Unit 3

Respiratory System
• Respiratory system – Organs, structure
and functions, mechanics of respiration,
• regulation of respiration, gas exchange.
• Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Role of Hb as a buffer system.
 What is the
respiratory
system?
The respiratory system
consists of the nose,
pharynx ,larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and
lungs.

The primary function of this system is to furnish

oxygen for individual tissue cells, and to take
away the waste products and carbon dioxide
produced by those same cells.
External & internal respiration…
Ventilating the lungs
External respiration
is the process of
inhaling oxygen into
the lungs, and
exhaling carbon
dioxide. That
Internal respiration is the
process includes the
metabolic process by which
ventilation of the
living cells use blood
lungs and the
flowing through the
exchange of air in
capillaries, absorbing the
the lungs and blood
oxygen (O2 )they need and
within the capillaries
releasing the carbon dioxide
of the alveoli of the
(CO2)they create.
lungs.
 The nose…
The external opening of
the nose is the nostrils
or anterior nares.

The dividing partition

between the nostrils is the
nasal septum, which forms
two nasal cavities.
Each cavity is divided into
3 air passages: the
superior, middle, and
inferior conchae (KON kuh).
 The nose…
The conchae passages lead to
the passageway called the
pharnyx. Here, the ear is
connected to the sinuses, the
ears through the eustachian
tubes, and even the eyes
through the nasolacrimal ducts.
 The nose…
The palatine (palate)
bones and maxilla (upper
jaw bone) separate the
nasal cavities from the
mouth cavity. Cilia (hairs)
line the mucous
membrane. About 1 qt. of
mucous is produced daily.

Maxillae
The nose…

The nose has 5 functions:

1. It serves as an air passageway.
2. It warms and moistens inhaled air.
3. Its cilia and mucous membrane trap dust, pollen,
bacteria, and foreign matter.
4. It contains olfactory receptors, which smell odors.
5. It aids in phonation and the quality of voice.
The pharynx… The pharynx is
the correct term
for the throat.
It is a muscular
and
membranous
tube that is
about 5 inches
long, extending
downward from
the base of the
The nasopharynx is behind the skull. It
nose; the oropharynx is behind eventually
the mouth; the laryngopharynx becomes the
is behind the larynx. esophagus.
The pharynx…
There are 7 openings
into the pharynx.
In the nasopharynx,
there are two
openings from the
eustachian tubes of
the ear , and two
openings from the
posterior nares of the
nose .
In the oropharnyx is
one opening from the
mouth .
The pharynx…
The pharynx also
contains 3 pairs of
tissues that are part
of the lymphatic
system:
1. the pharyngeal tonsils… the adenoids
2. the palatine tonsils
3. the lingual tonsils
The pharynx has 3 functions:
1. serves as a passageway for air
2. serves as a passageway for food
3. aids in phonation by changing its shape.
 The larynx…
The larynx, commonly called the
voicebox, is located at the upper
end of the trachea, below the root
of the tongue and hyoid bone. It is
lined with mucous membrane.

The larynx contains vocal

cords, which produce sound.
Short, tense vocal cords produce high notes;
long relaxed vocal cords produce low notes.
 The larynx… Epiglottis
We can see several of the
cartilage structures of the Thyroid
cartilage
larynx in this side view:
1. The thyroid cartilage or
Adam’s apple is usually
larger in the male,
allowing longer vocal
Cricoid
cords and contributing to cartilage
a deeper male voice
2. The epiglottis covers the entrance of the
larynx while swallowing, to avoid choking
3. The cricoid cartilage contains the vocal cords
 The trachea… a smooth, muscular tube
The trachea or windpipe is

leading from the larynx to

the main bronchi.

C-shaped rings
Trachea of cartilage
provide
Cartilage rings prevent protection on the
crushing of the trachea front and sides
The trachea…

The trachea is the passageway for air to and from

the lungs. It is lined with cilia (hairs), which
sweep foreign matter out of the pathway. It is only
about 1 inch in diameter and 4 ½ inches long.
The bronchi…
The bronchi are the
two main branches
at the bottom of
the trachea,
providing
passageway for air
to the lungs. The
trachea divides
into the right As the branches of the
bronchus and the bronchial tree get smaller,
left bronchus, and the 2 primary bronchi
then divides become bronchioles, and
further into the then very small alveolar
bronchial tree. (al VEE ah ler) ducts.
The bronchi…
The left bronchi is
smaller than the right
bronchi, because room
is needed to
accommodate the heart.

If a foreign body is inhaled

or aspirated (drawn by
suction), it usually lodges
in the larger right bronchi
(as shown in this Xray) or
enters the right lung.
The bronchi…

In the presence of infection, the bronchi

sometimes become inflamed, resulting in a
diagnosis of bronchitis.
The lungs…
The lungs are two spongy organs
located in the thorax. They
consist of elastic tissue, filled
with an interlacing network of
tubes and sacs that carry air and
blood vessels that carry blood.

Each lung is divided into lobes,

the right lung into 3 lobes and
the left lung into 2. The left lung
has an indentation called the
cardiac depression or notch…
for placement of the heart.
 At the end of each bronchiole
The lungs… are the alveoli (al VEE oh lye).
The lungs contain about 300
million alveoli sacs, which are
the air cells where the
exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide takes place with
the capillaries. .

Deoxygenated blood comes

in and drops off CO2;
oxygenated blood goes out.
 The base of the lungs rest
The lungs… on the diaphragm, a
muscular wall separating
the thorax from the
abdominal cavity. It is
involved in respiration,
drawing downward in the
chest during inhalation,
and pushing upward
during exhalation.
Tidal volume refers to the amount
of air inhaled or exhaled during
normal breathing… about 500 ml.
Total lung capacity is 3.6-9.4 liters
in an average male.
The lungs…
Pathogens, white
cells and immune
proteins present
during an infection
may cause the air
sacs to become
inflamed and filled
with fluid.
This is characteristic of pneumonia. If both lungs
are involved, it is termed as double pneumonia.
If someone is unconscious, it’s possible to aspirate
stomach contents into the lungs, causing
aspiration pneumonia.
Vital signs… Vital signs, essential
elements for determining
an individual’s state of
health, include
temperature, pulse,
respiration, and blood
pressure. A deviation
from normal of any or all
of the vital signs indicates
The normal respiration a state of illness, and can
rate for a 5 year old is be used by the physician
20-25 breaths per in a diagnosis, prognosis
minute; for someone (prospects of survival and
15 years or older is 15- recovery), and treatment.
20 breaths per minute.
 Mechanics of respiration

Effector organs
This includes the respiratory muscles like the diaphragm, the rib cage muscles (external
intercostal muscles and internal intercostal muscles) and the abdominal muscles.
 Breathing (Pulmonary ventilation): The mechanism of breathing
involves the inspiration and expiration of air with the
movement of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

During inhalation, external intercostal muscles contract. At the

same time, the diaphragm contracts and flattens. These actions
increase the volume of the thoracic (chest) cavity, and the air
(oxygen) is forced into the lungs. On the contrary, exhalation occurs
when the thoracic cavity is reduced, and the air (carbon dioxide) is
expelled out.
External Respiration:

It involves the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the

alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries due to the partial pressure
difference.

The solubility of oxygen in the blood is not high, hence there is a big
difference in the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli versus in
the blood of the pulmonary capillaries.

The partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli is about 104mmHg,

and it is about 40mmHg in the capillary blood. The difference is
about [Link] strong pressure gradient forces oxygen from the
alveoli into the blood across the respiratory membrane.
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide between the
alveolar air and the blood of the capillary is also different.

However, the partial pressure difference is far less than

that of oxygen, about 5mmHg. The partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in the capillary blood is about 45mmHg
and, in the alveoli, it is about 40mmHg. It is because the
solubility of carbon dioxide in the blood is much greater
than that of oxygen.
 Internal Respiration:
The gaseous exchange process that takes place in the
tissues is called internal respiration. The oxygen after
dissociating from the haemoglobin reaches the tissues
or cells.

The oxygen causes the complete breakdown of the

glucose molecules (food) into carbon, water, and
energy. The energy remains stored in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) and is further utilized to
perform several living activities. This mechanism of
internal respiration is also named Cellular Respiration.
 Transport of Oxygen:
Oxygen is carried through the blood from the respiratory organs to the different
tissues. Oxygen can be carried in two forms:

[Link] plasma

[Link] Red Blood Cells (RBCs)(RBCs)

Only about 33 per cent is dissolved in plasma. Haemoglobin transports about 9797 per cent of the oxygen
in the form of oxyhemoglobin.
 Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in the below-mentioned three ways:
1. In dissolved state: About 5−75−7 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported,
being dissolved in the plasma of blood.
2. In the form of bicarbonate: Carbon dioxide produced by the tissues diffuses
passively into the blood and passes into the red blood corpuscles, where it reacts
with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3).

3. In combination with the amine group of protein: (carbaminohemoglobin): In

addition to the above two methods, carbon dioxide reacts directly with the amine
radicals (NH2)
of haemoglobin molecules and forms a carbanionhemoglobin molecule (Hb.CO2).

Almost 23 per cent of carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs and released out of the
body through exhalation.
 Regulation of respiration

Human beings have a significant ability to maintain the

respiratory rhythm to suit the body needs. This is called
the regulation of respiration.
Components involved in regulation of respiration
The regulation of respiration is mainly dependent on the interactions of three
components of the respiratory system. These are as follows:
Control centers
These are present in the brain stem (pons varolii and the medulla oblongata) and are
responsible for the automaticity of breathing. Input for these centers comes from the
higher brain centers to produce the required voluntary breathing efforts.
Sensors
These include chemoreceptors and sensory receptors.
Chemoreceptors
The chemoreceptors respond to changes in the blood carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
hydrogen ion concentration by sending impulses to the control centers. This will alter
the breathing pattern by affecting the effector organs.
Sensory receptors
The sensory receptors are located in the upper and lower airways, the lung, and the
muscles of respiration.
Effector organs
This includes the respiratory muscles like the diaphragm, the rib cage muscles
(external intercostal muscles and internal intercostal muscles) and the abdominal
 Neural regulation

The respiratory rhythm is regulated by respiratory

centres, which is composed of group neurons located
in the hind part of the brain. The rate and depth of
breathing is regulated by these respiratory centres.
There are two regions in the brain which mainly
regulate respiration. These are as follows:

Medulla oblongata
Pons varolii
Medulla oblongata
It is located in the hindbrain. It can regulate both expiration and inspiration depending on
the neurons activated. It regulates respiratory rhythm according to the requirements of
the body. Medulla oblongata has two respiratory centres as follows:

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) or

inspiratory group (IG)

It is located in the dorsal portion of the

medulla oblongata. This group of neurons
mainly causes inspiration by stimulating
the muscles of the diaphragm to flatten and
the external intercostal muscles to raise
the ribs. This group mainly maintains
respiratory rhythm and respiratory rate.

Ventral respiratory group (VRG) or expiratory group (EG)

It is located in the ventrolateral part of the medulla oblongata. It sends signals for both
inspiration and expiration. To regulate inspiration it sends signals to diaphragm and
external intercostal muscles. To regulate expiration it sends signals to internal intercostal
muscles and muscles of the abdominal wall. It is mainly responsible for regulation of
forceful expiration and is also known as expiratory center.
 Chemical regulation

Centers associated with chemical regulation of

respiration are as follows:

• Central chemoreceptors

• Peripheral chemoreceptors
 Chemoreceptors

These are present in the medullary oblongata region around the inspiratory center.

This area is sensitive to pCO2 and H+ ions concentration an

increase in pCO2 and H+ ions

Activate these receptors,

Which in turn activate respiratory rhythm center or the inspiratory center.

Activated rhythm centers alter the rate of respiration or inspiration.

This will make necessary adjustments in the respiratory process by which these
substances will be eliminated.
 Cough reflex
This is a protective reflex caused by irritation of parts of
the respiratory tract beyond nose like larynx, trachea and
bronchi.

Irritation of any of this part causes stimulation of vagus

nerve and cough occurs

Cough begins with deep inspiration followed by forceful

expiration with closed glottis

So the intrapleural pressure rises above 100 mm Hg

Then, glottis is suddenly opened with explosive outflow of

air at a higher velocity.

So the irritants may be expelled out of the respiratory

tract
 Sneezing reflex
It is also a protective reflex which occurs due to the irritation
of nasal mucus membrane

During irritation of nasal mucus membrane, the olfactory

receptors and trigeminal nerve endings present in the nasal
mucosa are stimulated leading to sneezing.

Sneezing starts with deep inspiration, followed by forceful

expiratory effort with opened glottis and the irritants are
expelled out of the respiratory tract
 Deglutition reflex

During swallowing of the food, the respiration is

arrested for a while.

Temporary arrest of the respiration is called apnea

and apnea which occurs during swallowing called
swallowing apnea or deglutition apnea.

This prevents entry of the food particles into the

respiratory tract.
Role of Hb as a buffer system

Regulation of body fluid pH is one of the

most important physiological functions of
homeostasis, because activity of most
chemical reactions via enzyme proteins is
dependent on fluid pH.
 Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance

• The respiratory system contributes to the balance

of acids and bases in the body by regulating the
blood levels of carbonic acid

CO2 in the blood readily reacts with water to form carbonic acid, and
the levels of CO2 and carbonic acid in the blood are in equilibrium.
When the CO2 level in the blood rises (as it does when you hold your
breath), the excess CO2 reacts with water to form additional carbonic
acid, lowering blood pH. Increasing the rate and/or depth of respiration
(which you might feel the “urge” to do after holding your breath) allows
you to exhale more CO2. The loss of CO2 from the body reduces blood
levels of carbonic acid and thereby adjusts the pH upward, toward
normal levels.
This process also works in the opposite direction.
Excessive deep and rapid breathing (as in
hyperventilation) rids the blood of CO2 and reduces the
level of carbonic acid, making the blood too alkaline.
This brief alkalosis can be remedied by rebreathing air
that has been exhaled into a paper bag. Rebreathing
exhaled air will rapidly bring blood pH down toward
normal.
Respiratory Regulation
of Blood pH: The
respiratory system can
reduce blood pH by
removing CO2 from the
blood.
The chemical reactions that regulate the levels of CO2 and carbonic
acid occur in the lungs when blood travels through the lung’s
pulmonary capillaries.

The body regulates the respiratory rate by the use of

chemoreceptors, which primarily use CO2 as a signal.

These sensors signal the brain to provide immediate adjustments to

the respiratory rate if CO2 levels rise or fall.
• Hypercapnia, or abnormally elevated blood levels of CO2,
occurs in any situation that impairs respiratory functions,
including pneumonia and congestive heart failure.

• Reduced breathing (hypoventilation) due to drugs such as

morphine, barbiturates, or ethanol (or even just holding one’s
breath) can also result in hypercapnia.

• Hypocapnia, or abnormally low blood levels of CO2, occurs with

any cause of hyperventilation that drives off the CO2, such as
salicylate toxicity, elevated room temperatures, fever, or
hysteria.