Matrix B (4x5)

 
2 1 0 0 1
0 2 1 0 3
B=
0

0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 2
Sc ep
D

Steps to Row Echelon Form

1. Initial Matrix:  
2 1 0 0 1
0 2 1 0 3
B=
0

0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 2

2. Row Operations: - Divide R1 by 2:

1
R1 → R1
2
- Subtract R2 from R1 :
R2 → R2 − R1
Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space 47

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- Final Row Echelon Form:

es
 
1 0.5 0 0 0.5

na Sc ma
0 1 0.5 0 1.5
R=
0 0

1 0 1

Ch nc at J
en ed he
0 0 0 1 2
n
T, dv f Mra
Pivot Positions
VI A t o a
of en nim

- Pivot positions are at (1,1), (2,2), (3,3), and (4,4). The pivot columns are columns 1, 2, 3,
and 4.
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

Basic Variables and Free Variables

- Basic variables: x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 (columns with pivots). - Free variable: x5 (no pivot).

Row Space
Sc ep

- Spanned by the non-zero rows:

D

Row Space = span {[1, 0.5, 0, 0, 0.5], [0, 1, 0.5, 0, 1.5], [0, 0, 1, 0, 1], [0, 0, 0, 1, 2]}

Column Space

- Spanned by pivot columns:

Column Space = span [2, 0, 0, 0]T , [1, 2, 0, 0]T , [0, 1, 0, 0]T , [0, 0, 1, 0]T


Null Space

- Solving Bx = 0:
48 Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space

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na Sc ma
x1 + 0.5x2 + 0.5x5 =0

Ch nc at J
x2 + 0.5x5 =0

en ed he
x3 + x5 =0
n x4 + 2x5 =0
T, dv f Mra
VI A t o a
of en nim

Substituting:
a
ol tm a

x5 = s, x2 = −0.5s, x3 = −s, x4 = −2s, x1 = −0.5s

ho ar M

- Null space:
 

 −0.5 

−0.5

  

 
Null Space = span  −1 
 


  −2 


 
1
Sc ep

 
D

4.3 Other Examples

Example 3: Matrix C (5x6)

 
1 2 3 4 5 0
2 4 6 8 10 0
 
0
C= 0 0 0 0 0 
3 6 9 12 15 0
0 0 1 0 0 0

(Continue similarly for other examples.)

Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space 49

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5 Exercises

na Sc ma
5.1 Exercise 1

Ch nc at J
en ed he
Consider the matrix:
n 2

4 6

T, dv f Mra
1 2 3
E=
0

0 0
VI A t o a

3 6 9
of en nim

1. Find the row echelon form. 2. Identify pivot positions. 3. Determine the row space and
column space. 4. Find the null space.
a
ol tm a

5.2 Exercise 2
ho ar M

Consider the matrix:  

1 0 2 3
0 1 1 1
F =
0

0 0 0
1 2 0 0
Sc ep

1. Find the row echelon form. 2. Identify pivot positions. 3. Determine the row space and
column space. 4. Find the null space.
D

5.3 Exercise 3
Consider the matrix:  
0 1 2 3 4
1 0 1 0 0
G=
0

0 0 1 1
2 3 4 0 0
1. Find the row echelon form. 2. Identify pivot positions. 3. Determine the row space and
column space. 4. Find the null space.
 50
D
Sc ep
ho ar M
ol tm a
of en nim
VI A t o a
T, dv f Mra
a n
Ch nc at J
en ed he
na Sc ma
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Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space
 nc cs
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na Sc ma
Ch nc at J
en ed he
n CHAPTER 8
T, dv f Mra
VI A t o a

RANK-NULLITY THEOREM
of en nim
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

The Rank-Nullity Theorem is a fundamental theorem in linear algebra that describes the
relationship between the dimensions of the column space (rank) and the null space (nullity)
of a matrix. It provides essential insights into the structure of linear transformations and
the solutions to systems of linear equations.

Detailed Introduction
Sc ep

Given a matrix A of size m × n:

D

• Column Space: The column space of A, denoted as Col(A), is the span of the columns
of A. It represents all possible linear combinations of the columns of A and is a subspace
of Rm . The dimension of the column space is called the rank of the matrix A, denoted
as rank(A).
• Null Space: The null space of A, denoted as N(A), is the set of all vectors x ∈ Rn such
that Ax = 0. It consists of all solutions to the homogeneous equation. The dimension
of the null space is called the nullity of the matrix A, denoted as nullity(A).

Statement of the Rank-Nullity Theorem

For any matrix A of size m × n:

51
52 Rank-Nullity Theorem

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rank(A) + nullity(A) = n

na Sc ma
Where:

Ch nc at J
en ed he
• rank(A): the dimension of the column space.
n
• nullity(A): the dimension of the null space.
T, dv f Mra
• n: the number of columns in the matrix A.
VI A t o a
of en nim

This theorem highlights that the number of columns of the matrix can be decomposed into
two parts: the dimensions contributing to the column space and those contributing to the
null space.
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

Statement with Respect to AT

For the transpose of a matrix A:

dim(Col(A)) + nullity(AT ) = m
Sc ep

Where:

• dim(Col(A)) is the dimension of the column space of A (also the rank of A).
D

• nullity(AT ) is the dimension of the null space of AT .

• m is the number of rows of the matrix A.

This relationship tells us that the dimension of the column space of A plus the nullity of AT
equals the number of rows of A.

Examples

Example 1: 2 × 3 Matrix
Let
Rank-Nullity Theorem 53

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es
 
1 0 0

na Sc ma
A=
0 1 0

Ch nc at J
• Step 1: Calculate the Rank

en ed he
n
– The two columns are linearly independent.
T, dv f Mra
– Thus, rank(A) = 2.
VI A t o a

• Step 2: Calculate the Nullity

of en nim

– Since n = 3 (the number of columns),

– nullity(A) = n − rank(A) = 3 − 2 = 1.
a

• Conclusion:
ol tm a

rank(A) + nullity(A) = 2 + 1 = 3
ho ar M

Example 2: 3 × 4 Matrix

Let
Sc ep

 
1 2 3 4
B = 0 0 0 0
D

5 6 7 8

• Step 1: Calculate the Rank

– The first and third rows are linearly independent. The second row contributes no
information.
– Therefore, rank(B) = 2.
• Step 2: Calculate the Nullity
– Since n = 4,
– nullity(B) = n − rank(B) = 4 − 2 = 2.
• Conclusion:
rank(B) + nullity(B) = 2 + 2 = 4
54 Rank-Nullity Theorem

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Example 3: 4 × 2 Matrix

na Sc ma
Let

Ch nc at J
en ed he
 
1 2
n 2
C=
4
T, dv f Mra
3 6
0 0
VI A t o a

• Step 1: Calculate the Rank

of en nim

– All rows are linearly dependent, with only one independent row.
– Thus, rank(C) = 1.
a
ol tm a

• Step 2: Calculate the Nullity

ho ar M

– Since n = 2,
– nullity(C) = n − rank(C) = 2 − 1 = 1.
• Conclusion:
rank(C) + nullity(C) = 1 + 1 = 2
Sc ep

Example 4: 3 × 5 Matrix
D

Let
 
1 0 2 3 4
D = 0 0 0 0 0 
5 0 6 7 8

• Step 1: Calculate the Rank

– The first and third rows are linearly independent.
– Thus, rank(D) = 2.
• Step 2: Calculate the Nullity
– Since n = 5,
– nullity(D) = n − rank(D) = 5 − 2 = 3.
Rank-Nullity Theorem 55

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• Conclusion:

es
na Sc ma
rank(D) + nullity(D) = 2 + 3 = 5

Ch nc at J
en ed he
n
Example 5: 2 × 2 Matrix
T, dv f Mra
Let
VI A t o a
of en nim

 
1 1
E=
2 2
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

• Step 1: Calculate the Rank

– The second row is a multiple of the first, indicating linear dependence.

– Therefore, rank(E) = 1.

• Step 2: Calculate the Nullity

Sc ep

– Since n = 2,
– nullity(E) = n − rank(E) = 2 − 1 = 1.
D

• Conclusion:
rank(E) + nullity(E) = 1 + 1 = 2

Conclusion

The Rank-Nullity Theorem provides a powerful framework for understanding the dimensions
of vector spaces associated with matrices. It is crucial in various applications, including
solving linear systems, understanding linear transformations, and analyzing data in machine
learning.
56 Rank-Nullity Theorem

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Exercise

na Sc ma
Problem 1

Ch nc at J
en ed he
Given the matrix
n 
1 2 3

T, dv f Mra
A = 0 0 0
4 5 6
VI A t o a

a. Calculate the rank of A.

of en nim

b. Determine the nullity of A.

c. Verify the Rank-Nullity Theorem for this matrix.
a
ol tm a
ho ar M

Problem 2:
Consider the matrix  
1 1 1
B = 0 1 0
1 0 1
Sc ep

a. Find the rank of B.

b. Calculate the nullity of B.
D

c. Confirm the Rank-Nullity Theorem holds for B.

Problem 3:
Let  
1 0 2 3
C = 0 1 4 5
0 0 0 0
a. Determine the rank of C.
b. Find the nullity of C.
c. Show that the Rank-Nullity Theorem is satisfied.
Rank-Nullity Theorem 57

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Problem 4:

na Sc ma
Given the matrix  
1 2 0 0 5

Ch nc at J
2 4 0 0 10

en ed he
D=
0

0 1 1 0
n 0 0 0 0 0
T, dv f Mra
a. Calculate the rank of D.
VI A t o a

b. Determine the nullity of D.

of en nim

c. Validate the Rank-Nullity Theorem for this matrix.

a
ol tm a

Problem 5:
ho ar M

Let  
2 4 1
E = 0 0 0
3 6 1

a. Compute the rank and nullity of E.

Sc ep

b. Find the rank and nullity of E T (the transpose of E).

D

c. Verify the relationship between the dimensions of the column space of E and the nullity
of E T .

Problem 6:
For the matrix  
1 1 1
1 0 0
F =
0

1 0
0 0 1

a. Find the null space of F .

b. Calculate the rank and nullity of F and check the Rank-Nullity Theorem.
58 Rank-Nullity Theorem

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Problem 7:

na Sc ma
A system of equations represented by the matrix

Ch nc at J
 
1 2 1

en ed he
2 4 2
n G= 3 6

3
T, dv f Mra
0 0 0
VI A t o a

a. What does the nullity tell you about the solutions to this system?
of en nim

b. What is the significance of the rank in this context?

a
ol tm a
ho ar M
Sc ep
D