2.1 2.2 2.3 2.

4
Part 2 Creating a Creating Decision and Evaluation of
Design Goal Product Ideas Selection Product Features
Design and Concepts

Methods

This part presents a variety

of design methods which can
be used in the product design
process. The design methods
presented here are categorised
according to the activity for
which they can be used:
1 creating a design goal,
2 creating product ideas and
concepts,
3 decision and selection
4 evaluation of product features

Part 2 Design Methods Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Design Methods – 2

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
2.1
Creating a
2.1 Creating a Design Goal
Design Goal

A product design process is preceded by a product

planning process, as was explained in the first part of
this reader. In the product planning process, policies are
Strategy Wheel formulated based upon an internal and external analysis
of the market and the company. The product planning
Trends Analysis process ends with the formulation of a design brief,
which forms the start of the product design process.
Cradle to Cradle Sometimes the product ideas are already mentioned
explicitly in the design brief, and sometimes the product
EcoDesign Checklist design process starts with a search for relevant product
ideas. In any case, the product design process always
EcoDesign Stratey Wheel begins with a stage in which the design problem (or
challenge) will be analysed.
Collage Techniques A first description of the design problem is stated in the
design brief. The analysis of the design problem serves
Process Tree the formulation of a design goal or goals. Hence this
first section of design methods: creating a design goal.
WWWWWH Design goals are broad declarations of intent that can
be elaborated into more specific goals. For instance,
Problem Definition the designer could study the motivation of the problem
owner, the need in the market, the context in which the
Checklist for Generating Requirements product is used, competitive products, user behaviour,
the product’s functions, the company’s production
Design Specifications (Criteria) facilities etc. After this analysis, conclusions are drawn,
which are often in the form of requirements, a design
Design Vision philosophy, a mission statement, or a product vision.
In this section, creating a design goal, various methods
are presented that facilitate the first stage of a design
process: the analysis of the design problem, and the
formulation of a design specification.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal – 2.1

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Strategy Wheel

What Is a Strategy Wheel? The strategy wheel is sometimes used to compare

A strategy wheel is a visual representation and a other things than a company’s strategic position.
Keywords quick tool to review a company’s strengths (see For example, design concepts can be analysed and
Strategic strengths figure 2.2). A strategy wheel presents the company’s reviewed using the strategy wheel (see fig. 2.1).
Competitor analysis competencies on the axes, and the scores of the The axes represent design requirements on which
Marketing competencies on those axes. By using the diagram, the design concepts are evaluated. The strategy
you obtain a quick understanding of the company’s wheel then yields a visual representation of the
strategic strengths. Often it is useful to construct scores of the different design concepts on the design
strategy wheels of a company’s direct competitors. requirements. Also, there are various adaptations
A product innovation process (see section 1.2) starts of the strategy wheel (for example the ‘EcoDesign
with a clear understanding of the current situation Strategy Wheel’, in this section).
fig. 2.1 Strategy Wheel (Buijs and Valkenburg, 1996) of a company. The need
for a new product arises When Do You Use a Strategy Wheel?
finances from an understanding of a A strategy wheel is usually applied in the beginning
company’s strategic strengths of a new product development process in order to
product portfolio technical know-how and weaknesses, and the present the strategic strengths of a company.
opportunities in the market.
A thorough analysis of the How to Use a Strategy Wheel?
current situation of a company Starting Point
yields an understanding The results of an internal analysis form the starting
export know-how development of the company’s strategic point for the use of the strategy wheel: a clear
strengths (for example: understanding of the company’s strategic strengths in
technical know-how, product relation to its direct competitors.
portfolio, development
(capability), financial position, Expected Outcome
export know-how, marketing, The outcome of the use of the strategy wheel is a
management marketing
organisation and personnel, visual representation and a better understanding of
management). the company’s strategic strengths.
organisation
organisation&&personnel
personel

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Strategy Wheel – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Stratery Wheel – 2.1

How to
Strategy Wheel

analysis of the determine determine create a add values of analysis

company characteristics values diagram competitor

Possible Procedure References and Further Reading

1 Determine the company characteristics that you Buijs, J. and Valkenburg, R. (2005, 3rd ed.)
want to evaluate. Examples are: financial strength, Integrale Product Ontwikkeling, Utrecht: Lemma
in-house technology, knowledge (Research and
Development).
2 Determine a value for each of the characteristics.
These values are determined by comparing the
company with its direct competitors.
3 Create a diagram, a strategy wheel of the scores on
the characteristics.
4 Optionally, put down the values of the competitors’
scores on the same characteristics in the same
diagram, or in a similar diagram.
5 Analyse the diagram, the strategy wheel, to assess
the company’s strengths and weaknesses (in
comparison with its direct competitors).
 Trends Analysis

What Is Trends Analysis? and analyse future trends. Trends analysis tries
Trends are changes in societies that occur over longer to find answers to the following questions: what
Keywords periods of time (approx. 3-10 years). Trends are developments in the fields of society, markets and
Structuring not only shifts in people’s preferences (for example technology can we expect over the next 3 to 10
Trends pyramid fashion or music), but are also shifts in larger areas years? How do these developments relate to each
PESTED such as the economy, politics, and technology. other? Where do they stimulate each other and
Marketing Trends are an important source of inspiration for where do they block each other? How do trends
thinking up new product ideas. Trends analysis is influence the strategy of an organisation? What are
often used as part of a strategic planning process. the resulting threats and what are the opportunities?
Trends are used to identify customer/market needs, Which ideas for new products and services can we
which a company can meet with new products or think of now on the basis of the trends?
services. Trends analysis is preceded by trends
watching, by which we mean the identifying, For an analysis of the trends, a trends pyramid can
gathering and reporting of trend information without be used. In a trends pyramid (see fig. 2.2), four levels
giving insight into the possible consequences. are distinguished at which one can look at trends:
Trends have the following characteristics: The microtrend is on a product level and has a time
1 a trend has already started and can therefore already horizon of 1 year. The miditrend is on a market level
be identified in some places; and has a time horizon of 1 to 5 years. The maxitrend
microtrend sushi 2 a trend has a specific direction. A development that is is on a consumer level and has a time horizon of 5
constant over time does not bring any change with it to 10 years. The megatrend is on a societal level
and is therefore not a trend; and has a time horizon of 10 to 30 years. Trends
miditrend Asian food
3 a trend will most likely continue for the next 3 to 10 pyramids are set up with trends belonging to a single
years, so hypes and fashions, i.e. developments with theme, for example political trends or technological
Asia in movies,
maxitrend a shorter time horizon, fall outside this category. trends (one could use the PESTED categorisation for
books and clothing
example - see Possible Procedure below).
Trends analysis could be a rich source of inspiration, Examining trends in this way is useful for two
megatrend globalisation
but could also determine the risks involved when reasons: it provides a tool with which the enormous
introducing new products. Trends research is very amount of (trend) information generated can be
fig. 2.2 Trends Pyramid (Stappers et al, 2003) complex, though. It is extremely difficult to identify processed and structured, and it makes it easier to

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Trend Analysis – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Trend Analusisl – 2.1

How to
Trend Analysis

strategic vision list a lot of remove similar place trends in analysis

trends trends trends pyramids

When Can You Use Trends Analysis? 3 Place the trends in a trends pyramid. Set up various
P political A trends analysis is usually performed in the trends pyramids according to the PESTED structure:
Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal – 2.1
beginning of a design project or in the strategic P = Political; E = Economic; S = Social; T =
planning process. With a trends analysis you can Technological; E = Ecological; D = Demographic.
microtrend E economical
identify new business opportunities or new product 4 Identify interesting directions for new products or
ideas. You can also use it to identify preferences of services based on trends. Also, combine trends to see
miditrend S social the target group. whether new products or services may come about.

maxitrend
How to Use Trends Analysis? Tips and Concerns
T technological
Starting Point • Try to combine trends as much as possible.
Corporate/strategic vision. • Make as much use as possible of different sources.
megatrend E ecological • Try to visualise trends just like with scenarios (see
Expected outcome ‘Written Scenario’ in section 2.2).
Potential customer/market needs for which new
D demographical
products and services can be thought up. References and Further Reading
Buijs, J. and Valkenburg, R. (2005, 3rd ed.)
fig. 2.3 Trends Pyramid and PESTED categorisation Possible Procedure Integrale Product Ontwikkeling, Utrecht: Lemma
1 List as many trends as you can think up. Identify
Kotler et al. (1996) Principes van Marketing, Hemel Hempstead
assess the consequences of trends. The different trends from newspapers, magazines, television,
UK: Prentice Hall Europe.
levels are related to each other and refer to the same books, the Internet, etc. At this point it is important
developments but on a different level of abstraction to list as many as possible; don’t pay attention to van der Duin P. et. al. (2003), the worlds of futures research,
or detail. redundant or similar trends. In: dictaat context and conceptualisation, P.J. Stappers et al.,
2 Remove trends which are similar; identify hierarchy in August 2005.
trends. Identify whether trends are related and define
this relationship.
 Cradle to Cradle

What Is Cradle to Cradle? When Can You Use Cradle to Cradle?

Cradle-to-Cradle is positioned by the authors William Cradle to Cradle can be applied in the strategic phase
Keywords McDonough and Michael Braungart as a manifesto of the design process, to give direction to the product
Sustainability for a new approach towards sustainable design: one development process, possibly with a general product
Product life cycle which is based on the intelligence of natural systems. idea in mind.
For McDonough and Braungart, this means we should
stop drawing power from non-renewable fossil fuels, How to Use the Cradle-to-Cradle
and turn towards the sun and other renewable energy Framework
sources for our energy supplies. And we should make McDonough and Braungart give a five-step approach
all ‘materials of consumption’ become part of either to eco-effectiveness. Following these steps will
the biological nutrient cycle or the technological lead to a product that is optimised according to the
nutrient cycle, meaning that materials should either second principle: ‘Waste equals Food’. The steps are
be biodegradable, to be taken up in a natural cycle presented here with quotes from the book Cradle to
at the end of a product’s life, or be ‘upcyclable’, and Cradle:
be reused indefinitely in a technological closed loop
system. Their manifesto is written in a clear and Possible Procedure
optimistic style and offers for many an alternative 1 Get free of known culprits (X-substances, for instance
vision to the ‘eco-efficiency’ approach that has been PVC, cadmium, lead, mercury).
dominant for years. 2 Follow informed personal preferences. We must begin
The basis for the Cradle-to-Cradle approach involves somewhere. Many real-life decisions come down to
three guiding principles: comparing two things that are both less than ideal.
1 Use current solar income. Prefer ecological intelligence. Be as sure as you can
2 Waste equals Food. that a product or substance does not contain or
3 Celebrate diversity. support substances and practices that are blatantly
harmful to human and environmental health.
The Cradle-to-Cradle framework, like many others, In general: opt for products that can be taken back
acknowledges the need to address the entire to the manufacturer and disassembled for reuse (or
life cycle of production, transportation, use, and at the very least, for downcycling). Opt for chemical
disposal, as well as the need to foster diversity in the products with fewer additives, especially stabilisers,
environment. antioxidants, antibacterial substances. Prefer respect,
delight, celebration and fun.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Cradle to Cradle – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Cradle to Cradle – 2.1

3 Create a ‘passive positive’ list, going beyond existing, Tips and Concerns
readily available information as to the contents of a • Cradle to Cradle is often criticised for its lack of
product. Conduct a detailed inventory of the entire attention to energy (energy consumption of products
palette of materials used and substances it may in the use phase).
give off in the course of its manufacture and use.
Are there problematic or potentially problematic References and Further Reading
characteristics? Are they toxic? Carcinogenic? How Braungart, M. and McDonough, W. (2002)Cradle to Cradle,
is the product used and what is its end state? What Remaking the Way We Make Things, New York: North Point
are the effects and possible effects on the local and Press.
global communities? Make lists:
– X list: highest priority for a complete phase-out
– Grey list: problematic substances, not quite so
urgently in need of phase-out (this includes
problematic substances essential for manufacture,
and for which we currently have no viable
alternatives)
– P list: positive list. Substances actively defined as
healthy and safe for use.
4 Activate the P list. Here is where the redesign begins
in earnest, where we stop trying to be less bad and
start figuring out how to be good. Now you set out
with eco-effective principles, so that the product is
designed from beginning to end to become food for
either biological or technical metabolisms.
5 Reinvent. Recast the design assignment. Not ‘design
a car’, but ‘design a nutrivehicle’ (cars designed
to release positive emissions and generate other
nutritious effects on the environment). Push the
assignment further: ‘design a new transportation
infrastructure’. ‘Design transportation’.
 Keywords
Sustainability
EcoDesign Checklist
Environmental profile
Product life cycle
improvement options are derived from the EcoDesign Possible Procedure
Strategy Wheel (see ‘EcoDesign Strategy Wheel’ in 1 Define the product idea, product concept or existing
this section). product that will be analysed.
What Is the EcoDesign Checklist? 2 Perform a needs analysis. Answer the questions from
The EcoDesign Checklist (see figure 2.6) is a checklist When Can You Use the EcoDesign the EcoDesign Checklist.
of questions that provides support for the analysis Checklist? 3 Systematically answer all the questions from the
of a product’s impact on the environment. The The EcoDesign Checklist is best applied in the EcoDesign Checklist, per stage of the product’s life
EcoDesign Checklist provides relevant questions that concept generation phase, when a clear idea of a cycle.
need to be asked when establishing environmental product has been developed. You can also use it to 4 Provide options for improvement following the right-
bottlenecks during the product life cycle. Thus, you analyse existing products. hand side of the EcoDesign Checklist. Describe the
can use the checklist to complement the MET matrix. The EcoDesign Checklist is often used as a tool options for improvement as clearly and precisely as
The checklist also suggests improvement options for to avoid missing any environmental impact of the possible.
areas where environmental problems are identified. product, and in combination with the MET matrix 5 Use the answers to the EcoDesign Checklist to fill out
and the EcoDesign Strategy Wheel (see ‘EcoDesign the MET Matrix.
The checklist starts with a needs analysis, which Strategy Wheel’ in this section)
consists of a series of questions concerning the Tips and Concerns
functioning of a product as a whole. The main How to Use the EcoDesign Checklist • Make sure you answer all the questions in the
question asked in a needs analysis is to what extent Starting Point EcoDesign Checklist.
the product fulfils its main and auxiliary functions. The starting point of the EcoDesign Checklist is • Think about questions you might want to ask yourself
You should answer this question before focusing on a product idea, a product concept, or an existing that are not in the EcoDesign Checklist.
the environmental bottlenecks in the various stages product. • Use the EcoDesign Checklist together with the MET
of the product’s life cycle. The needs analysis is Matrix and the EcoDesign Strategy Wheel (see
followed by a set of questions, categorised per stage Expected Outcome ‘EcoDesign Strategy Wheel’ in this section).
of the product life cycle (production, distribution, The expected outcome of using the EcoDesign
utilisation, recovery and disposal). Checklist is a thorough and systematic understanding References and Further Reading
of the product’s impact on the environment. This can Brezet, H. and Hemel, van, C. (1997) EcoDesign: A Promising
The EcoDesign Checklist consists of two columns: be used to fill out the MET Matrix, and to fill out the Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption,
the questions to be asked are given in the left-hand EcoDesign Strategy Wheel. France: UNEP.
columns of the tables. Some improvement options
Remmerswaal, H. (2002) Milieugerichte Productontwikkeling,
are suggested in the right-hand columns. These
Schoonhoven: Academic Service.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | EcoDesign Checklist – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | EcoDesign Checklist – 2.1

The EcoDesign Checklist

Needs Aanalysis Life cycle stage 3: Distribution
How does the product system actually fulfill EcoDesign Strategy @ New Concept What problems can arise in the distribution of the EcoDesign Strategy 2: Reduction
social needs? Development product to the customer? of material usage
• What are the product’s main and auxiliary functions? • Dematerialisation • What kind of transport packaging, bulk packaging, and • Reduction in weight
• Does the product fulfil these functions effectively and • Shared use of the product retail packaging are used (volume, weights, materials, • Reduction in (transport) volume
efficiently? • Integration of functions reusability)?
• What user needs does the product currently meet? • Functional optimisation of product • Which means of transport are used? EcoDesign Strategy 4: Optimisation
• Can the product functions be expanded or improved to (components) • Is transport efficiently organised? of the distribution system
fulfil user’s needs better? • Less/clean/reusable packaging
• Will this need change over a period of time? • Energy-efficient transport mode
• Can we anticipate this through (radical) product • Energy-efficient logistics
innovation?
Life cycle stage 4: Utilisation
Life cycle stage 1: Production and supply of materials and components What problems arise when using, operating, servicing EcoDesign Strategy 5: Reduction
and repairing the product? of impact in the used stage
What problems arise in the production and supply of EcoDesign Strategy 1: Selection
materials and components? of low-impact materials • How much, and what type of energy is required, direct or • Low energy consumption
• How much, and what types of plastic and rubber are used? • Clean materials indirect? • Clean energy source
• How much, and what types of additives are used? • Renewable materials • How much, and what kind of consumables are needed? • Few consumables
• How much, and what types of metals are used? • Low energy content materials • What is the technical lifetime? • Clean consumables
• How much, and what other types of materials (glass, • Recycled materials • How much maintenance and repairs are needed? • No wastage of energy or consumables
ceramics, etc.) are used? • Recyclable materials • What and how much auxiliary materials and energy are
required for operating, servicing and repair? EcoDesign Strategy 6: Optimisation
• How much, and which type of surface treatment is used?
• What is the environmental profile of the components? EcoDesign Strategy 2: • Can the product be disassembled by a layman? of initial lifetime
• How much energy is required to transport the components Reduction of material usage • Are those parts often requiring replacement detachable? • Reliability and durability
and materials? • Reduction in weight • What is the aesthetic lifetime of the product? • Easy maintenance and repair
• Reduction in (transport) volume
• Modular product structure
• Classic Design
• Strong product-user relation
Life cycle stage 2: In-house production
What problems can arise in the production process in EcoDesign Strategy 3: Optimisation Life cycle stage 5: Recovery and disposal
your own company? of production techniques
What problems arise in the recovery and disposal EcoDesign Strategy 7: Optimisation
• How many, and what types of production processes are • Alternative production techniques of the product? of the end-of-life system
used? (including connections, surface treatments, printing • Fewer production steps • How is the product currently disposed of? • Reuse of product (components)
and labeling) • Low/clean energy consumption • Are components or materials being reused? • Remanufacturing/refurbishing
• How much, and what types of auxiliary materials are • Less production waste • What components could be reused? • Recycling of materials
needed? • Few/clean production consumables • Can the components be reassembled without damage? • Safe incineration
• How high is the energy consumption? • What materials are recyclable?
• How much waste is generated? • Are the materials identifiable
• How many products don’t meet the required quality norms? • Can they be detached quickly?
• Are any incompatible inks, surface treatments or
stickers used?
• Are any hazardous components easily detachable?
• Do problems occur while incinerating non-reusable
fig. 2.4 The EcoDesign Checklist (Brezet, 1997) product parts?
 Keywords
Sustainability
EcoDesign Strategy Wheel
Environmental profile
Product life cycle
What Is the EcoDesign Strategy Wheel?
The EcoDesign Strategy Wheel (also called Life cycle
Design Strategies - LiDs, see fig. 2.5) visualises the
New concept development:
New concept development: strategies that can be followed for EcoDesign.
•• Dematerialisation
Dematerialisation
• Shared use of the produc The development of new products will inevitably
• Shared use of the produc
• Integrations of functions have an impact on the environment. To minimise
Product System Level • Integrations of functions
• Functional optimization of product the impact on the environment, you can follow an
• Functional optimisation of product
(components) Product Component Level
7. Optimization
Product SystemofLevel
end-of-life system (components) EcoDesign strategy. The EcoDesign Strategy Wheel
• Reuse of product is a tool to select and communicate the EcoDesign
•[Link]/ refurbishing
Optimisation of end-of-life system 1. Selection
Product of low-impact
Component Level materials
@
•• Recycling of materials
Reuse of product • Cleaner materials strategies.
•• Safer incineration
Remanufacturing/refurbishing 1.• Renewable
Selection of materials
low-impact materials The EcoDesign Strategy Wheel presents 8 EcoDesign
7 1
• Recycling of materials •• Lower
Cleanerenergy content materials
materials strategies: new concept development, selection of
6.
• Optimization of initial lifetime
Safer incineration
• Recycled materials
• Renewable materials
• Reliability and durability • Recyclable materials low-impact materials, reduction of materials usage,
• Lower energy content materials
•[Link] maintenance
Optimisation of initialand repair
lifetime • Recycled materials optimisation of production techniques, optimisation of
•• Modular 2. Reduction of materials usage
Reliabilityproduct structure
and durability • Recyclable materials distribution system, reduction of impact during use,
2 • Reduction in weight
•• Classic
Easier design
maintenance and repair 6
• Reduction in (transport) volume optimisation of initial lifetime, and optimisation of end-
•• Strong
Modularproduct-user relation
product structure 2. Reduction of materials usage
• Classic design • Reduction in weight of-life system. Most of the EcoDesign strategies relate
• Strong product-user relation • Reduction in (transport) volume to the product life cycle. The first strategy is different,
since it relates to a much more innovative strategy
5. Reduction of impact during use 5 3 3. Optimization of production techniques
than the others. Some strategies relate to the product
• Lower energy
5. Reduction consumption
of impact during use • Alternative production
3. Optimisation techniques
of production techniques
• Cleaner
• Lower energy
energy source
consumption • Fewer production
• Alternative steps techniques
production
component level, some to product structure level and
4
• Fewerenergy
• Cleaner consumables
source needed • Lower/ cleaner
• Fewer energysteps
production consumption others to the product system level.
• Cleaner consumables Product Structure level • Less
• Fewer consumables needed • production
Lower/cleanerwaste
energy consumption
• No waste
• Cleaner of energy/ consumables
consumables Product Structure level • Fewer/
• Lesscleaner production
production waste consumables
4. Optimization of distribution system During the analysis of the environmental product
• No waste of energy/consumables • Fewer/cleaner production
•[Link]/ cleaner/ of
Optimisation reusable packaging
distribution system priorities for the
consumables profile, many improvement options will have come
••Energy-efficient transport
Less/ cleaner/ reusable mode
packaging new products up spontaneously. These improvement options
••Energy-efficient
Energy-efficient logistics
transport mode priorities for the new product
• Energy-efficient logistics
existing product can be grouped according to the classification of
existing product eight EcoDesign strategies and visualised in the
EcoDesign Strategy Wheel as EcoDesign strategies in
fig. 2.5 The EcoDesign Strategy Wheel (Brezet and van Hemel, 1995) the product design project. To generate even more

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | EcoDesign Strategy Wheel – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | EcoDesign Strategy Wheel – 2.1

How to
EcoDesign
Strategy Wheel
? ? ?
define product define determine
product define
determine
determine
product
values determine
determine
createvalues
a determine
addcreate
values
avalues
of add create
valuesanalysis
aof add values
analysis
of analysis
idea characteristics
idea characteristics
idea characteristics
diagram competitor
diagram competitor
diagram competitor

improvement options, the project can also go the When Can You Use the EcoDesign Checklist and the MET Matrix. Another starting point
other way around by using the EcoDesign Strategy Strategy Wheel? for the Strategy Wheel is a first view on the direction
Wheel as an option-generation tool. The EcoDesign Checklist is best applied in the first for product design (first product ideas included).
You can visualise the results of establishing the most stage of a product design process, the problem
promising EcoDesign strategy for the project by using analysis stage. The EcoDesign Strategy Wheel is Expected Outcome
the EcoDesign Strategy Wheel. Next, once you have best applied to present and select new strategies for The expected outcome of using the EcoDesign Strategy
established EcoDesign priorities, you can draw them product design, possibly with a general product idea Wheel is a clear understanding of possible strategies
up and visualise them by adding two activity lines to in mind. The EcoDesign Strategy Wheel is often used for new product design. Based on this understanding,
the EcoDesign Strategy Wheel: short-term activities in combination with the MET Matrix (Brezet and van you can make a selection of the strategy you will
versus long-term activities. This makes it easy to Hemel, 1997. see fig. 2.6) as a tool to avoid missing apply in the next phase: product design.
communicate the EcoDesign strategy both internally any environmental impacts of the product and also in
and externally. combination with the EcoDesign Checklist. Possible Procedure
Finally, the EcoDesign strategy which is established In practice, it is preferable to do the analysis of 1 Define the product idea, product concept or existing
for the short term is included in the list of environmental problems and the creative thinking product that will be analysed.
requirements for the product to be redesigned. You about options for improvement in groups. Such a 2 Systematically score the product on each dimension
should describe the environmental requirements group consists of the project team and possibly other of the Strategy Wheel. You can use the answers from
quantitatively as far as possible. At a later stage stakeholders. the EcoDesign Checklist and/or the data from the
this will facilitate the mutual comparison of various MET matrix.
product concepts or detailed solutions. How to Use the EcoDesign Strategy 3 Consider the optimisation options for each of the
Wheel? dimensions, paying special attention to those on
Starting Point which the current design scores badly and those that
The starting point of the EcoDesign Strategy Wheel have the most relevant environmental impact for that
is formed by the information from the EcoDesign product (based on the MET matrix).
 Tips and Concerns

Production Use Disposal

• Use the EcoDesign Strategy Wheel together with
the MET Matrix and the EcoDesign Checklist (see
‘EcoDesign Checklist’, in this section).
• Do not only consider technical solutions but also
Materials psychological ones. How does the design influence
the user regarding energy efficiency, length of the life
cycle, and end-of-life.
• Be aware that some EcoDesign strategies may
strengthen each other, but some can also conflict with
each other. The same goes for EcoDesign strategies
Energy and normal design and business considerations.
• Recheck your final redesign to see whether it offers
the same functionality as the ‘old’ product, both
physically and immaterially.

References and Further Reading

Toxicity Brezet, H. and Hemel, van, C. (1997) EcoDesign: A Promising
Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption,
France: UNEP.

Remmerswaal, H. (2002) Milieugerichte Productontwikkeling,

Schoonhoven: Academic Service
fig. 2.6 The MET Matrix (Brezet and van Hemel, 1997)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | EcoDesign Strategy Wheel – 2.1
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Collage Techniques

What Is a Collage? Visual thinking and visualisation of ideas is inherent in

A collage is a visual representation made from an thinking up ideas and solutions in design. Some issues
Keywords assembly of different forms, materials and sources cannot simply be captured in words, and this is where
Visualisation creating a new whole. A collage may include collages come into play. Collages help in structuring,
Mood board newspaper clippings, ribbons, bits of coloured or developing, analysing and presenting visual issues
Image board hand-made papers, portions of other artwork, that are difficult to express in words. You could think
Form characteristics photographs, and such, glued (photoshopped) to of shape characteristics, colour palette, compositional
Context analysis a solid support or canvas. Making collages is an issues and so on. The overall purpose of using
important visualisation technique in the design collages in the design process is to bring together
process, next to design drawing and three- visual elements to explore their commonalities.
dimensional modelling (see ‘Design Drawing’ and
‘Three-dimensional Models’ in section 2.2). Deriving Criteria from Collages?
By means of collages, you make visual representations Analysing collages helps determine criteria (design
of the context, user group or product category with requirements) to which the solution must apply.
the objective of deriving (visual) criteria. Criteria of this kind also set a general direction for
idea generation. With a collage we can find criteria
When Can You Use a Collage? for such matters as the lifestyle of a target group,
The use of collages serves different purposes in the the visual appearance of a product, the context of
design process. A collage can aid in determining the use and the interaction with a product (actions and
colour palette of the product ideas and concepts. handling). Other criteria may be how the product
Collages are very suitable to present a particular functions in its environment, and criteria that concern
atmosphere or context that you want to capture in the category of products with which the new product
the form of the new product ideas and concepts. is comparable. Collages in that way help to generate
In addition, collages help to determine and analyse criteria by which the aesthetic qualities of ideas and
the context in which the product will be used. As a solution can be assessed. Therefore, the creation of
designer you must take into account the context of a collage is a process that is both creative (designing
which the product will be a part, i.e. the users, usage the collage) and analytical (deriving criteria).
and usage environment. Making a collage helps to
fig. 2.7 Example of a collage used in the design process identify an existing or a new context.
(from student report)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Collage Techniques – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Collage Techniques – 2.1

Choosing Colour, Texture and Materials pictorial meaning of the original pictures and images
After making collages for the context, target group, used in the collages. Various types of images are
usage and environment, you can use these images used to create a new image, which itself has a new
to define a number of characteristic types of colour/ pictorial meaning.
texture and materials. By means of analyses of
collages you can determine the colours that will Image Board and Mood Board
play a role. You can determine environment colours, Image Boards and Mood Boards are types of collages
preferred colours, target group and the colours that originated from disciplines such as marketing
used for existing products. Produce a palette for and consumer research. An Image Board and a Mood
this by using for example cuttings from magazines/ Board are collages that display the intended user
colour guides and/or the computer. The advantage and his/her lifestyle. An Image Board or a Mood
of cuttings from magazines is that you can also Board displays typical lifestyle elements (such as
obtain an impression of a gloss, material and possible brand preferences, leisure activities and product type
transparency and texture. After gathering these preferences) of the users, but also their dreams and
provisional palettes, try to determine which colours aspirations.
will be the main colour for each palette and what the
accent colours will be. Determine the relationships of How to Make a Collage?
these colours to each other. Starting Point
The starting point of making a collage is to determine
Types of Collages? what the collage is used for. What will be displayed
We distinguish between an abstract collage (see in the collage: the user’s lifestyle, the context
figure 2.8) and a figurative collage. An abstract of interaction, or similar products? Second, it is
collage is built from pictures and images that are important to determine how the collage will be used:
distorted in such a way that their origins are not is the collage instrumental in the design project as
visible anymore. Simple techniques are tearing up a means to generate for example criteria, or will the
images, pasting images over one another, applying collage be used to communicate a design vision? (see
coloured surfaces with either straight edges or ‘Desgin Vision’ in this section)
organically ripped edges (see figure 2.8). Usually,
abstract collages also contain sections where drawing Expected Outcome
or painting is applied. Abstract collages miss any The outcome of making a collage is a visualisation of
fig. 2.8 Examples of abstact collages for establishing a pictorial meaning, but only contain meaning on an an aspect of the problem context, e.g. the lifestyle
colour palette (note the technique used in the botom abstract level in their use of colours and composition. of users, the context of interaction or the product
collage - tearing up paper) (from student report) Figurative collages are collages that make use of the category. The collage could also be the visualisation
 How to
Collage Techniques
?

determine the select magazines group imagery decide structure the paste the collage
purpose orientation of composition
background

of a design vision (see ‘Design Vision’ in this section). 4 Try by means of small sketches to set down the
Also, criteria can be derived from the collage that structure of the composition, paying attention to the
serve the design process. creation of lines and axes. Describe the consequences
and state whether they are desirable in relation to
Possible Procedure your vision/picture.
1 Determine which magazines and/or imagery 5 Think which consequences the treatment of the
will produce the most suitable material. Certain imagery (clipping, cutting, tearing) will have for
magazines are already focused on a certain target the overall picture. Does the background have
group/lifestyle. Take advantage of them. Intuitively its own colour or will the collage be filled entirely
gather as much raw imagery as possible (an entire with imagery? A decision to create a framework/
page!). background will be of significance to the overall
2 Group together the imagery that concerns the target picture.
group, environment, handling, actions, products, 6 Examine which imagery will be placed in the fig.2.9 Examples of collages ‘existing product’ and
colour, material and so on. At the same time, make a foreground or in the background. Consider the size ‘usage environment’ (from student report)
selection according to usable and less usable images, of the imagery (copy) and the relationship with the
but do not throw anything away. underground.
3 For each collage decide the orientation of the 7 Identify which consequences play a role in merging
background. Ask yourself what influence it will have (integrating) or separating the available pictures.
on the picture that you want to convey (formal and 8 Make a provisional composition of the collage with
businesslike or informal and fun - vertical versus the means at your disposal.
horizontal). 9 Assess the overall picture - are most of the
characteristics represented?

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Collage Techniques – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Collage echniques – 2.1

fig. 2.10 10 Paste the collages once the picture meets your
Examples of expectations and contains most of the characteristics
collages and they are identifiable.
used in the 11 If this is not the case, try to identify which part
design process or parts evoke the conflicting picture: imagery
(from student (target group, products, etc.), quantity of material,
report) orientation, relationship, structure of the composition,
foreground/background, treatment of material,
separation/integration of material or types of colours/
shapes.

Colour
1 For each colour palette, determine the main colour
and accent colour: hue (sometimes referred to as the
type tone of colour, yellows, reds, greens, etc.), value
(or grey tone or light or dark colours), saturation (also
referred to as the degree of colour), pastel colours.
2. Address the following questions when looking at
your collages: must the product be conspicuous or
inconspicuous in its environment? Must the product
correspond or contrast with the existing products?
Must the product fit in with the colours preferred by
the target group?
3. Decide the definitive palette on the basis of the
answers to these questions.

References and Further Reading

Muller, W. (2001) Order and Meaning in Design, Utrecht:
Lemma

Bruens, G. (2007) Form/Color Anatomy, Utrecht: Lemma.

 Keywords
Requirements
Process Tree
Product life cycle

What Is a Process Tree? When Can You Use a Process Tree?

fig. 2.11 Examples of a Process Tree (Roozenburg and Eekels) A Process Tree (see figure 2.11) is a schematic A process tree is preferably made in the beginning of
diagram of the processes that a product goes the problem analysis.
existing products
examine the current situation
existing producers through during its life. Between its origination and
design a product disposal, a product goes through processes such as How to Make a Process Tree?
develop the product build the prototype
manufacturing, assembly, distribution, installation, Starting Point
test the prototype
origin search for a producer operation, maintenance, use, reuse and disposal. The starting point of a process tree is a product, or a
make the product production ready Each of these processes comes with certain product group.
produce
check requirements and wishes for the new product. Making
pack a process tree forces you to think ahead: in which Expected Outcome
store
determine the price situations, places, activities will the new product turn The outcome of a process tree is a structured
advertise up? Who is doing what with the product then? What overview of the important processes that a product
spread sell
problems are to be expected? What requirements do goes through. This overview helps in setting up
advise
provide these situations necessitate? A process tree forces requirements and defining functions.
transport the designer to systematically think through all the
buy carry
place subprocesses that a product goes through: production
open cabinet (including development), distribution, use and disposal.
needed shelves
install cabinet make it reachable Starting with these four main processes, a tree of (sub)
take objects processes comes into being (see figure 2.11).
close cabinet
open cabinet
needed shelves
use clear cabinet make it reachable
take objects
How to
close cabinet Process Tree
?
clear
clean clean ?
install
check
maintain oil
adjust define the indentify stages describe all visualise
disassembly product of product processes process tree
repair change parts life cycle
assembly

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Process Tree – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Process Tree – 2.1

Possible procedure • Use is typically the stage in which the product

1 Define the product, or product group. fulfils its function. In the stage of use, you can
2 Identify the relevant stages in the life cycle of distinguish between processes performed by the user
the product. Use the following stages as a start: and processes performed by the product. Ideally,
production, distribution, use, maintenance and processes performed by the user are user tasks and
disposal. processes performed by the product are functions
3 Describe all the processes that a product goes of the product. However, they can also be forms
through in the determined stages. of misuse (or unintended use) and malfunction,
4 Visualise the process tree (for example see figure 2.11). respectively. It is a good idea to distinguish between
these different types of processes, for instance by
Tips and Concerns using different colours or fonts.
• By taking on the role of the product, you can • Create a table in Microsoft Word (or any other word
ask yourself in respect of each process in which processor or spreadsheet) for the process tree:
processes am I involved during this stage...? the column on the left shows the general stages in
• When identifying requirements from the process tree, the product life cycle (production, distribution, use
ask yourself the following question: which criteria and disposal), the column on the right presents the
must the product satisfy during the process of...? processes.
• You will sometimes identify processes that are
preceded by a more important process. It is References and Further Reading
important to break down this hierarchy into processes Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
until you have reached a level where further Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
breakdown is not possible.
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
• When describing the processes, use verb-noun
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
combinations, for example: transport product to
store - place product in the store.
 WWWWWH: Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How

When Can You Use ‘Who, What, What has been done to solve the problem? Why is it
when? when? Where, When, Why, and How’? a problem? Why is there no solution? When did the
what? problem what? Problem analysis is one of the first steps in a design problem occur? How did the problem come about?
process, right at the beginning of a design project. How did (some of) the stakeholders try to solve the
where? where? design problem?
How to Use ‘Who, What, Where, When, 3 Review the answers to the questions. Indicate where
Why, and How’? you need more information.
fig. 2.12 Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How
Starting Point 4 Prioritise the information: what is important? why?
Define the preliminary problem or draft a design brief 5 Rewrite your initial design problem (see also ‘Problem
What Is ‘Who, What, Where, When, Definition’ in this section)
Why, and How’? Expected Outcome
Analysing a problem means obtaining a thorough The outcome you can expect is that you will Tips and Concerns
understanding of the problem, its stakeholders and get greater clarity about the problem situation • Who: mention as many people as possible that are
the facts and values involved. An important notion in (the problem context), you will gain a better involved with the problem
problem analysis is deconstruction of the problem: by understanding of the stakeholders, facts and values • What: think also about the problems behind the
asking yourself a multitude of questions (about the of the problem, and more insight into problems problem. Try to find the essence of the problem.
stakeholders, facts, etc.), you are able to deconstruct underlying the initial problem. • You can also ask “What for”.
the problem systematically. Consequently, you can
review the problem and set priorities. There are Possible Procedure References and Further Reading
several methods available for analysing a problem 1 Write down the initial design problem in brief Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,
systematically, one of which is WWWWWH (who, statements. Delft: VSSD.
what, where, when, why, and how?). Another method 2 Ask yourself the following WWWWWH questions in
is breaking down the original problem into means-end order to analyse the initial design problem. Perhaps
relationships. you can find more questions yourself: Who are the
stakeholders? Who has the problem? Who have an
interest in finding a solution? What is the problem?

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | WWWWWH – 2.1

Delft Design Guide | Part2 |
 Keywords
Design goal
Problem Definition
Fields of tension

What Is a Problem Definition?

fig. 2.13 What is a problem? What does a problem definition
What is the problem? What are the goals? Example of a (see figure 2.13) consist of, and how do goals and
The problem is that in the opinion of the The goal is to design a product that is suitable Problem Definition objectives fit in? A problem always has to do with
company Fun-Play BV their target market is too for kids between 7 - 11 years and addresses (from student dissatisfaction about a certain situation. However,
small. a certain play activity of this group. Next to report) satisfaction is a relative concept, so problems are also
The company wants to expand their target that the product needs to move in or through of a relative nature. A big problem for one person
market by developing a toy that can be used water with help of a driving mechanism or may not be a problem at all for someone else.
on water. other transportation system. Furthermore the
An expected situation in the future does not have to
The toy must be able to be moved in and on product needs to be suitable for competition or
be accepted. You can try to do something about it,
water. game element.
by acting now. For defining a problem this implies
The product needs to have a driving
that it is not sufficient to describe the existing state.
mechanism and a transportation system What are the avoidable side effects?
Therefore, we speak consciously of the situation
that the user eventually could use to get Some effects that are created by this product
that someone is or is not satisfied with. As a result,
acquainted with the technical aspect of the have to be avoided. Next to pollution that the
a description of the situation is a description of a
system. A potential problem is that the product production causes, effects of the user have to
state plus the relevant causal model(s), including the
is supposed to attract a target group from be taken into account, such as noise created
7 - 11 years. Therefore the design should assumed patterns of behaviour of the people and
by the users. Also the space that the product
communicate to this target group. will occupy in public spaces, which in turn can
organisations involved. A situation is only a problem
create problems by not leaving enough space if the problem-owner wants to do something about
Who has the problem? for i.e. storage. it. This implies that a situation must be conceivable
The main problem is that the company Fun- that is more desirable than the present one: the goal
Play BV thinks that their target market is too Which ways of action are available in situation. The existing situation, however, can also
limited. The company wants to expand into the the beginning? be formulated in such a manner that a problem does
European market. In order to do that, bigger There are a number of conditions that need to arise.
product sales need to be achieved. Therefore be agreed on before solving the problem. For
the numbers of products need to be increased this product only the following materials can be When Can You Use a Problem
by creating a new series of toys used: metal, wood and plastics. The deadline Definition?
needs to be met in 14 weeks. A problem definition is usually set up at the end of
the problem analysis phase.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Problem Definition – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Problem Definition – 2.1

Problem
Definition

How to Use a Problem Definition? Tips and Concerns

Starting Point • When analysing problems there is always a tension
The starting point of a problem definition is the between the ‘current situation’ and the ‘desired
information gathered in the problem analysis stage. situation’. By explicitly mentioning these different
The different aspects surrounding the design problem situations you are able to discuss the relevance of it
have been analysed and should be taken into account with other people involved in your project.
in the problem definition. • Make a hierarchy of problems; start with a big one
Expected Outcome and by thinking of causes and effects, divide this
A structured description of the design problem, with problem into smaller ones. Use post-its to make a
Watch interview with René Bubberman the goal of creating an explicit statement on the problem tree.
(Fabrique) via the OpenCourseWare version problem and possibly the direction of idea generation. • A problem can also be reformulated in an opportunity
of this guide: [Link] Also, a problem definition clearly written down or ‘driver’. Doing this will help you to become active
provides a shared understanding of the problem and and inspired.
its relevant aspects.
References and Further Reading
Possible Procedure Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
Answering the following questions will help to create Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
a problem definition:
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
1 What is the problem?
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
2 Who has the problem?
3 What are the goals?
4 What are the side-effects to be avoided?
5 Which actions are admissible?
 Keywords Requirements, Criteria
Checklist for Generating Requirements

What Is a Checklist for Generating can they provide? Important stakeholders are the
Requirements? company, its (future) customers, suppliers, transport
Checklists for Generating Requirements are lists of companies, wholesale and retail trade, consumer
questions that you can ask yourself when creating organisations, and legislators. An example of a
a design specification (list of requirements) (see checklist to distinguish relevant stakeholders can be
also ‘Design Specificaction (Criteria)’ in this section). found in Jones (1982).
Checklists ensure that you adopt a systematic
approach to the creation of the programme of Aspects Involved in Product Design
requirements. The most important thing is not to There are checklists of aspects which usually play
forget a particular requirement, meaning that we have a role in the assessment of a product. By aspects
to arrive at a complete collection of requirements. we mean such general issues as performance,
You can create a programme of requirements by environment, maintenance, aesthetics and
taking into account three points of view (see also appearance, materials, and packaging among others.
‘Design Specificaction (Criteria)’ in this section): (1) Such checklists have been drafted by Hubka and Eder
the stakeholders, (2) the aspects involved, and (3) the (1988), Pahl and Beitz (1984), and Pugh (1990) - see
product life cycle. You can take these different points the example in figure 2.14.
of view into account when generating requirements,
and some provide explicit, clear-cut checklists (for Product Process Tree
example Pugh). Other points of view, for example The process tree of a product (see ‘Process Tree’ in
the process tree, are not checklists by definition. this section) provides a third viewpoint to arrive at a
However, they help the generation of requirements in complete specification. Between its origination and
the same way. disposal, a product goes through several processes,
such as manufacturing, assembly, distribution,
The Stakeholders installation, operation, maintenance, use, reuse and
The aims and preferences of people set the disposal. Each of these processes comes with certain
requirements for a new product. Who are the people requirements and wishes for the new product. You
affected by the new product, what interests do they become aware of these requirements by making a
have, what do they decide on, and what information process tree.

fig. 2.14 Example of a Problem Definition (from student report)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Checklist for Generating Requirements – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Checklist for Generating Requirements – 2.1

Tips and Concerns

When Can You Use a Checklist for • Use more than one checklist; checklists complement
Generating Requirements? each other.
Checklists are useful when devising a first list of • More practical guidelines for developing design
requirements (see ‘Design Specificaction (Criteria)’ in requirements can be found in: Cross, N. (1989)
this section), at the end of the analysis stage in the Engineering Design Methods, Chichester: Wiley.
design process.
References and Further Reading
Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
How to Use a Checklist for Generating Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
Requirements?
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
Starting Point
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
The starting point of using checklists is formed by
the information found in the analysis of the design Jones, J.C. (1982) Design Methods: Seeds of Human Futures,
problem, the context of the design problem etc. Chichester: Wiley.

Hubka, V. and Eder, W.E. (1988) Theory of Technical Systems:

Expected Outcome
A Total Concept Theory for Engineering Design, Berlin:
The outcome of using checklists for generating
Springer.
requirements is a first list of requirements, which
contains redundant requirements. Pahl, G. and Beitz W. (1984) Engineering Design: A Systematic
Approach, London: Design Council.
Possible Procedure
Pugh, S. (1990) Total Design: Integrated Methods for
1 Search for the appropriate checklist.
Successful Product Engineering, Wokingham: Addison Wesley.
2 Use the checklist to generate as many requirements
as possible.
3 Work systematically through the checklist. Do not
skip any of the points on the checklist.
4 Follow the procedure indicated in section 2.1.11.
 Keywords Requirement
Design Specification (Criteria)

What Is a Design Specification? When Can You Make a Design

2. Distribution: The Design Specification consists of Specification?
2.01 The electrical home scissors should be efficiently transported from producer a number of requirements (see figure Normally, a design specification is
to wholesale and/or small shops 2.15). The design of a product is ‘good’ constructed during the problem analysis,
2.02 The electrical home scissors be efficiently transported from wholesale or in so far as it complies with the stated the result being some finished list
small shops to the consumer requirements. A requirement is an of requirements. However, a design
2.03 The product may not be damaged during transportation and storage objective that any design alternative must specification is never really complete.
2.04 The packaged product needs to be stackable
meet. The programme of requirements is During a design project, even during
2.05 The displayed product should clearly communicate its function and
thus a list of objectives, or goals. Goals the conceptual designing stages, new
possibilities
are images of intended situations, and requirements are frequently found because
consequently requirements are statements of some new perspective on the design
3. Use:
about the intended situations of the design problem. Therefore, a design specification
3.01 The product can be carried and hand-held
alternative. Design alternatives should should be constantly updated and changed.
3.02 The electrical home scissors have to be ready for use in 1minute, preferably
comply optimally with the requirements;
without use of any extra tool
3.03 The method of assembly of parts needs to be clear
an alternative which does not comply with How to Make a Design
3.04 The use of the electrical home scissors needs to be clear
one or more of the requirements is a bad Specification?
3.05 Possible use restrictions of the electrical home scissors need to be clear alternative and cannot be chosen. Many Starting Point
3.06 The operation of the product needs to be clear requirements are specific; they apply to The starting point for making a design
3.07 The product needs to be operated standing and seated. a particular product, a specific use, and specification is formed by the analyses that
3.08 The product needs to be able to be used with one hand left and right handed a specific group of users. There are also take place during the stage of problem
3.09 The product needs to resist a fall of 0.8m requirements with a wider scope, as they analysis.
3.10 The product may not damage the environment in which the product will be are the result of an agreement within a
used certain branch of industry or an area of Expected Outcome
3.11 The product has to be designed in such a way that it will not harm users activity. Such a requirement is called a The outcome is a structured list of
3.12 The electrical home scissors need to be able to be cleaned with a wet tissue standard. To some extent, a designer is requirements and standards. Programmes
3.13 Adjustments should be done by the user free to choose requirements; standards, consisting of 40 or 50 requirements are not
3.14 The electrical home scissors need to be able to be repaired at a repair however, are imposed by an external uncommon.
service
authority.

fig. 2.15 Example of a Design Specification (Criteria) (from student report)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Design Specification (Criteria) – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Design Specification (Criteria) – 2.1

How to
Design Specification
(Criteria)

initial list requirements distinguish eliminate similar identify

design brief hard & soft requirements hierarchy
requirements

Possible Procedure quantifiable characteristics. References and Further Reading

1 List as many requirements as possible. Roozenburg 6 Make sure that the programme of requirements fulfils Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
and Eekels state that in order to arrive at a complete the following conditions: Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
design specification, different points of view can be a. each requirement must be valid
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
taken into account (see ‘Checklists for Generating b. the set of requirements must be as complete as
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
Requirements’ in this section). Choose one, or several, possible
of these points of views (stakeholders, aspects, or c. the requirements must be operational Cross, N. (1989) Engineering Design Methods, Chichester:
process tree) to help generate requirements. You can d. the set of requirements must be non-redundant Wiley.
also use checklists, for example Pugh’s checklist (see e. the set of requirements must be concise
figure 2.14). f. The requirements must be practicable.
2 Make a distinction between hard and soft
requirements (i.e. between quantifiable requirements Tips and Concerns
and wishes). • Be careful: do not make the possibilities for your
3 Eliminate requirements which are in fact similar design too limited by defining too many requirements.
or which do not discriminate between design • Distinguish between measurable requirements and
alternatives. non-measurable requirements.
4 Identify whether there is a hierarchy in requirements. • Give your requirements numbers in order to be able
Distinguish between lower-level requirements and to refer to them.
higher-level requirements.
5 Put requirements into practice: determine the
variables of requirements in terms of observable or Watch interview with Oscar Toetenel
(MMID) via the OpenCourseWare version of
this guide: [Link]
 Keywords Subjective
Design Vision

What Is a Design Vision? When Can You Make a Design Vision?

According to the description in the Dutch dictionary An explicit vision on the product (to be designed)
‘van Dale’ vision means ‘The way in which someone supports you, the designer, during your search
judges, considers matters (or things), consideration, for ideas and the final design. It provides a design
view, opinion’. A vision in the context of product direction and thus helps you steer the product design
design provides us with a personal, inspiring image process. This process is supported by many aspects
of a new future situation created by a designer or a that are influenced by factors such as the opinions
group of designers and/or other professionals. This of clients, users, team members, producers etc.
new future situation may directly concern the new Therefore a vision (on something - to be specified)
product itself (features, functions etc.), but also the should be created in an early stage of the design
domain and context within which the product will process.
be used, the user(s), the usage (or interaction) of
the user(s) with the product, the business or other How to Make a Design Vision?
aspects related to the product design. A design vision Starting Point
includes: (1) an insight into or understanding of the The starting point of a design vision is a personal
product-user-interaction-context system; (2) a view vision on the design problem.
on the essence of the problem: “which values are
to be fulfilled?”; and (3) a general idea or direction Expected Outcome
about the kind of solutions to be expected. The expected outcome is a written statement of a
A strong, convincing vision is often well-founded by design vision or design philosophy.
arguments based on theories and facts, and is often
communicated effectively by using images, text and Possible Procedure
other presentation techniques. A design vision should A design vision usually does not ‘come out of thin air’
be sharable and inspiring. As it is the result of the but is a result of thorough analyses, creative thoughts
use of theories, facts and arguments, it should be an and personal experiences in design, as well as
‘objective’ interpretation. experience of life in general. The elective course ViP
fig. 2.16 Example of a Design Vision (from student report) of the master courses provides a specific approach
for it (see also section 1.6). A vision development
approach is also incorporated in the 2nd year of
the Bachelor course ‘Fuzzy Front End’ and Strategic
Product Innovation.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Design Vision – 2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating a Design Goal | Design Vision – 2.1

Design Vision
Function Interested Party
The most important functions for the design are: The remaining interested party are the parents.
• Transport children on water, the toy needs They want their child to have fun and at the
to float on water, the transportation function same time be safe without their constant guard. Tips and Concerns
enables that children can take part in Others concerned are other water users who • Since beginning Bachelor students do not have much
competitions and water cycle should experience minimum inconvenience from experience in design, some design researchers and
• Transform muscle strength into driving the product, the water cycle.
tutors have stated that we cannot expect strong
force; the children have to use of the driving
design visions from beginners and therefore not ask
mechanism to move the water cycle Environment for use
them to create a vision in the early Bachelor years.
• Teach children something about mechanics; The product is going to be used on lakes next to
This can be contradicted by the argument that young
one of the goals of the company is to introduce campings and other recreational areas.
people do have opinions and by not supporting
children to mechanics and how the product Lakes have no current, often little beaches with
them in their development we miss a chance to link
works gras on them. Lakes often have little cafes or
general design knowledge and skills to the personal
• Children should enjoy themselves; of course this toilet spots which could serve as storage space
motivation of people. Besides, people learn more
has to be a result of the points listed above for the product.
effectively if there is a link between their external
Target Group Relation with other products and their internal world (the person’s own ideas and
The most important target group are children The product will have to compete with other thoughts).
from 7 – 11 years. Nevertheless the product water game activities. Other products can be • Since there are so many aspects involved in the
also needs to be used by youngsters and elder water cycles, beach balls but also bigger beach creation of a vision, it should be clear in advance on
people. A distinctive characteristics of this group balls or rubber boats. The unique quality of this what the designer gives his or her vision.
is the ability to swim thus need less guarding. product is that it embodies all of these functions • A design vision can have the form of a written story,
Children have a lot of fantasy and have a keen including the fantasy aspect of the target group. but visualisations are used as well to express a design
interest in mechanics. The other relevant group vision.
is camping users or café users next to lakes. Distinguishing aspects
The intention is that these people buy the The product needs to command attention in References and Further Reading
product to provide children with maximum fun. between all other activities in such a lake. It has Hekkert, P. and van Dijk, M. (2003) ‘Designing from context:
These people do not care about the product. to come across as very safe. The product needs
fig. 2.17 Foundations and Applications of the ViP approach’, In: Lloyd, P.
They only want that it is stored very well during to be produced as environmentally friendly as
Example of a and Christiaans, H. (eds.), Designing in Context: Proceedings of
winter at minimum maintenance. possible and should resist long term influences
Design Vision Design Thinking Research Symposium 5. Delft: DUP Science.
of sand, water and sunlight.
(from student
Hekkert, P., van Dijk, M. and Lloyd, P. (2009) Vision in Product
report)
Design: Handbook for Innovators, BIS publishers, in press.
2.2
Creating
2.2 Creating Product
Product Ideas Ideas and Concepts
and Concepts

After the phase of problem analysis, the conceptual

design phase begins. Conceptual designing means the
Creativity Techniques creative act of thinking up product ideas and concepts.
Once a design problem, requirements and a product
How To’s vision have been formulated, product ideas and
concepts have to be generated. An idea is a first thought
Mind Map that comes to mind, usually in the form of a simple
drawing, without dimensions, proportions, shape and
The Brainstorming Method
materials. Concepts are more developed, have materials,
dimensions, shape, details and technical solution
Synectics
principles.

Function Analysis Conceptual design is a process of creative thinking,

of developing initial ideas into concepts and offering
Morphological Chart realistic solutions to the design problem. It is a divergent
and convergent process in which ideas are generated,
Roleplaying tested and evaluated and developed into concepts.
Ideas are generated by means of creativity techniques,
Storyboard such as brainstorming or Synectics. In your evaluation of
ideas, you bear in mind the design goal and the design
Written Scenario specification. Visualising is an important aspect in the
creative phase of designing: often you explore early
Checklist for Concept Generation
ideas by means of sketches. Three-dimensional models
such as sketch models, mock-ups and prototypes are
Design Drawing
also used. Such representations of ideas can be used for
Three-dimensional Models simulation and for testing the ideas and concepts (see
also ‘Product Simulation and Testing’ in section 2.4).
Biomimicry

Contextmapping

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Creativity Techniques

What Are Creativity Techniques?

The techniques for thinking up solutions to problems are made between the original issues in hand and a
issue are called ‘creativity techniques’ or ‘creativity new idea through bisociation or force-fit. Completely
methods’. Most of these methods are general - new, unexpected combinations of viewpoints can
briefing
analysis they are applicable to a wide variety of problems. arise, which bring the solution of the problem one
reformulation
problem
Creativity techniques are very useful in the design step closer. An example is the Synectics method (see
inventorizing and combining
statement process, generating large amounts of ideas in a short ‘Synectics’ in this section).
stating
time. There are many different creativity techniques,
4 Provocative Techniques
often classified according to structures like the
With provocative techniques, assumptions and
one single concrete target following one (see Marc Tassoul, 2007):
preconceptions are identified and broken from
1 Inventorying techniques
inside the familiar frame of reference (e.g. by asking
generation Techniques used to collect and recall all kinds of
questions like: “What if not?” and “What else?”).
information around an issue. This helps in making an
inventorying Provocative techniques make use of analogies,
idea inventory of what we have in terms of ideas, or data, or
clustering
generation metaphors and random stimuli. Ideas will seem
ordening whatever. Examples are Mind Maps (see ‘Mind Map’ in
strange at first, but when force-fitted on the
synthesis this section).
selection original issues they provoke new insights. Both
2 Associative Techniques confrontational and provocative techniques contain
one or more ideas
With associative techniques, great numbers of ideas the principle of (1) making the strange familiar and
concept development
and options are generated through association (2) the familiar strange.
acceptance finding implementation planning within a relatively short time. Association techniques
5 Intuitive Techniques
concept encourage spontaneous reactions to ideas expressed
develop- With intuitive techniques you develop a vision, or
earlier. An example of an associative technique is
ment a new perspective on the original issue in hand.
the brainstorming method (see ‘The Brainstorming
Intuitive techniques are useful for letting go: to guide
Method’in this section)
the idea generation techniques by whatever comes
concept 3 Confrontational Techniques to mind. It is a technique that allows for spontaneous
With confrontational techniques, ideas are generated and intuitive idea generation and reflecting upon
fig. 2.18 CPS model revisited of the Creative Problem Solving by thinking outside one’s familiar frame of reference. the generated ideas. These techniques have a great
Process (Tassoul and Buijs, 2005) By identifying and breaking assumptions you are able influence on enthusiasm, motivation and courage of
to open up a wider solution space. New connections the team members.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Creativity Techniques – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Creativity Techniques – 2.2

6 Analytic-Systematic Techniques When Can You Use Creativity

Analytic-systematic methods are based on the Techniques?
analysis and systematic description of a problem, Creativity techniques are mostly used in a creative
the drawing up of an inventory of solutions, variants workshop, or in a brainstorm setting typically taking
to subproblems, and the systematic varying place at the beginning of the conceptual design
and combining of these solution variants. The phase, starting the phase of creating product ideas
morphological method and function analysis are the and concepts.
most typical examples (see ‘Function Analysis’ and
‘Morphological Chart’ in this section). How to Use Creativity Techniques?
Starting Point
Creative Problem Solving Expected Outcome
In order to apply the various creativity techniques Possible Procedure
effectively, a creative process needs to be followed. Tips and Concerns
A very simple model of the creative process is
provided by Wallas (1926): (1) preparation, (2) References and Further Reading
incubation, (3) illumination, and (4) verification. In Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,
the preparation phase the problem is defined. During Delft: VSSD.
the incubation phase, the issue is let go and attention
Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
is focused on other (inspirational) aspects. In the
Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
illumination phase an opening is (suddenly) found,
from which an approach is developed to deal with the Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
issue in hand. During the verification phase the idea is Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
tested and evaluated. Tassoul and Buijs (2005) have
Wallas, G. (1926, 1970) ‘The art of thought’, In: Vernon, P.E.
modelled the creative problem-solving process in a
(ed.) Creativity, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
more elaborate model, called the CPS model revisited
(see figure 2.18). This model consists of three phases:
(1) problem statement, (2) idea generation, and (3)
concept development.
diverge

clustering
fig. 2.19
Creative
converge
Diamond Marc
Tassoul/Jan
Buijs (2005)
 How To’s

What Are How To’s? When Can You Use How To’s (H2’s)?
‘How to’s’ (see figure 2.20) are problem statements ‘How to’s’ are most helpful at the start of idea
written in the form of “How to…” (How to’s are often generation. With ‘How to’s’ the problem is
written as H2 for short). Examples are: How to carry reformulated in many different ways and ideas come
luggage in the airport? How to transport deep-frozen up easily.
food in a shop? How to supply people with beverages
at a festival? How to Generate How To’s (H2’s)?
The “How to..” way of phrasing is dynamic and Starting Point
inviting. The idea is to create a wide variety The starting point is the result of the problem
of problem descriptions. In this way different analysis stage. Often it is a short description of the
perspectives are briefly shown, and the problem is problem or a problem statement.
described from these different points of view. There
are rules in force such as ‘postpone judgment’, Expected Outcome
‘associate on the ideas of others’ and’strive for The outcome of the ‘How to’s’ are various problem
quantity rather than quality’. The How to’s are open reformulations in the form of How to’s. A benefit of
questions that stimulate your creativity almost this method is that the problem reformulations reflect
immediately. The various “how to” questions give a different points of view towards the problem.
comprehensive overview of the problem that you are
working on.
fig. 2.20 Example of H2’s

How to
How To’s How To ... ?
How To ... ?
How To? How To?
How To?How To?
How To?
How To ... ? How To ... ?
How To?
How To? How To ... ?
How To ... ?
Keywords
Problem formulation
provide discription name how to’s? evaluate important select some formulate one
Creative of the problem common elements how to’s single concrete
Solution finding target

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | How To’s – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | How To’s – 2.2

Possible Procedure 3 Evaluate the most important common elements of the References and Further Reading
1 Provide a short description of the problem and invite ‘How to’s..’. Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,
the group to name all important stakeholders and 4 Select a number of ‘How to’s...’ that cover the Delft: VSSD.
aspects of the problem (you could use a Mind Map for different points of view.
this – see section 2.2.3). 5 Formulate “one single concrete target” (e.g. one final
2 Invite the group to name as many ‘How to’s...’ as ‘How to’ to continue with).
possible, seen from the different points of view
(stakeholders) and seen from the different aspects.
You can use a flip chart to write down the ‘How to’s...’
or post-its.

How can you provide easy storage? How can you replace a tea bag?

fig. 2.21
Examples of H2’s
(from student
report)
 Mind Map
Keywords
What Is a Mind Map? Creative
A Mind Map is a graphical representation of ideas Association
and aspects around a central theme, showing how Inventorying
these aspects are related to each other. With a
Mind Map you can map all the relevant aspects
and ideas around a theme, bringing structure,
overview and clarity to a problem. A Mind Map helps
in systematically unpacking abstract thoughts and
notions. It is like a tree, with branches leading to the
thoughts and aspect of the theme. Graphically, one
can use the analogy of the tree by making branches design project. Mind Maps also work well for outlining 3 Add branches to the lines as necessary.
that are important thicker than others. presentations and reports. In fact, Mind Mapping can 4 Use additional visual techniques – for example,
Mind Mapping is an excellent technique for developing be used in a wide variety of situations. different colours for major lines of thought, circles
your intuitive capacity. It is especially useful for around words or thoughts that appear more than
identifying all the issues and subissues related to a How to Use a Mind Map? once, connecting lines between similar thoughts.
problem. Mind Maps can also be used for generating Starting Point 5 Study the Mind Map to see what relationships exist
solutions to a problem and mapping their advantages The starting point of a Mind Map is a central theme, and what solutions are suggested.
and disadvantages. The latter is accomplished by for example a problem or an idea. 6 Reshape or restructure the Mind Map if necessary.
making the main branches the solutions and the
subbranches from each of these the pros and the Expected Outcome Tips and Concerns
cons. Analysing the Mind Map helps you find priorities The outcome of a Mind Map is a structured overview • You can find software for Mind Mapping on the
and courses of action. of ideas and thoughts around a concept or a problem, Internet. The disadvantages of using computer
represented graphically. software are that there is some limitation in freedom
When Can You Use a Mind Map? of using hand drawings and colours, it is less
A Mind Map can be used in different stages of the Possible Procedure personal, and it might be less suitable when sharing it
design process, but is often used in the beginning of 1 Write the name or description of the theme in the with others (you and your computer alone).
idea generation. Setting up a Mind Map helps you to centre of a piece of paper and draw a circle around it. • Make digital pictures of your handmade Mind Maps.
structure thoughts and ideas about the problem, and 2 Brainstorm each major facet of that theme, placing
connect these to each other. However, a Mind Map your thoughts on lines drawn outward from the
can also be used in the problem analysis phase of a central thought like roads leaving a city.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Mind Map – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Mind Map – 2.2

fig. 2.23 Example of Mind Map created with a Mind Map Software Tool.
(from student report)
fig. 2.22 Example of a Mind Map (Tassoul, 2006)

References and Further Reading

Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,
Delft: VSSD.

Buzan, T. (1996) The Mind Map Book: How to Use Radiant

Thinking to Maximize Your Brain’s Untapped Potential,
New York: Plume.
 Keywords
Creative
The Brainstorming Method
Problem solving
Brainwriting
Braindrawing What Is the Brainstorming Method? 2 Inventorying, evaluating and grouping ideas
Association When people hear the word brainstorming they The second step is about evaluating, reviewing
often think of people sitting together and thinking and grouping ideas. Now an overview is created of
up ideas wildly and at random. This is partly true! the solution space (e.g. all possible solutions) and
Brainstorming as a method prescribes a specific whether more ideas are needed.
approach with rules and procedures for generating 3 Converging: choosing a solution
ideas. It is one of many methods used in creative The third step is about choosing ideas and selecting
thinking to come up with lots of ideas to solve a ideas for the next phase in the design process.
problem. Various methods or approaches to creativity
exist, such as: brainstorming, synectics, lateral The process underlying this method is built upon the
thinking/random stimulus and biomimetics. following assumptions:
Brainstorming was invented by Osborn as early as the 1 Criticism is postponed.
1930s. Apart from producing large numbers of ideas, The participants in a brainstorming session should
brainstorming is based on another very important try not to think of utility, importance, feasibility and
principle: the avoidance of premature criticism. Of the like, and certainly not make any critical remarks
course ideas must be assessed critically, but an all thereon. This rule should not only lead to many, but
too critical attitude often holds back the process of also to unexpected associations. Also, it is important
generating ideas. to avoid participants feeling attacked.
2 ‘Freewheeling’ is welcomed.
We follow the brainstorm method of Osborn (1953) The purpose is to have participants express any idea
and Parnes (1992). This method consists roughly of they think of; ‘the wilder the idea, the better’, it is
the following steps: said. In a brainstorming session an atmosphere must
1 Diverging from the problem be created which gives the participants a feeling of
Beginning with a problem statement, this first stage safety and security.
is about a “creative démarche”: a creative path where 3 Combination and improvement of ideas are sought
lots of ideas are generated using different techniques. You should endeavour to achieve better ideas by
Wild and unexpected ideas are welcomed. adding to, and building upon, the ideas of others.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | The Brainstorming Method – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | The Brainstorming Method – 2.2

4 Quantity is wanted. When Can You Use the Brainstorming

Try to think of as many associations as possible. Method?
The objective of this rule is to attain a high rate of A brainstorm is usually carried out in the beginning
association. The underlying idea is not only that of the idea generation, with the goal of producing a
‘quantity breeds quality’ but also that through a rapid large number of ideas with a group of participants.
succession of associations the participants have little
chance of being critical. How to Use the Brainstorming Method?
Starting Point
Brainstorm Session The starting point of a brainstorm session is a
Brainstorming (see figure 2.24) is done with a group problem statement (one single concrete target).
consisting of 4-8 people. A facilitator leads the fig. 2.25 Braindrawing session
brainstorm session, and asks the group provocative Expected Outcome
questions. The group’s responses (the ideas) are Brainwriting Session The outcome of a brainstorm session is a large
written down on a flip-chart. The stages that the Brainwriting is done with a group consisting of 4-8 number of ideas.
group goes through in a brainstorm session are people. A facilitator leads the Brainwriting session,
methods on their own, and different alternative and asks the group provocative questions. Each Possible Procedure
methods are possible within a brainstorm session participant writes down his/ her idea on a piece of 1 Develop a statement of the problem (e.g. with
(for example: how to’s, who-what-where-when-why- paper, and the papers are passed on to each other. H2’s, one single concrete target) and select a
how, forward and backward planning, and wishful In this way, an idea is elaborated when it passes group of 4-8 participants. Draw up a plan for the
thinking). through numerous participants, or an idea could brainstorm session, including a detailed time line,
serve as an inspiration for new ideas. Different the steps written down, and the methods used in the
versions of this method are possible. A well-known brainstorm session (example of a session plan).
method is the 6-5-3 method.

Braindrawing Session
In a Braindrawing session (see figure 2.25) ideas
are not written down, but are drawn or sketched.
This distinguishes Braindrawing from brainstorming,
which only uses words. In a Braindrawing session
each participant draws his/her ideas on paper.
Also, it is possible to build on each other’s ideas by
passing through the drawings similar to a Brainwriting
session.
fig. 2.24 Brainstorm session (Tassoul, 2007) fig. 2.26 A typical brainstorm session: facilitator and
participants
2 You could send a note containing the statement of Tips and Concerns References and Further Reading
the problem, background information, examples of • Brainstorming is suited for solving relatively simple Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
solutions and the four brainstorming rules, to the problems with an ‘open’ formulation. For more Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
participants some time before the session. complex problems, it would be possible to brainstorm
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
3 Have a preparatory meeting together with the about subproblems, but then the overall view might
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
participants, right before the actual brainstorm be lost. Furthermore, brainstorming is not suited
session, whereby the method and rules are explained, very well for problems whose solution requires highly Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach, Delft:
the problem, if necessary, is redefined, and a specialised knowledge. VSSD.
so-called warm-up is held. A warm-up is a short
Higgins, J.M. (1994) 101 Problem Solving Techniques, New York:
stimulating brainstorming exercise unrelated to the
New Management Publishing Company.
problem.
4 At the beginning of the actual brainstorm session,
write the statement of the problem on a blackboard
or flip chart clearly visible to everyone, as well as the
four rules.
5 The facilitator should ask provocative questions to the
group, and write down the responses on a flip chart.
6 Once a large number of ideas has been generated,
the group should make a selection of the most
promising and interesting ideas. Usually, some criteria
are used in the selection process, which should be
established with the group.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | The Brainstorming Method – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Keywords
Creative
Synectics
Problem solving
Confrontational
Analogies What Is Synectics? For the assessment of the new solution possibilities,
The synectics procedure (see figure 2.27) was set up the synectics approach introduces yet another
by Gordon and Prince (1976). It is a comprehensive special technique: ‘itemised response’ (see ‘Itemised
creative procedure, containing techniques for problem Response and PMI’ in section 2.3). To every idea
analysis, idea generation and the selection stage. there are both good sides (the pluses) and poor or
Synectics concentrates on the idea generation steps bad sides (the minuses). By breaking down the idea
as given with the use of analogies. Analogies allow for moving into pluses and minuses and then trying to turn the

problem analysis away from the original problem statement and making minuses into pluses (for example, through a creativity

restating problem a forced fit to develop solutions on the basis of these method), the original idea may be - systematically -
analogies. The synectics procedure is also based on transformed into a better one.
purge - ‘shredding the known’
the process of (1) preparation, (2) incubation, (3)
analogies - illumination and (4) verification (Wallas, 1926). The Visual Synectics
springboards
incubation and illumination stages are now brought A variation is that of visual synectics: quiet images
explore analogy
about through the use of analogies: ‘To make the and music are introduced to induce an incubation
strange familiar and the familiar strange’. phase. Music and images let people quietly simmer
away, daydream on the images and on the music.
distil principles In the preparatory stages, there is a problem briefing This is done for some length of time after which
by the problem owner, an extensive problem analysis there comes a switch to much more active music and
phase through questioning by the participants, and images on the basis of which the participants now
‘forced fit’ definition of a problem statement into ‘one single have to generate ideas, similar to the brainstorming
making connections concrete target’. After this, a purging phase takes or brainwriting presented earlier .
approaches between analogy
place in which known and immediate ideas are
to solutions and original problem
statement collected and recorded. This phase is also called When Can You Use Synectics?
‘Shredding the Known’. From this point on, analogies Synectics is best applied for more complex and
itemised response (+/– reaction)
are used to estrange yourself from the original intricate problems. Synectics can be used in groups
problem statement and come up with inspirations for as well as individually. With an untrained group, the
develop idea into concept
new solutions and approaches. These analogies take facilitator will have to work in small steps at a time;
a number of forms that are presented in figure 2.27. he or she must have enough experience to inspire the
fig. 2.27 The Synectics Process (Tassoul, 2006) group through such a process.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Synectics – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Synectics – 2.2

How to
Synectics

initial problem analyse the reformulate collect first ideas find a relevant force fit solutions
statement problem problem analogy to problem
statement statement

Direct Analogy Starting from some aspect For a time pressure problem, How to Use Synectics?
in the problem, one looks take for example ‘ships in a Starting Point
for comparable or analogous busy harbour’. How do they
situations manouvre without incidents?
The starting point of synectics is an initial problem
statement. In the design process it continues with
Personal Analogy What if you were an element Imagine you are the time. the design goal, problem definition and design
in the problem, e.g. a How would you feel? Maybe
specification generated in the problem analysis phase.
planning problem? pressed. How would you
influence the situation from
such a perspective? Expected Outcome
Nature Analogy What kind of situations in E.g. an anthill, or the jungle The outcome of synectics is a limited number of
nature does this remind me with all the animals closely preliminary yet surprising ideas.
of? together, lungs and blood
stream and all the gaseous
Possible Procedure
matter that needs to be
transported through the body. 1 Start with the original problem statement. Invite the
problem owner to present and discuss the problem
Fantastic Analogy Can you place the problem in How does the Nautilus
briefly.
a fairytale or other mythical withstand the pressure at
situation and develop it from 2000 miles under the sea, and 2 Analyse the problem. Restate the problem. Formulate
there? what did the people aboard the problem as one single concrete target.
the Nautilus do? (thinking of 3 Generate, collect and record the first ideas that come
Jules Verne’s ‘20.000 miles
to mind (shredding the known).
under the seas’)
4 Find a relevant analogy in one of the listed categories
Paradoxical Analogy Characterise the issue in two For example: blind open- of analogies (personal, nature, fantastic, etc.).
words which are each other’s mindedness, or overwhelming
fig. 2.28
opposites. silence.
Type of analogies that can be used
in Synectics (Tassoul, 2006)
 • Ask yourself questions in order to explore the
analogy. What type of problems occur in the
analogous situation? What type of solutions are there
to be found?
• Force-fit various solutions to the reformulated
problem statement.
• Generate, collect and record the ideas.
• Test, and evaluate the ideas. Use the itemised
response method to select from among the ideas.
• Develop the selected ideas into concepts.
• Present your concepts in a manner that is to the
point.

Tips and Concerns

fig. 2.29 References and Further Reading

Example of an analogy; King Fisher and Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
Shinkansen Bullit Train Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.

Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product

Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.

Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,

Delft: VSSD.

Wallas, G. (1926, 1970) ‘The art of thought’, In: Vernon P.E.

(ed.) Creativity, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Gordon, W. (1976) Synectics, The Development of Creative

Capacity, New York: Collier.

Buijs, J. and Valkenburg, R. (2005, 3rd ed.) Integrale Product

Ontwikkeling, Utrecht: Lemma

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Synectics – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Keywords
Function
Function Analysis
Structure
Morphological method
What Is a Function Analysis?
Function analysis is a method for analysing and
developing a function structure. A function structure
is an abstract model of the new product, without
material features such as shape, dimensions and
Function structure
materials of the parts. It describes the functions of
energy Device to make energy the product and its parts and indicates the mutual
material whipped cream material relations. The underlying idea is that a function
information (mixer) information structure may be built up from a limited number of
elementary (or general) functions on a high level
manual power of abstraction. Functions are abstractions of what
taking mixer
mixer changing mixer’s a product should do. Being forced to think about
mode sound the product in an abstract way stimulates creativity,
whipping cream (liquid) pouring whipping and prevents you from ‘jumping to solutions’, i.e.
bowl cream into bowl sound
changing beater immediately elaborating on the first idea that comes
position
tasting to mind, which may not be the best.
sugar adding sugar cream

In function analysis, the product is considered as a

tranfering human heat technical-physical system. The product functions,
power into movement sound
arm power of beater(s) whipped cream because it consists of a number of parts and
components which fulfil subfunctions and the overall
testing
cream
removing excess
whipped cream
function. By choosing the appropriate form and
density cream of beaters
materials, a designer can influence the subfunctions
reading instructions
and the overall function. The principle of function
cleaning
water
the beaters
dishwater analysis is first to specify what the product should
do, and then to infer from there what the parts -
which are yet to be developed - should do. Function
drying
storing mixer clean mixer
beaters analysis forces designers to distance themselves from
known products and components in considering the
question: what is the new product intended to do and
transfering arm power into rotation
fig. 2.30 Example of the function structure of a ‘device to make whipped cream’ (mixer) (from student report)

force static handle pressure for

stability
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Function Analysis – 2.2
force dynamic handle

transfering to transfering to
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Function Analysis – 2.2

how could it do that? The method is useful to product can be developed, for instance by using them 4 For a complex product, you may want to develop
accomplish a breakthrough in thinking in conventional as input for the creation of a morphological chart. a function structure. There are three principles of
solutions. structuring: putting functions in a chronological order,
Possible Procedure connecting inputs and outputs of flows between
A function analysis often precedes the morphological 1 Describe the main function of the product in the functions (matter, energy and information flows)
method (see ‘Morphological Chart’ in this section). form of a black box. If you cannot define one main and hierarchy (main functions, subfunctions, sub-
The functions and subfunctions that are identified in function, go to the next step. subfunctions, etc.). These principles cannot always be
the function analysis serve as the parameters in the applied - see the last item of Tips and Concerns.
2 Make a list of subfunctions.
morphological chart.
The use stage of a process
tree is a good starting point.
When Can You Use a Function
By adding extra columns to
Analysis? place nut
allow placement
the process tree in which you of nut
A function analysis is typically carried out at the
distinguish between product exert holding force
beginning of idea generation.
functions and user tasks,
you can make a first list of relocate holding allow force
How to Use a Function Analysis? force (to nut) exertion
functions.
Starting Points
hold nut
There are two possible starting points, which may be 3 Just like the processes in
used in a combined form: a process tree, functions guide
exert cracking force
motion
• A process tree, which can be drafted from scratch or are based on verb-noun
based on an existing solution of the design problem combinations. Only those life cycle of more points of force exertion
use
a nutcracker (towards each other)
(or a comparable problem) processes that are carried out
• A collection of elementary (general) functions, by the product are functions; relocate cracking force (to nut)
for instance the functional basis developed by processes performed by the
the American National Institute of Standards and user are user tasks. For user change force and motion into
larger force and smaller motion
Technology (NIST). tasks, you can often define
functions that support the convert force and motion to fracture
Expected Outcome user in performing the task.
The outcome of the function analysis is a thorough For instance, for a user task identification of supporting
function user task process tree
function for user task
understanding of the functions and subfunctions lift product a supporting
that the new product has. From functions and function would be provide
subfunctions the parts and components for the new grip for lifting fig. 2.31 Process Tree and elaboration of functions of a nutcracker
(from student report)
 To visualise the chronological order, you can simply • The development of a function structure is an
list the functions. To visualise the flows, you can iterative process. There is nothing against starting by
connect boxes by arrows. To visualise hierarchy, you analysing an existing design or with a first outline of
can draw a tree structure (just like the process tree) an idea for a new solution. However, in the course of
so that you can combine hierarchy with chronological the analysis you should abstract from it.
order, or you can draw boxes-in-boxes, so that you • Function structures should be kept as simple as
can combine hierarchy and flows in one diagram. possible. The integration of various functions into one
component (function carrier) is often a useful means
5. Elaborate the function structure. Fit in a number
in this respect.
of `auxiliary’ functions which were left out and find
• Block diagrams of functions should remain
variations of the function structure so as to find the
conveniently arranged; use simple and informative
best function structure. Variation possibilities include
symbols. Be aware of different types of functions.
moving the system boundary, changing the sequence
• In industrial design engineering and product design,
of subfunctions and splitting or combining functions.
it is not always possible to apply structuring
Exploring various possibilities is the essence of
principles. The principles have their background in
function analysis: it allows for an exploration and
mechanical engineering, where functions describe
generation of possible solutions to the design
machines processing raw materials in steps to
problem.
produce products. Don’t worry: an unstructured list
of (sub)functions is better than no function
Tips and Concerns descriptions at all.
• If you have a function structure, it is recommended
you develop variants of it. A statement of a problem References and Further Reading
never leads imperatively to one particular function Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
structure. The strength of function analysis lies in the Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
possibility of creating and comparing, at an abstract
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
level, alternatives for functions and their structuring.
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
• Certain subfunctions appear in almost all design
problems. Knowledge of the elementary or general Cross, N. (1989) Engineering Design Methods, Chichester:
functions helps in seeking product-specific functions. Wiley.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Functional Analysis – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Morphological Chart
Keywords
Function
Analytica What Is a Morphological Chart? However, function analysis does not guarantee that
Morphological method The morphological chart (see figure 2.32) is a method all the relevant (sub) functions are identified. Often
Combination to generate ideas in an analytical and systematic a number of solutions to these (sub) functions are
Principal solution manner. already known, while others are thought up by
Usually, functions of the product are taken as a yourself. These solutions will form the components in
starting point. The various functions and subfunctions the morphological chart. The morphological method
of a product can be established through a function thus yields a matrix of functions and components.
fig. 2.32 Example of a Morphological Chart analysis (see ‘Function Analysis’ in this section). Possible components are listed on the basis of their
(from student report) functions. The components are concrete and specific,
specifying the elements that belong to a category
Morphological Chart (i.e. parameter). These components are already
solutions known partially from existing solutions: analogous
products. Functions are listed in columns, and
‘human power’ components are the means that realise the functions
and are listed in rows.
sub functions

stearing

The parameters are identified by focusing on the

transmition
commonalities of components, and describing them
as the characteristics which a product should have,
thus indicating what the product should be; they
surprise
are essential to the solution. The parameters are
independent and abstract, and indicate a category
learning effect
(with no reference to material features).
By means of the morphological chart, the product’s
acceleration purpose is split into a set of (sub)functions. For
each of the (sub)functions ideas are generated and
‘human power’ 2 combined into an overall solution. Through careful
selection and combination of a set of components,
an idea comes about. This idea should be seen as a
stearing 2
principal solution: a carefully chosen combination of
components that together form a conceptual solution.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Morphological Chart – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Morphological Chart – 2.2

New components are found by making the abstract a Analysis of the rows is based on rank ordering the How to Use a Morphological Chart?
parameters concrete through the establishment of components per parameter in a first and second Starting Point
technical principles. In this way, the morphological preference. The rank ordering is done against (a part The starting point of a morphological chart is a well-
method is an evolutionary method: parameters and of) the criteria or design requirements. Using only the defined design problem. A function analysis of the
components are evolved in parallel until the final first and second preferences brings down the number product that needs to be designed forms another
morphological chart is made. of components and thus reduces the number of starting point: the product should be described in
solutions. terms of function and subfunctions.
In the end, solution principles are found by choosing b The second evaluation strategy is grouping the
one component from each parameter. In other words, parameters in groups of decreasing importance. Expected Outcome
each combination of components (one component As a first step, only the most important group The expected outcome of the morphological method
being selected from each parameter) suggests a of parameters is evaluated. After one or more is a number of principal solutions (consisting of
solution to the problem. The generation of solutions combinations of components have been chosen, only components) for the initial design problem.
is thus a process of systematically combining these are involved in the evaluation.
components. Possible Procedure
However, the larger the morphological matrix, the When Can You Use a Morphological 1 The problem to be solved must be formulated as
larger the amount of possible solutions (theoretically, Chart? accurately as possible.
a 10 x 10 matrix yields 10,000,000,000 solutions), The morphological chart is usually applied in the 2 Identify all the parameters which might occur in the
which takes much time to evaluate and choose beginning of idea generation. Function analysis is solution (i.e. functions and subfunctions).
from. In order to limit the number of options, two used as a starting point. Not all design problems are 3 Construct a morphological chart (a matrix), with
evaluation strategies are helpful: (a) analysis of the suitable for using the morphological method. The parameters as the columns.
rows and (b) grouping of parameters. morphological chart has been successful in particular
for design problems in the field of engineering design.

How to
Morphological Chart

formulate the identify create matrix fill rows with create principle analyse principle
problem parameters with parameters components solutions solutions
in coloms
 4 Fill the rows with the components that belong to
that particular parameter. Components can be found
by analysing similar products or thinking up new
principles for the parameters (functions).
5 Use the evaluation strategies (analysis of rows and
grouping of parameters) to limit the number of
principal solutions.
6 Create principal solutions by combining at least one
component from each parameter.
7 Carefully analyse and evaluate all solutions
with regard to (a part of) the criteria (design
requirements), and choose a limited number of
principal solutions (at least 3).
8 The principal solutions selected can be developed in
detail in the remaining part of the design process.

Tips and Concerns

• When a combination of components has yielded a
principal solution, be sure to draw all the components
when developing the solution principle in sketches.
• You may be tempted to choose the ‘safe’
combinations of components. Challenge yourself by
making counter-intuitive combinations of components.
• Do not describe the components in words, but use
pictograms or symbols to indicate them.

References and Further Reading

Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.

Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product

Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.

Cross, N. (1989) Engineering Design Methods, Chichester:

Wiley.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Morphological Chart – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Role-Playing Techniques

What Are Role-Playing Techniques? Expected Outcome Possible Procedure

Role-playing techniques (see figure 2.33) can help in The outcome of using role-playing techniques is 1 Determine the actors and the goal of the actor or the
developing and determining the interaction between a good conceptual idea about the interaction, as interaction.
user and product. In a role-playing technique, well as visualisations or written descriptions of 2 Determine what you want to portray in the role-
designers perform the tasks of the interaction by the interaction. Both visualisations and written playing technique. Determine the sequence of steps
means of re-enactment. Role-playing is just like descriptions can be used for communication and (this is not the final sequence).
theatre acting: by acting out the tasks the user evaluation purposes. 3 Make sure that you record the role-playing.
has to perform, you reach a better understanding 4 Divide the roles amongst the team members.
of the complexity is reached, and different ideas 5 Play the interaction, improvise. Be expressive in your
for the interaction can be developed. One of the movements. Think aloud when enacting motivations.
major advantages of using role-playing is that the 6 Repeat the role-playing several times until different
entire body is used; this is more like real interaction sequences have been enacted.
as compared to using storyboards or scenarios. 7 Analyse the recordings: pay attention to the
With role-playing techniques the tangibility of sequences of tasks, motivations and factors that
the interaction can be explored, as well as the could influence the interaction.
appearance and attractiveness of elegant movements.
Also, by role-playing you can simulate an interaction Tips and Concerns
walk-through. Role-playing is usually captured using • Comics and movies can be a great source of
photography or video. expressive techniques. Some of these can be applied
to product design scenarios and storyboards, whereas
When Can You Use Role-playing others are less suitable. Think about camera position
Techniques? (close-up versus overview), sequence and the style in
Role-playing can be used throughout the design which you visualise the storyboards.
process, for developing ideas about the interaction
with a product idea. References and Further Reading
Jacko, J., et al. (2002) The Human-Computer Interaction
How to use Role-Playing Techniques? Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies and
Starting Point Emerging Applications, New York: Erlbaum and Associates.
Role-playing starts with a first idea about the
interaction between product and user. fig. 2.33 Examples of Role-playing techniques using props
(from student report)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Role-Playing Techniques – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Storyboard
What is a Storyboard? When Can You Use a Storyboard?
A storyboard (see figure 2.34) is a valuable aid to However, the visualisation style of the storyboards Storyboards can be used throughout the entire design
the designer, because it provides a visual description influences the reactions, e.g. open and sketchy process, from ideas about the interaction with a
of the use of a product that people from different storyboards elicit comments, sleek and detailed product to ideas and concepts and also for product
backgrounds can ‘read’ and understand. A storyboard presentations can be overwhelming. Storyboards concept evaluations (see for example ‘Product
not only helps the product designer to get a grip on used for analytical purposes, to map situations, Usibility Evaluation’ in
user groups, context, product use and timing, but problems and feelings, typically have a factual style section 2.4).
also to communicate about these aspects with all of visualisation. Storyboards used to conceptualise
the people involved. With a storyboard the powerful ideas have a rough visualisation style. Storyboards How to Develop a Storyboard?
aspects of visualisation are exploited. At a glance used to evaluate design ideas are often open, Starting Point
the whole setting can be shown: where and when bringing together different points of view. They have Used as a tool for developing ideas, a storyboard
the interaction happens, the actions that take place, a sketchy, incomplete style of visualisation in order to starts with a first idea about the interaction between
how the product is used, and how it behaves, and invite reactions. Storyboards intended to transfer or product and user.
the lifestyle, motivations and goals of the users. present concepts often look polished.
Storyboards allow you to literally point at elements,
which helps during the discussion.

fig. 2.34 Example of a Storyboard (from student report)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Storyboards – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Storyboards – 2.2

Expected Outcome Tips and Concerns

The outcome of a storyboard is a good conceptual • Comics and movies are a great source of expressive
idea about the interaction, as well as visualisations techniques. Some of these can be applied to product
or written descriptions of the interaction. Both design scenarios and storyboards, whereas others are
visualisations and written descriptions can be used less suitable. Think about camera position (close-up
for communication and evaluation purposes. versus overview), sequence and the style in which
you visualise the storyboards.
Possible Procedure
1 Start from the following ingredients: ideas, References and Further Reading
simulations, a user character. Stappers, P.J. (2004) ‘Storyboarding’, In: Stappers, P.J., (August
2 Choose a story and a message: what do you want 2004) Context and Conceptualisation.
the storyboard to express? Limit your story to a clear
Jacko, J., et al. (2002) The Human-Computer Interaction
message (e.g. 12 panels).
Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies and
3 Create sketchy storylines. Don’t build the story one
Emerging Applications, New York: Erlbaum and Associates.
panel at a time. Design the time line before detailing.
Use variations in panel sizes, white space, frames,
captions, for emphasis and expression.
4 Create a complete storyboard. Use short captions to
complement (not repeat) the images. Don’t make all
the panels the same: use emphasis.
 Written Scenario
What is a Written Scenario? presenting ideas and concepts, and are used in product 3 Determine a starting point of the scenario: a trigger
To write a scenario (or story), you need a basic concept evaluations and product usability evaluations or an event.
understanding of the tasks to be performed by the (see ‘Product Usibility Evaluation’ in section 2.4). 4 Identify stakeholders and their interests.
user. You also need to have an understanding of 5 Determine the number of scenarios that you will
the users and the context of use. Scenarios can be How to Use a Written Scenario? create, based on the number of actors and their
derived from data gathered during contextual enquiry Starting Point goals.
activities. Used as a tool for developing ideas, a written 6 Write the scenario. Work from starting point towards
In simple language describe the interaction that scenario starts with a first idea about the interaction completing the actors’ goals. Be specific about tasks,
needs to take place. It is important to avoid between product and user. subtasks, context and the actors’ motivations to
references to technology. You should also have complete the goals.
the scenario reviewed by users to ensure that it is Expected Outcome
representative of the real world. Use scenarios during The outcome of using a written scenario, is a good Tips and Concerns
design to ensure that all participants understand conceptual idea about the interaction. Written • Comics and movies are a great source of expressive
and agree to the design parameters, and to specify descriptions can be used for communication and techniques. Some of these can be applied to product
exactly what interactions the system must support. evaluation purposes. use scenarios.

When Can You Use a Written Possible Procedure References and Further Reading
Scenario? 1 Determine the actors. The actor has an active role Jacko, J., et al. (2002) The Human-Computer Interaction
A written scenario can be used throughout the design in the scenario. In case of several actors, more Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies and
process, for developing ideas about the interaction scenarios should be set up. Emerging Applications, New York: Erlbaum and Associates.
with a product idea. Scenarios can also be used for 2 Determine the goals the actor has to complete.

How to
Written Scenario

determine determine actors determine goals determine identify determine the write the
interaction of actors starting point stakeholders and number of scenario’s
their interests scenario’s

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Written Scenarios – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Keyword SCAMPER
Checklist for Concept Generation

What Is a Checklist for Concept

Generation?
Checklists for Concept Generation are simple tools fig. 2.35 Checklist for Concept Generation
that support concept generation. Checklists are [Link]
series of simple questions, which can be used
either individually or in groups (see also ‘Design
Specifications (Criteria)’ in section 2.1). The checklist
aims to encourage a systematic development of
concepts. Also, the use of checklists encourages
creativity and divergence in concept generation.
The questions in a checklist need a point of focus,
which could either be an existing solution or proposed
concepts to a design problem. The questions should
be taken one at a time, to explore new ways and
approaches to the problem. You can also use the
checklists in a brainstorm session, where it can
be useful to write each statement on a card, and
randomly select a card when discussing alternative
solutions.
Two widely used checklists for concept development
are the SCAMPER technique and Osborn’s Checklist.
The SCAMPER technique was created by Bob Eberle
and written about by Michael Michalko in his book
Thinkertoys. SCAMPER is the acronym of: Substitute,
Combine, Adapt, Modify, Put to other uses, Eliminate
and Rearrange. The SCAMPER technique is derived
from Osborn’s Checklist, which consists of: put to
other uses?, adapt?, modify?, magnify?, minify?,
substitute?, rearrange?, and reverse?

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Checklist for Concept Generation – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Checklist for Concept Generation – 2.2

When Can You Use a Checklist for Possible Procedure References and Further Reading
Concept Generation? • Define a product idea in detail, including material Osborn, A. (1957) Applied Imagination: Principles and
The checklist for Concept Generation is best applied features such as shape, dimensions etc. Procedures of Creative Problem-solving, New York: Scribner.
when developing an idea into a concept. As stated • Search for and select a checklist for concept
Michalko, M. (1991) Thinkertoys: a Handbook of Business
earlier, the technique needs a point of focus. This development. Use more than one checklist.
Creativity, Berkeley: Ten Speed Press.
point of focus should be a product idea, already with • Systematically work through the checklist by
material features, shape and dimensions. answering the questions in the checklist. Note: this Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
is a trial-and-error process; apply the question to the Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
How to Use a Checklist for Concept product idea and verify whether the product idea is
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
Generation? improved. If not, try something else.
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
Starting Point • Iteratively, improve your idea by answering the
The starting point of checklists for concept generation questions in the checklist over and over again.
is a well-defined product idea, or an existing product. • Present your developed idea in an explanatory sketch.

Expected Outcome Tips and Concerns

The expected outcome is a product concept which is • Checklists can be used to support group creativity
developed further than just its initial idea state. and discussion, and can be referred to individually.
• Use more than one checklist; try to find more
checklists yourself.
 Keywords
Idea generation
Design Drawing
Concept generation,
Sketch,
Drawing When you enter a design studio you will find out that Communicating
Presentation drawing by hand is an integral part of the decision- Next to verbal explanation, a designer also
Detail making process, used in the early stages of design, uses drawing to interact and communicate with
in brainstorm sessions, in the phase of researching several groups of people, with different levels of
and exploring concepts, and in presentation. Drawing understanding of professional jargon:
has proved to be a versatile and powerful tool for • Fellow-designers or team members
exploring and for communicating. (see: Sketching, • Model makers
Eissen 2007). • Marketing managers
• Clients and contractors
Exploring • Public offices.
Explorative drawing enables the designer to
analyse visually and to generate and evaluate ideas Effective Drawings
throughout the entire product design cycle, and The significance of a drawing depends on the context
especially in the synthesis phase (see section 1.3 - in which it is made. A drawing serves its purpose
The Basic Design cycle). when it is efficient. Therefore a certain phase in
That also includes: the design process may require a certain type of
• Analysing and exploring the perimeters of the drawing. Time is an issue and in many cases, a quick,
problem definition suggestive sketch is preferable to a more time-
• Using drawings as a starting point for new ideas, by consuming rendering.
means of association
• Exploring shapes and their meaning, function and
aesthetics
• Analysing and structuring principle solutions and
visualising structural and formal concepts (see section
1.5 - The Fish Trap Model).

Hand drawing is also beneficial to the development

of the designer’s visual perception, his or her
imaginative capacities and perceptiveness of form in
general.
fig. 2.36

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Design Drawing – 2.2
 Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Design Drawing – 2.2

For generating and evaluating ideas, hand drawing is (figure 2.39) Side-view sketching can be a quick and
more versatile than CAD rendering and prototyping. easier way of making variations in shape, colour,
A rendering can look very definite and unchangeable, details, etc. (figure 2.40).
which is not appropriate, for example, when a
studio is still conferring with its client about design Mixed Media
directions and possibilities. With a PC and tablet the designer can easily adjust
A (brainstorm) sketch can also easily be upgraded colour and shading in the (scanned) drawing and add
into a more presentable drawing, on paper or digitally textures or the brand name.
by using a tablet and e.g. Adobe Photoshop or Corel Computer sketching also has some advantages.
Painter. It can speed up the drawing and enhance the
designer’s eye-hand coordination and muscular
Early Phase fig. 2.38 movement. A relatively new explorative medium in
In the early phase of the design process, drawing generating ideas is called Intuitive Sketching (van
tends to be simple: basic shapes or configurations, Preliminary den Herik and Eissen, 2005). This method uses a
(grey) shading and casting shadows (figure 2.37). Concept simple doodle as a starting point (figure 2.41), as a
This kind of drawing incorporates the basic skills Sketching means to break free from conditioning, to express
and rules of perspective, construction of 3D shapes, When several ideas feeling without hindrance, and to expand your visual
shading and constructing cast shadows (figure 2.38). are combined to language.
Colour is not always used and very often this kind of develop preliminary
drawing will suffice for idea sketching or structural concepts, the
fig. 2.41
concepts (fig. 2.38, and see section 1.6 - The Fish designer has a
Trap Model). general idea about
the materials being
used, the shape, its
fig. 2.39 function and how
it is manufactured.
Colour and
expression of the
materials (e.g.
matt or reflective
plastic) become
more important and
drawings become
more elaborate.
fig. 2.37 fig. 2.40
 References and Further Reading
Eissen, J.J., van Kuijk, E. and de Wolf, P. (1984) Produkt
Presentatietechnieken, Delft: DUP.

Eissen, J.J. and Steur, R. (2007) Sketching: Drawing

Techniques for Product Designers, BIS Publishers.

van den Herik, Y. and Eissen J.J. (2005) Intuitive sketching: a

new and explorative medium in generating ideas, CAID&CD’
Delft 2005: applications of digital techniques in industrial
design engineering. pp. 708-713. Beijing: International
Academic Publishers

[Link] (retrieved May 2009).

see also [Link]

fig. 2.42a fig. 2.42b

By combining or integrating several drawings with

other types of images (figure 2.42a and b), layers of
information can be presented in a coherent way and a
suitable context can be provided: the meaning of the
product, user environment, etc.

Material Concept Sketching or

Preliminary Design
When concepts become definitive, when you want to
explore or explain how different manufactured parts
are assembled, or when you are communicating with
an engineer, choosing an exploded view is effective
(figure 2.43). Side-view drawings for exact
dimensions, detail drawings, ‘ghost’ view or
shaded cross-sections can also be very useful in
communication. Drawings of user interaction can
fig. 2.43 serve to get feedback from users, prior to the testing fig. 2.44
of prototypes (figure 2.44).

Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Design Drawing – 2.2
Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Three-dimensional Models
Bruno Ninaber van Eyben

What Are Three-dimensional Models? In mass production, prototypes are also used to test
A three-dimensional model is a physical manifestation functionality and ergonomics. Changes that need to
of a product idea. It is a hand-built physical model be made after the production preparation are often
that represents a mass-manufactured product. In the expensive and time-consuming. The final prototype
design process, three-dimensional models are used to thus serves for the preparation and planning of
express, visualise and materialise product ideas and production. The first phase in the production process
Watch interview with Bruno Ninaber van Eyben concepts. Three-dimensional models are also called is called the null series: these first products (still a
(studio Ninaber) via the OpenCourseWare prototypes: the word prototype comes from the Latin sort of prototypes) are used to test the production
version of this guide: [Link] words proto, meaning original, and typus, meaning process.
form or model. Thus, a prototype is an original form,
a first-of-its-kind model. Prototypes are used in the generation of ideas and
concepts for three reasons:
Prototypes offer more than drawings. Prototypes 1 Generating and developing ideas and concepts
are tangible, three-dimensional forms; they can be 2 Communicating ideas and concepts in design teams
fig. 2.45 Sketch Model picked up, turned over and looked at from different 3 Testing and verifying ideas, concepts and solution
points of view as opposed to drawings. With principles.
prototypes, tests and measurements can be carried
out to verify whether a particular solution or solution Prototypes for Generating and Developing
principle works. And prototypes are effective tools to Ideas and Concept
communicate product ideas and concepts. Building Sketch models (see figure 2.45) are kinds of
prototypes is a form of visualising the final product prototypes that are used frequently in the phase
form. It is a technique just like sketching, making of generating ideas and concepts. Simple materials
final drawings, photography or filming. In that sense, are used, such as paper, cardboard, foam, wood,
prototypes are tools that serve the design process. adhesives, wire and solder. Sketch models are tools
More specifically, prototypes serve the form-giving that are used to visualise early ideas and to develop
process in designing. those early ideas into better ideas and concepts.
In the practice of design, prototypes are used as
important steps in the product development process. Often you see an iterative process between
Prototypes serve the industry to test product aspects, sketching, making sketch models, drawing, and
change constructions and details, and to reach making a second generation of sketch models.
consensus within the company on the final form.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Three-dimensional Models – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Three-dimensional Models – 2.2

Proof-of-concept prototypes (see figure 2.46) are metal or plastic, with real buttons and high-quality
used to verify whether certain technical principles paint or finishing. The final model might also include
actually work. Materials such as technical Lego, some of the technical working principles.
Meccano or Fisher Techniek (prototype material)
can be used. Proof-of-concept prototypes are Prototyping to Communicate Ideas and
simplifications; often details are left out, and only Concept in Design Teams
rudimentary forms and working principles are built. Prototypes are effective tools for communication
Proof-of-concept prototypes are also called FUMO’s: purposes. When working in a team, prototypes help
Functional Models. Based on the moment in the idea in building a shared understanding of the design
generation phase, the level of detail is determined problem and the solutions (ideas and concepts).
fig. 2.46 Proof-of-concept model or FUMO and the choice of materials. In the beginning of Sketch models with increasing levels of detail help the
idea generation, prototypes are often built of paper, development of product ideas and concepts within
cardboard and foam. At the end of idea generation, the team.
prototypes of the concepts are made of foam, wood
and metal. For the communication of ideas to parties outside the
design process (for example stakeholders involved),
A dummy (mock-up) (see figure 2.47) is a 1:1 prototypes are also a powerful tool. Often a dummy
scale model of the product idea. A dummy is a or a final model is used to present a product idea
prototype that only has the external characteristics or product concept. Knowing the audience to whom
of the product idea, and not the technical working you are presenting is important, though, in order to
principles. It is often built at the end of the idea present an appropriate prototype built from the right
fig. 2.47 Dummy (mock-up or VISO) generation, to visualise and present final concepts. materials and with the right techniques.
A dummy is also called a VISO: a Visual Model.

A detailed model is used in the concept generation

phase to show particular details of the concept.
A detailed model is much like a dummy; both are
1:1 scale models with predominantly external
characteristics of high quality. A detailed model can
also have some limited functionality.

A final model (see figure 2.48) often concludes the

concept generation phase. The final model is a
prototype that has a high-quality look, built of wood,
fig. 2.48 Final prototype fig. 2.49 Model to test use
 Prototyping to Test and Verify Ideas, Concept When Can You Use Three-dimensional Possible Procedure
and Solution Principles Models? 1 Three-dimensional model building starts with some
Prototypes also serve the purpose of testing and Prototypes can be used throughout the conceptual notion of an idea, concept or solution principle.
verifying ideas, concept or solution principles. (See design process. In the beginning of idea generation, 2 Based on the purpose of the model, some level
figure 2.49, also see ‘Evaluation of Product Features’ various types of sketch models are used. During idea of detail has to be determined prior to collecting
in section 2.4). generation a dummy or detailed models are used, and materials, devising a plan and building the model.
the concept generation phase is often concluded with Simple sketch models at the beginning of idea
There are generally three types of tests for which a final model. generation only require a simple sketch, while final
prototypes are used: models (final prototypes) require a detailed plan of
1. Testing technical – functional characteristics of a How to Use Three-dimensional Models? how to build the model.
product idea. Often a sketch model is used with Starting Point 3 Collect the appropriate materials, such as paper,
some working functionality, or functioning technical The starting point of building models can be a cardboard, wood, foam, adhesives, plastics, metals,
principle, based on the goals of the test. (mental) sketch of a product idea (sketch model) or wire, and paint.
2. Testing form characteristics. Often a detailed model is detailed drawings and a building plan (final model). 4 Devise a plan for building the model. For a simple
used for judging user preference. sketch model, early idea sketches are often enough.
3. Testing usability characteristics. Often a final, working Expected Outcome Detailed or final prototypes usually require detailed
model is used for testing the intended usability of a The outcome of building models are three- drawing including dimensions.
product concept. dimensional, tangible models of an idea, concept or 5 Build the prototype (see figure 2.45).
solution principle.

How to
Three-dimensional idea; build
sketch detailed 1. step
concept prototype!
Models idea; drawing 2. step
concept of 3. step
concept ...

select materials make model plan

define idea into concept

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Three-dimensional Models – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Three-dimensional Models – 2.2

Tips and Tricks

• Look for examples of what different sketch models
can look like. Sketch models as simple as paper and
glue are often very helpful in the beginning of the
idea generation. Try this yourself!
• Many examples can be found of final models, or
detailed models.
• Use the expertise of the people working in model
workshops.
• Select your tools for model making well

References and Further Reading fig. 2.50 Select your tools for model making well
Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.

Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product

Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.

fig. 2.51 Building a model of foam

 Biomimicry 1 1 This chapter was written by McCauley Wanner

What Is Biomimicry? A common example used to explain the current

Biomimicry takes its inspiration from natural studies happening in biomimetic design is the
Keywords processes. It is an approach that searches for new Mercedes-Benz concept car. In order to make an
Inspiration ways of creating sustainable materials, products, efficient, safe and spacious vehicle, the company
Sustainability services, and other solutions by learning how nature has come up with an idea that looks at the structure
Natural processes already works. of the boxfish. Because of its large body shape and
The Design Spiral, developed by the Biomimicry Guild ability to swim extremely fast, researchers wanted
([Link]), represents a design to discover how to diffuse these lessons into a
process from a biomimetic perspective. car design. This design proved to be successful in
efficiency and drag tests, although the form remains
As designers we have the job of coming up with outlandish for the probable consumers.
new ideas and products in order to fulfil a particular
need or function. What we have just recently begun When Can You Use the Biomimicry
to realise is that nature has already perfected and Design Spiral?
come up with all the answers. For as long as man has The Design Spiral (figure 2.46) can be used from
been on the earth, we have tried to figure out how the concept generation stage to the detailed design
to survive, using materials and different products to stage. The Design Spiral is not terribly different
make our lives easier. However, we have never cared from the process that you already engage in when
to understand that somewhere in nature something is designing. The Spiral expands the design brief
doing it, making it, disposing it much better and more through translation into similar biological processes.
efficiently than we ever could. Nature has mastered
productivity and disposal and figured out what works How to Use the Biomimicry Design
and does not in order to survive together in the most Spiral?
harmonious way. Biomimicry is just that. It takes the The Biomimicry Design Spiral in fig. 2.53 (on the next
lessons and processes from nature in order page) shows a step by step approach.
to make the most efficient, sustainable, functional
and aesthetically beautiful products. In other words,
biomimicry references nature in order to design
things that just seem to make sense.
fig. 2.52 Example of Biomimicry; Mercedez-Benz concept
car inspired by a boxfisch

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Biomimicry – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Biomimicry – 2.2

#*0.*.*$3:

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([Link])
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 Contextmapping

What Is Contextmapping? physical aspects as well as goals, needs, emotions • Conduct preliminary research (first interviews, study
Contextmapping is a user-centred design technique and practical matters. background literature)
that involves the user as ‘expert of his or her • Design expressive tools such as workbooks or probes.
experience’. By providing the user with design tools The term contextmap indicates that the acquired
and approaches, he or she can express a particular information should work as a guiding map for the Step 2: Sensitising
experience. design team. It helps the designers find their way, Some time before the session, users receive a
structure their insights, recognise dangers and sensitising package, which helps them to observe
In the past decades, the role of researcher within opportunities. The contextmap is meant to be their own lives and reflect on their experiences of
design has grown considerably. Previously designers regarded as an inspiration, not a validation. the study topic. It can consist of various elements
could focus on the product with its additional inner derived from cultural probe packages, such as an
technology, whilst these days design often begins When Can You Use Contextmapping? exercise book, postcard assignments, fill-in maps and
with a thorough understanding of the user and the A Contextmapping study should help designers to cameras. Here are some tips:
usability context such as the what, where, how, understand the user’s perspective and to translate • Make it personal but well cared for
when, with whom etc, which surround the interaction the user’s experience into a desirable design solution. • Make it inviting and playful
between user and product. • Always conduct pilot tests before creating your
To design desired (product) solutions, designers materials
The term context is defined as the context in which create a vision for future use, which pays special
the product is used. All the factors that influence the attention to the deeper layers of meaning. These
experience of product use, such as: social, cultural, layers are expected to be valid in the long term and
can be attained by calling up memories from the past.

How Can You Use Contextmapping?

Step 1: Preparing
• Determine what you want to learn
• Determine the topic of study
• Define the scope around the focus that is to be
explored
• Capture your preconceptions in a Mind Map
• Start selecting participants in time
• Make a planning fig.2.54 Example of a sensitizing package

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Contextmapping – 2.2
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Contextmapping – 2.2

• Invite the user to extend rather than answer or work location, whereby one of the researchers
• Meet your participants in person. facilitates the process and the other makes notes and
The sensitising process takes about a week. The user observes. In the session a number of exercises are
is encouraged to spread the assignment throughout done to gradually deepen the insight into the topic.
the week, which gives him or her the opportunity to Here are some tips:
generate memories and associations and sharpen • Record it on video if possible
their sensitivity to the topic. • Write down your impressions immediately afterwards
Facilitating
Step 3: Meeting
• Instruction: ‘you are the expert of your experience’,
After the sensitising step, the researcher and user fig. 2.56 Analysing; Selecting and interpreting chunks of
‘anything goes’, ‘respect each others’ stories’
meet. This can be in a group session with typically data, often a group activity
• Ask questions like ‘how do you feel about it?’, ‘what
up to six users, or an interview at the user’s home
does it mean to you?’
Step 4: Analysing
Exercise Sessions and workbooks provide large amounts of
fig. 2.55 • Use diverse images and words data, which must be interpreted to find patterns and
Users create (nature, people, interactions) 80-90 possible directions. The data contain photographs and
expressions words/ pictures often work well workbooks that participants have made, expressive
of their • Select ambiguous pictures artefacts from the session and often a video
experience, • Balance between positive and recording and full-text transcript from the session.
which are negative emotions Quotes are selected from the transcript, interpreted
presented to - • Invite and organised. On the basis of the first impression, a
and discussed • Don’t make it too beautiful. qualitative analysis is performed.
with their peers

How to
Contextmapping new
concept

workboo
k

preparing sensitizing make & say discussing analyzing capture & share conceptualizing
session

collecting user insights share with and communicate to the design team
 Watch interview with Sanne Kistemaker (Muzus)
via the OpenCourseWare version of this guide:
[Link]

Step 6: Conceptualising and beyond

Researchers sift through the material, make Communications often serve to improve idea
selections and interpretations and try to find patterns generation, concept development and further
of similarities and differences. product development. Users are often highly
The researcher typically creates a rich visual motivated to look at the results again and can build
environment of interpretations and categories which on the knowledge they generated many weeks
he or she then analyses. Here are some tips: after the original study. In the meantime they often
• Immerse yourself in the data have become aware of the new insights into their
• Clarify your interpretations experience which they enjoy sharing.
• Give it some time
• Do it together (triangulate)
• Be surprised
• Find patterns.
fig. 2.57 Example of an Infographic; to communicate insights
Step 5: Communicating
In practice, designers often do not meet the users. • Leave room for users’ own interpretations
Therefore the researchers have to translate the ‘user • Make it personal
experience’ to the designer and convey the user’s • Show that your contact was real
perspective, needs and values. Here are some tips: • Show real people
• Do a workshop • Combine raw data with interpretations
• Sensitise the designers • Combine results with other (market) research results.
fig. 2.58 ‘Piece of Family’ (graduation project)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Contextmapping – 2.2
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Creating Product Ideas and Concepts | Contextmapping – 2.2

Here are some tips:

• Keep user and experience in mind
• Tell stories
• Make storyboards
• Do role-playing.

References and Further Reading

Sleeswijk Visser, F., Stappers, P.J., Lugt van der, R. and
Sanders, E.B.-N. (2005) Contextmapping: Experience from
Practice, CoDesign, 1(2), pp.119-149.

[Link]

[Link]
2.3
Decision and
2.3 Decision and Selection
Selection
Design is a process of diverging and converging.
The design of a product grows from a product idea via
solution principles, concepts and preliminary designs
to a detailed definitive design. Design is also a process
C-Box of working from a large number of ideas to a single
detailed design. Designing without intuitive decisions
Itemised Response and PMI is inconceivable. But for new, complex or unknown
decision problems, intuitive decision-making is not
vALUe always successful. Decision methods aim to help people
in making a decision.
Harris Profile In decision methods, you compare alternatives on
predefined criteria. You look at how well an alternative
Datum Method performs ‘on the criteria’ and assign a value to this
performance. By bringing together the totality of the
Weighted Objectives Method values of each of the criteria, you calculate an overall
score of the alternative. Calculating the overall scores of
each of the alternatives and comparing the alternatives
facilitates a decision-making process. This is what
decision methods are about.
The manner in which the overall score of an alternative
is calculated is called the value function, or decision rule.
However, these functions and rules are full of fallacies
and pitfalls. Therefore, in using a certain method, you
should really see whether the specific decision problem
does indeed answer those assumptions, for only then
does it make sense to use this method. Decision
methods do not guarantee a sound answer! They are
mere aids in the process of coming to a sound and well-
considered decision.
The decision-maker should always reflect on the
verdicts/decisions reached, bearing in mind the initially
stated goals and aims of the projects.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection – 2.3

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 C-Box

What Is a C-Box?
We use a C-Box to generate an overview from a
Keywords multitude of early ideas. The C-Box is a 2 x 2 Matrix.
Clustering Two axes are determined that represent criteria
Evaluation according to which the ideas are evaluated. In a
Intuitive C-Box usually the criteria ‘innovativeness’ (for the
Brainstorm users) and ‘feasibility’ are used. A C-Box has four
Idea selection quadrants based on these axes. You are able to judge
quickly whether ideas are immediately feasible or not,
and whether they are highly innovative or not. fig. 2.59 Example of C-Box (from student report)
A C-box is commonly used in a brainstorm workshop
in order to judge the numerous ideas that are Expected Outcome
generated in such a workshop. This method also The outcome of a C-Box is an overview of the early
works effectively when you are eager to drop highly ideas, clustered in four groups based on criteria set to
innovative ideas. This method could also be seen as the axes of the C-Box. Effectively, you have created a
a first cluster activity of early ideas. However, the first rough distinction between ideas in four groups.
clusters are predetermined by the axes you choose.
It is possible to vary the meaning of the axes, for Possible Procedure
future example ‘attractiveness’ and ‘functionality’. 1 Create two axes (innovativeness and feasibility) on a
technology
large paper and construct the 2 x 2 C-Box with those
When Can You Use a C-Box? two axes, for example using Scotch tape on a wall
A C-Box is commonly used in early idea generation, surface.
present in case of a surplus of early ideas (for example 40+ functionality: one end is the familiar, the other end
technology
ideas) generated in a brainstorm session. represents highly innovative.
feasibility: one end is not feasible, the other end
present use futuristic use How to Use a C-Box? represents immediately feasible.
Starting Point 2 Make sure all ideas are written down, or drawn on a
The starting points of a C-Box is a multitude of early small piece of paper, for example on a post-it or an
fig. 2.58 C-Box extended (from PO3 course 2008-2009) ideas (40-60 ideas). A5/A4-size paper.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | C-Box – 2.3

 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | C-Box – 2.3

How to
C-box familiar innovative familiar innovative
idea idea yes...

feasible feasible
idea idea idea

feasible feasible
but...
idea if...
idea
idea
idea idea idea idea

not
idea
idea

not
idea
idea

40-60 early ideas make discuss and place the ideas select promising
2 x 2 matrix review in one of the ideas and drop
ideas four quadrants bad ones

3 With a group, review and discuss the ideas, and place

the ideas in one of the four quadrants.
4 Make sure that ideas in one quadrant are situated
closely to the criteria they meet best.
Once all ideas are placed in the C-Box, a first
overview is created, and following steps can be
made. These steps consist of working out the most
promising ideas and dropping the bad ideas (not
innovative and not feasible).

References and Further Reading

Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,
Delft: VSSD.
 Itemised Response and PMI

What Is Itemised Response? What Is PMI?

The Itemised Response Method is used to judge The PMI Method (Plus, Minus, Interesting) is used to
Keywords ideas quickly and intuitively. For each idea, the evaluate early design ideas in a quick and systematic
Idea selection positive and negative features are listed. These way. PMI is essentially a tool that helps to bring
Synectics positive and negative features can serve to elaborate structure to a set of early ideas. Per idea the pluses,
Intuitive on the positive aspects (make the idea’s positive minuses and interesting aspects are listed:
Brainstorm aspects stronger). Also, the negative aspects can be 1 Plus (+) – positive aspects,
evaluated and improved. 2 Minus (-) – negative aspects, and
This method is used to evaluate and work out a 3 Interesting (I) – interesting aspects and features.
moderately large selection of ideas. Once all pluses PMI can be used in combination with itemised
and minuses are listed, a decision can be made as response.
to which ideas will be used further throughout the
design project. The Itemised Response Method When Can You Use Itemised Response
originated from the Synectics Method, a systematic and PMI?
approach to creative thinking that uses metaphors The Itemised Response Method can be used to select
and analogies (see ‘Synectics’ in section 2.2). ideas for concept developments. The method works
best when a manageable number of ideas need to be
screened. The PMI method is essentially a technique
used in a brainstorm setting. Because of its quick and

How to
Itemised Response ideaidea idea
ideaidea idea
features
features features
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and PMI ideaidea idea
ideaidea idea + good
+ good + good
ideaidea ideaidea idea – improve
– improve– improve
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ideaidea idea
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10 10 10 forfor
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or keep
concept oron
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features generatinggenerating
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Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Itemised Response and PMI – 2.3
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Itemised Response and PMI – 2.3

ing
intuitive nature, the PMI method is best applied in 3 Decide upon your course of action: do you develop
the beginning of the design process, during early idea the good ideas into concepts (how many concepts?
generation. Maybe combine certain good ideas?), or do you
continue with the early idea generation (seek more
How to Use Itemised Response and ideas? Combine interesting ideas with the good ideas?
PMI? Explore within the group of interesting ideas?).
Starting Point
A limited number of ideas, resulting from the stage of Tips and Concerns
idea generation (not more than 10). • Working with Pluses and Minuses invites people to
take decisions, but you don’t want that too quickly.
Expected Outcome C-Box, Itemised Response, PMI and vALUe are all
Evaluation of ideas and a decision as to which ideas meant to get acquainted with all the ideas before
could go into concept development. throwing any away (see sub-sections on each topic in
Better understanding of the solution space, i.e. more this section).
insight into valuable directions for solution finding.
Better understanding of interesting and promising References and Further Reading
ideas, but also of bad ideas. Gordon, W.J.J. (1961) Synectics, New York: Harper and Row.

De Bono, E. (1970) Lateral Thinking, Creativity Step by Step,

Possible Procedure
New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
1 For each idea, list the positive features and the
negative features in the form of a list with pluses and Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,
minuses. Per idea, answer the following questions: Delft: VSSD.
a. What is good about the idea (Plus)?
b. Which aspects would you need to improve (Minus)?
c. What makes the idea interesting (Interesting)?
2 You now have per idea:
a. Plus: these are the good aspects of the idea,
worth developing further (into concepts) or taking
advantage of.
b. Minus: these are bad aspects of the idea, not
worth developing further.
c. Interesting: these are interesting aspects of the
idea, but they need more development in order to
become good ideas.
 vALUe

What Is vALUe? How to Use vALUe?

The vALUe Method (Advantage, Limitation, Unique Starting Point
Keywords Elements) is used to evaluate a large set of early A large number of early ideas or principal solutions
Evaluation design ideas in a quick and systematic way. The (20 to 50 or more).
Intuitive vALUe method is an inventorying method: it allows
Brainstorm a (team of) designer(s) to review and validate the Expected outcome
Provide discription
Idea selection ideas. By explicitly writing down the ideas in terms A common description of early ideas.
of the problem
of advantages, limitations and unique elements, Better understanding of the solution space, i.e. more
the ideas have a common vocabulary which makes insight into valuable directions for solution finding.
further selection easier. After applying this method, Better understanding of interesting and promising
the decision maker has to decide what to do next: ideas, but also of bad ideas.
look for more ideas, or make a decision as to which
ideas will be developed into concepts. Possible Procedure
1 Generate a large set of early ideas or principal
When Can You Use vALUe? solutions. For idea generation techniques that can be
The vALUe method is essentially a technique used in used, see ‘Creativity Techniques’ in section 2.2.
a brainstorm setting. Because it allows ideas to be 2 Per idea, answer the following questions:
described in common terms, the vALUe method is a. What are the advantages of the idea (A)?
best applied in the beginning of the design process, b. What are the limitations of the idea (L)?
during early idea c. What are the unique elements of the idea (U)?
generation. The
How to vALUe Method References and Further Reading
vALUe idea
idea idea works best just Isaksen, S. et al. (1994) Creative Approaches to Problem
idea advantage ? after selecting from Solving, Dubuque: Kendall and Hunt.
idea
idea idea disadvantage ?
among a large
idea idea unique element ? Tassoul, M. (2006) Creative Facilitation: a Delft Approach,
idea number of ideas
idea Delft: VSSD.
(20 to 50 or more
20-50 or more answer following
ideas or principal questions per back to 7 +/- 2).
solutions idea

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | vALUe – 2.3

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Harris Profile

What Is a Harris Profile? How to Use a Harris Profile?

A New Product Profile (or Harris Profile, see figure Starting Point
Keywords 2.60) is a graphic representation of the strengths and Alternatives for a product (in some stage of
Intuitive weaknesses of design concepts. Originally, a New development).
Concept selection Product Profile is applied as a useful tool to evaluate Criteria that are applicable to the alternatives on the
and select development projects (ideas for new specific level of development.
business activities). This method can also be used
to evaluate and decide in later phases of product Expected Outcome
development. Per design alternative a Harris Profile is One chosen/selected alternative from a group of
created. A number of criteria are used to evaluate the alternatives.
design alternatives. A four-scale scoring is used for Overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the
all criteria. The decision-maker himself/herself should selected alternative.
interpret the meaning of the scale positions (i.e. More understanding of the problem and criteria.
- 2 = bad, - 1 = moderate, etc.). Thanks to its visual
representation, decision-makers can quickly view the Possible Procedure
fig. 2.60 Example of a Harris Profile overall score of each design alternative on all the 1 Criteria should be selected according to which
criteria, and compare these easily. the design alternatives should be compared (be
concept 1 concept 2 concept 3
sure to cover all important aspects of the product
-2 -1 +1 +2 -2 -1 +1 +2 -2 -1 +1 +2 When Can You Use a development project with the selected criteria).
controlable on velocity and direction
Harris Profile? 2 List the criteria and create a four-point scale matrix
safe
Whenever a number of alternatives next to it (see figure 2.60). The scale is coded - 2, - 1,
gain enough speed
of product concepts need to + 1, and + 2.
basis construction simple
be compared and consensus/ 3 Create a Harris Profile for the design alternatives
well accesible parts
an intuitive decision needs to be you want to compare. Draw the profile by marking
well replacable parts
reached/made, the Harris Profile the scores in the four-point scale matrix for all the
distinct
can be used. Typically it is used criteria.
stable
after a diverging stage of the 4 When the Harris Profiles of the design alternatives
compact
process. are completed, the profiles can be compared and a
springs
judgment can be made as to which alternative has
price
the best overall score.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Harris Profile – 2.3
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Harris Profile – 2.3

Tips and Concerns

• If possible cluster the criteria.
• The four-point scale should be interpreted differently
for each criterion: the criteria cannot be compared
equally, and therefore all criteria have different
meanings on the scale. Make sure that you
standardise the meaning of the four-point scale for all
the design alternatives.
• When attributing the - 2 or + 2 values to a criterion,
be sure to colour all the blocks in the Harris Profile.
Only then do you create a quick visual overview of
the overall score of a design alternative.
• Give - 2 and - 1 another column than + 1 and + 2 in
order to create a visual overview.

References and Further Reading

Harris, J.S. (1961) ‘New Product Profile Chart’, Chemical and
Engineering News, Vol. 39, No. 16, pp.110-118.

Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:

Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.

Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product

Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.

How to -- - + ++
Harris Profile idea
idea
idea
-- - + ++ -- - + ++

idea
idea idea
idea
idea
idea
idea

to help make design list criterias make a Harris compare and

choices Profile, four-point judge profiles to
make a list of criteria scale matrix choose
 Keywords
Intuitive
Datum Method
Comparison
Concept selection
What Is a Datum Method? A list of criteria suitable for use in this stage and in
The Datum Method (see figure 2.61) is a method relation to the level of detail.
for evaluation of design alternatives. One of the
alternatives is set as datum to which the other Expected Outcome
alternatives are compared for a range of criteria. One or more strong concepts for further
Three judgements can be given: ‘worse’, ‘same’ development, confidence in the decision for the
or ‘better’ expressed in ‘–’, ‘0’ and ‘+’. The sum of chosen concept(s).
each of these three values will then help to make a More understanding of the value of all the concepts,
decision. The value of the alternatives is guessed on more insight in the problems still to be solved and
the basis of the ‘intuitive’ judgements of the decision- a simple matrix to discuss with others and convince
makers. third parties.
The method aims to provide the decision-makers
with confidence through a systematic discussion Possible Procedure
of the criteria and by eliciting the advantages and 1 Arrange the concepts and criteria in a matrix (see
disadvantages of the alternatives. figure 2.61).
2 Choose one of the concepts as ‘datum’. Compare the
When Can You Use a Datum Method? other concepts to this datum and give a score for
Whenever a number of alternatives of a product each criterium at the time (+ = better than datum,
concept need to be compared to reach consensus in – = worse than datum and s = similar/same).
the evaluation or to make an intuitive decision, the 3 Indicate ∑ +, ∑ S and ∑ –.for each concept. Usually
Datum Method can be used. Although it can be used at least one concept will show more ‘–’ and less
throughout the whole design process, commonly it is ‘+’. Usually a few concepts have minor differences.
used to select concepts. Discussion can start. An equal spread of pluses,
minuses and similars indicates vague and ambiguous
How to Use a Datum Method? criteria.
Starting Point 4 When the outcome does not distinguish enough, the
Product concepts, developed to an equal, and thus process should be repeated until it does. Each time
comparable, level of detail. another concept should be taken as datum, leaving
out the concept which was definitively worse.
fig. 2.61 Example of Datum Method (from student report)

Delft Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Datum Method – 2.3
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Datum Method – 2.3

How to
Datum Method + = better than
an existing datum + + ++ - +
product
– = worse than
datum
a similar ++ - - s s
product
s = similar/same

list of criterias arrange all criteria choose a ‘datum’ compare properties compare scores
and alternatives and alternatives in of alternatives with
a matrix those of datum

Tips and Concerns of the design process. However one may have some
• Sometimes the designer will not only totalise the ideas about the relative difference in cost price. E.g.
score in ∑+, ∑ S and ∑ –, but also adds up the one concept seems to be more expensive than the
totals. Like each ‘+’ for one particular concept is other one, because of a larger number of parts or a
compensated by each ‘-’ given to the same concept. more complex construction. In choosing the (more
A concept with two ‘+’, one ‘S’ and two ‘-’ will have general reformulated criteria) it seems logical not to
an end score of zero (0). Although it is a way to have have more than eight to ten criteria.
some outcome, one must realise that this will fade
away the results and doesn’t help to discuss the References and Further Reading
concepts or criteria. Another concept might score Pugh, S. (1981) ‘Concept selection: a method that works’ In:
zero (0) also, thus leading to the assumption that Hubka, V. (ed.) Review of Design Methodology. Proceedings
both concepts are equal, while the second concept International Conference on Engineering Design, March 1981,
initially scored one ‘+’, three ‘S’ and one ‘-’. It all Rome. Zürich: Heurista, 1981, pp.497 – 506.
depends on the weight of each criterion and the
Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels,J. (1995) Product Design:
possibility to change a ‘-’ into ‘S’ or ‘+’ by redesign.
Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
The method is therefore not to be seen as a sort of
mathematically justified process, but as an aid to the Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
decision making. Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
• Another aspect is the selection of criteria. Usually
there are a lot of criteria to which the concepts
do not comply to, yet. A criterion stating that the
product should cost no more than 15 Euro’s, or weigh
max 800 grams, cannot be judged in the early stages
 Keywords
Concept selection
Weighted Objectives Method
Ranking

What Is the Weighted Objectives The Weighted Objectives Method involves assigning
Method? weights to the different criteria. This allows the
weight concept 1 concept 2 concept 3
The Weighted Objectives Method (see figure 2.62) is decision-maker to take into account the difference in
controllable on
2 5 2 2 an evaluation method for comparing design concepts importance between criteria.
velocity and direction
based on an overall value per design concept. The
safe 3 6 3 3
biggest disadvantage of using the Datum Method When Can You Use the Weighted
gain enough speed 4 3 4 4
or the Harris Profile is that the scores per criterion Objectives Method?
basic construction
1 7 5 1 cannot be aggregated into an overall score of the The Weighted Objectives Method is best used when
simple
design alternative. This makes a direct comparison a decision has to be made between a select number
well accesible parts 2 8 5 2
of the design alternatives difficult. The Weighted of design alternatives, design concepts or principal
distinct 4 4 7 4
Objectives Method does exactly this: it allows the solutions. Usually, the Weighted Objectives Method is
stable 3 3 8 3
scores of all criteria to be summed up into an overall used when evaluating design concepts, and to make
compact 1 6 3 1
value per design alternative. a decision as to which design concept should be
springs 1 8 2 1
The Weighted Objective Method assigns scores to developed into a detailed design.
price 3 7 5 3
the degree to which a design alternative satisfies
total score 125 130 89
a criterion. However, the criteria that are used to
evaluate the design alternatives might differ in their
fig. 2.62 Example of Weighted Objectives Mehtod importance. For example, the ‘cost price’ can be of
(from student report) less importance than ’appealing aesthetics’.

How to
Weighted 1
concept concept 19
2 2
Objectives criteria criteria
5 criteria 10

Method 3 criteria 7

limited number select criteria assign weights make matrix attribute values for each calculate score.
of concepts for selection to criteria (1-5) concept how it meets a concept with highest
criteria with a score 1-10 score is preferred

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Weighted Objectives Method – 2.3
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Decision and Selection | Weighted Objectives Method – 2.3

How to Use the Weighted Objectives 5 Attribute values to how each concept meets a
Method? criterion. Rank the scores of the concepts from
Starting Point 1 to 10.
A limited number of concepts. 6 Calculate the overall score of each concept by
summing up the scores on each criterion (make sure
Expected Outcome you take into account the weight factor).
A chosen concept. 7 The concept with the highest score is the preferred
concept.
Possible Procedure
1 Select the criteria according to which the selection Tips and Concerns
will be made. These criteria should be derived from • This method should be carried out intelligibly, while
the programme of requirements (note that probably discussing and reviewing both the weights assigned
not all requirements are applicable at this stage of the to the criteria and the scores of the concepts
design process). according to all the criteria.
2 Choose 3 to 5 concepts for selection.
3 Assign weights to the criteria. The criteria should be References and Further Reading
appointed weights according to their importance for Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
the evaluation. To determine the weight factor of Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
the criteria it is recommended that you compare the
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
criteria in pairs to attribute a weight factor. Rank each
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
of the weights on a scale from 1 to 5 (you can also
decide on a total sum of the weights of the criteria,
for example 100). Make sure you discuss the trade-
offs between the criteria. Trade-offs will have to be
made when weights are assigned to the individual
criteria (when you are determining which of the
weights are more important).
4 Construct a matrix, with the criteria in rows, and the
concepts in columns.
2.4
Evaluation
2.4 Evaluation of Product Features
of Product
Features
Introduction In this section we differentiate between three general
The analysis of the design problem, the formulation types of testing: product simulations and testing,
of a design goal and the development of product product concept evaluations, and product usability
Product Simulation and Testing ideas and concepts are actions aimed at providing evaluations.
a solution to the design problem. To verify, or
Product Concept Evaluation test, whether the solution is the correct one, an Product simulations and testing take place during
evaluation of product features is important. Generally, the design process, and are directed at gaining an
Product Usibility Evaluation testing the result provides confirmation whether the understanding whether the product functions the
proposed solution is the right one. Within the design way it is intended to do. These types of tests are
process there are different forms of testing a product simulations on paper or on a computer, or even tests
idea. During the design process, ideas need to be with different forms of prototypes. Through product
tested to find out whether they work. The technical simulations and testing, designers try out their ideas
functionality of a product needs to be verified. to see whether they work as intended.
Investigations have to be made to determine which Product concept evaluations are used throughout
of the proposed solutions the user group prefers. the design process to gain understanding of the user
Also, there is a need to verify whether the proposed group’s responses to ideas and concepts developed in
solution is usable, and whether the user groups the design process. These types of tests investigate
understand how to use the product. what ideas and concepts are preferred by the user
group. Product concept evaluations are used to
optimise product concepts on the basis of the user
group’s responses, or to make go/no-go decisions in
the design process.
Product usability evaluations take place near
the end of the design process, and are aimed at
understanding whether the user group is able to
use the designed product concept. These types of
tests are more intensive, directed at verifying and
optimising the usability of the product.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features – 2.4

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Keywords
Simulation
Product Simulation and Testing
Product test
Verification
Scientific problem solving appropriate technical solution principle for the desired are then needed to validate the model and check
function(s). Simulation plays an important role: in whether the accuracy of the predictions is sufficient.
order to judge the solution principles found, you have In other words, through experimentation, designers
What Is Product Simulation and to determine the ‘quality’ of your design and gain determine whether the developed model proves that
Testing? insight into the functioning of your design through the principle behind the product or function is indeed
Product simulations and testing aim at gaining an simulation. as they had hypothesised. Modelling, simulating and
understanding whether the product functions the In order to perform a simulation, you first need validation through experimentation are important
way it is intended to do. New product ideas and to construct a model of the desired function and aspects of the design process.
concepts are created through finding and describing technical solution principle. A model is a simplified
the functions and the use of those functions. The representation of a real-world phenomenon, which Models
functions are materialised/embodied with technical is not reality itself, but can be used as a way of Models can be classified in various ways. Here, we
solutions principles. Designers try to find the best describing, explaining and making predictions. Within distinguish between material and symbolic models.
technical solution principle that can make a particular the design process, many different types of models Material models are various sorts of prototypes, such
function, or set of functions, work. Several (existing) can be used for simulation and testing purposes: as sketch models, detailed models, dummies, mock-
technical solution principles are possible for a (set of) dummies, mock-ups, prototypes, but also drawings ups and final models. Symbolic models are diagrams
function(s), and sometimes a new technical solution and diagrams. Using the models, you can test your and mathematical models. Another classification of
principle must be found. In the creative phase of assumptions; modelling allows for experimenting and models is according to the type of simulation: (1)
the design process, it is your job to find the most testing whether the solution principles behave as simulation with structure models, (2) simulation with
intended. iconic models, and (3) simulation with mathematical
natural phenomenon The process described above shows great similarities models.
with the ‘scientific method’, which is typically used
observations/description in scientific research (see also Roozenburg and 1 Examples of structure models are flow diagrams,
conceptual world

Eekels, 1998). In this context, design can be seen circuit diagrams and function block diagrams.
hypotheses/ as a process of making predictions. First, designers Sketches and dummies are also included in this
model
hypothesise about how a certain technical solution group. Structure models are qualitative and are used
predictions/ principle fulfils one or several predetermined to assess the qualitative structure of a product or
conclusion
simulations
functions. Next, they construct models to make a process. They give a quick first impression of the
experiments predictions about this process and through simulation appearance and functioning of the product (see figure
tions
with the model, they investigate whether the 2.64). Structure models are often the first step to
fig. 2.63 Scematic representation of Product Simulation predictions sustain the hypothesis. Experiments more advanced models.
and Testing

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Simulation and Testing – 2.4
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Simulation and Testing – 2.4

2 Examples of iconic models are pictures, drawings, The following list provides some examples of
dummies (see figure 2.65), mock-ups, and prototypes. simulations for ‘answering’ specific questions.
Iconic models have a similar geometry to their These particular simulations have become well-known
design: simulation with iconic models is more realistic, thanks to their extensive use in design practice:
concrete and quantitative. Three-dimensional models
form an important group: dummies, mock-ups, sketch 1 Failure models and effects analysis and fault tree
models, detailed models and prototypes. Functional analysis
prototypes enable designers to test the functionality Failure models and effects analysis (FMEA) and
and usability of the design with a high degree of fault tree analysis are two qualitative methods for
realism. analysing the reliability of a new product. Applied
early in the design process, they can help you to find
fig. 2.64 Example of a structure model for product testing 3 Examples of mathematical models are the possible causes and effects of failure. Through
(student work) mathematical formulae, such as Newton’s law, to FMEA an answer to two questions is sought: (a) in
determine the physical characteristics of the product. which manner can the part fail, and (b) what happens
Mathematical models can be used to evaluate the if the part fails? The result of the analysis is a list of
physicochemical parameters of the design in question. critical points and an indication of what should be
These models help you to quantify and determine the done to reduce the chance of failure.
parameters of the components and the dimensions In a fault tree analysis (a structure model) you look
of the product. They give an objective view on the for the causes of a presumed failure mode of the
problem in hand and the results are fully quantitative product. The advantage of fault tree analysis is that
(see figure 2.66). it indicates how the reliability of a complex product
depends on the functioning of the separate parts.
Simulation
fig. 2.65 Example of an iconic model (student work) By means of models, described in the previous 2 Experiments with prototypes (material models)
paragraph, you can perform different simulations, In early phases of the design process some insight
depending on the information required. The questions needs to be gained, in order to be able to abstract a
that you try to answer could be as follows: function or product into a mathematical model. What
1 What constitutes the function that the product must factors are relevant is often not known in advance
fulfil? and will become apparent in practice. Given this
2 Does the product perform as intended; will it fulfil its experience, further investigation can be performed
functions? to find out which parameters have an important
3 Can the product be manufactured in the planned influence. Also, at the final stages, proof of principle
quantity, and at an acceptable quality and price? of critical parts is often tested in a trial set-up, using
fig. 2.66 Example of a methematical model detailed or final prototypes. They play an important
(from student report)
 role in the simulation of the manufacturing process to fig. 2.67
discover lacking features. Then the dimensions of the Example of a
product have to be completely defined. simulation with
a methematical
3 Finite element method (FEM) model (Graduation
Science provides a variety of mathematical models project Marco
to describe physical phenomena. FEM is an example Koekoek, TUDelft,
where the mathematical model becomes so complex 2007)
that the simulation can no longer be done by hand.
The principle of FEM is that an object or system is
divided into small cells. The interaction between two
aligned cells is modelled through the laws of nature.
Depending on the level of detail, the number of
cells is large and calculations have to be automated.
Several computer programs are available that can
apply FEM on a geometry. However, the models or
the form of the cells used in these programs are often
hidden. Therefore, a critical view on the outcomes
is important and should ideally be checked through
(simple) manual calculations.

4 Scaling up to mass production

At the end of the design process, only one product is
designed. When mass-produced, this product needs
to be modified. By means of prototypes and trial runs,
the product can be prepared for mass production.
Usually a prototype is followed by a trial run of a
batch, the null series, to see if no problems occur
during production on a large scale.

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Simulation and Testing – 2.4
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Simulation and Testing – 2.4

How to
Product Simulation build
prototype ?
and Testing

3 starting steps determine type make plan for record test evaluate results
of model for simulation and results and reflect
simulation or test

5 Logistics and quality analysis or new product design, are likely candidates for
During the manufacture of a product, materials, improvement. Unfortunately, value analysis is often
parts, and subassemblies ‘flow’ from one workstation wrongly associated with cost reduction only and not
to another. These material flows can be visualised with quality improvement at equal costs.
and analysed using network-like graphic models
(analogue models) such as in ‘routing analysis’, the 8 Ergonomic Simulation
`Sankey diagram’, and ‘failure rate analysis’. Designers want to know what kind of user behaviour
their design provokes, so that they can improve their
6 Design for Assembly (DfA) design, if necessary. As you never have the whole
A widely known and applied analytical tool is Design population for which the product is intended at their
for Assembly. The assembly process of products disposal, a model of the design is tested on a ‘man fig. 2.68 Example of an ergonomic simulation
is simulated by means of a mathematical model in model’ (mannequin). A mannequin is a representation (Student work)
the form of a system of tables that connects form or imitation of ergonomically relevant features of a
features of parts to the estimated assembly time. certain population. The most important man models
used in anthropometric ergonomics are tables and For cost price calculations, most of the design must
7 Value analysis layout drawings (of work spaces), two-dimensional be known: what type of components, materials and
Value analysis is the analysis of the functions and manikins, computer models of human beings, and production techniques. With cost price calculations
subfunctions of a product, and the comparison of the test subjects (see figure 2.68). it is possible to make profitability calculations. In
value of those functions with regard to their costs. profitability calculations the general profitability
For that purpose the value of a function is equated in 9 Business-economic simulation of a design project is calculated, on the basis of
principle to the price of the cheapest ‘carrier’ of that The attractiveness of the business potential of which calculation a go/no-go decision can be made
function available in the market. By systematically a design is another type of simulation that plays regarding the continuity of the project. Forecasting
setting values and costs off against each other, an important role in a design process. Cost price methods help in making a prediction about the
you can see which parts of an existing product, calculations are often made in a design process. number of users that will buy the new product.
10 Social and Ethical Simulation When Can You Use Product
You could formulate social and ethical criteria in the Simulation and Testing?
design specification, and take these into account
using the various decision methods presented Product Simulation and Testing take place throughout
in section 2.3. and applying social and ethical the design process, with increasing levels of
simulation. These simulations are not performed by concreteness, of detail and of accuracy of the
means of mathematical formulae or experimental models used. However, some types of simulation are
methods, but by means of conscientious thinking, applicable in the beginning of the design process,
logical reasoning, and common sense. For that others near the end of it.
purpose check lists can be useful, as can be found in
Roozenburg and Eekels (1992). How to Use Product Simulation and
Testing?
11 Simulation of Environmental Effects
Product design always leads to unintended Starting Point
environmental side-effects in the production, The starting point of simulation is an aspect, either a
distribution and use of materials. They are caused functional aspect or a material one, of the design that
by the withdrawal of raw materials and energy, needs testing to verify its underlying assumptions
and emissions into air, water and the soil. You as a on functionality, construction and materialisation. In
designer have an important role in decreasing the other words, a feature of the design needs testing in
impact on the environment and creating sustainable order to prove its workings.
products. In the design process, therefore, a
designer should be interested in the impact of his/ Expected Outcome
her design on the environment. In order to obtain The outcome of simulation is a confirmation whether
a clear understanding of the environmental impact, a particular aspect or feature of the design works or
a you could do an environmental effect simulation, functions as intended.
for example by using a MET Matrix (see ‘EcoDesign
Strategy Wheel’ in section 2.1). Another point to
be taken into consideration is to deploy various
EcoDesign Strategies, based on an analysis of the
Product’s Life Cycle (see ‘EcoDesign Checklist’ in fig.2.69
section 2.1) Example of a simulation
(Graduation project Willemijn Verduijn,
TUDelft/TNO, 2007)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Simulation and Testing – 2.4
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Simulation and Testing – 2.4

Possible Procedure
Note: the following procedure is not necessary for all
types of simulations described above.
1 Describe the goal of the product simulation. Analyse
the existing situation, and determine the various
scenarios of use.
2 Determine the type of model you will be using.
Make the model; abstract the product idea into the
symbolic language of the model. Build a prototype,
if necessary. Select or construct the appropriate
mathematical models.
3 Carry out the simulation or test. Set up a plan for the
test. Record the test and the results of the test.
4 Interpret the results.
5 Evaluate the results, and reflect the results upon the
goals stated earlier. Also, reflect the result upon the
initial product idea.

References and Further Reading

Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.

Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product

Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.

Christiaans, H. et al. (2004) Methodologie van het technisch-

wetenschappelijk onderzoek, Utrecht: Lemma.

Otto, K. and Wood, K. (2001) Product Design: Techniques in

Reverse Engineering and New Product Development, Upper
Sadle River: Prentice-Hall.
Keywords: User preference, User panel
Product Concept Evaluation
fig.2.70 Example of product concept
evaluation by means of a design
sketch and a scenario/ What Is Product Concept group, because it often involves evaluating
storyboard (Nomad/ Evaluation? product ideas and concepts in light of the
Zilver Product- A product concept evaluation is a type of formulated requirements.
ontwikkeling, 2001) evaluation in which the product concept
developed so far is reviewed by the user Concept optimisation is aimed at
group. Generally, these evaluations are determining which aspects of product ideas
aimed at selecting or optimising product and concepts need further improvement.
concepts on the basis of the preferences of These tests are not directed at judging the
the user group and other stakeholders. The total concept, but rather parts or elements
product concepts that are evaluated can of product ideas and concepts. The
have different forms (descriptions, drawings assumption is that preferred aspects or
or prototypes). Typically, these evaluations elements of the individual product concepts
take place in a controlled environment, can be connected with each other, yielding
where a panel of people judges product a concept that is regarded as optimal.
concepts based on a list of predetermined
issues. These evaluations serve different Product concept evaluations for go/
purposes: concept screening, concept no-go decisions are aimed at validating
optimisation, and go/no-go decisions important design decisions. These decisions
(Schoormans and de Bont, 1995). often involve the choice between two or
three product concepts. Designers can
Concept screening is aimed at make decisions based on the programme
selecting worthwhile product concepts. of requirements, but sometimes it is
It is necessary when a large quantity of necessary to have these decisions validated
product ideas or product concepts has by the user group.
been generated. From these product
ideas and concepts a selection has to be Types of concepts, selection of
made for further development. Often, it is respondents, types of evaluation
experts (managers, engineers, marketers) The types of concepts that you can use
that are invited to do a concept screening for product concept evaluations are the
rather than representatives from the user following:

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Concept Evaluation – 2.4
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Concept Evaluation – 2.4

1 Textual concepts: descriptions of the product idea, fig.2.71 lists of questions. In the evaluation of the product
which generally consist of a description of what you Example of a concept, the respondents are asked about their
can do with the product idea. There are roughly two mock-up (student judgments. Respondents can give their judgments
forms of textual descriptions: a scenario of how a work) using rating scales, or ranking scales. When rating
person can use the product, or an enumeration of the product concepts, respondents attribute scores to
aspects of the product idea. several aspects of the concepts. When ranking,
2 Pictographic concepts: visual representations of respondents are asked to order the concepts
the product ideas (see figure 2.70). Depending on according to their preferences.
the design process, these visual representations Product concept evaluations often take place in
are highly detailed visualisations or simple a controlled environment such as a laboratory.
representations. Since sketching and visualisation are The reason for this is to ensure that there is as
so important during the design process, pictographic little distraction as possible. The evaluations are
concept evaluations are most common. In recent recorded using video and audio equipment. Often
years, computer graphics have enhanced pictographic questionnaires are used to capture the evaluations.
concept evaluation through easy manipulation of the
perspective of the visualisation. this level of knowledge, you could simply ask When Can You Use Product Concept
3 Animations: moving visual representations of the respondents about their experiences with similar Evaluation?
product idea. Thanks to computer graphic software it products. Another important issue when selecting Product concept evaluations take place throughout
has become quite easy to make a simple animation of respondents is related to psychological aspects such the design process, based on the purpose of the
how the product can be used in a particular context. as tolerance and innovativeness. Questions that are evaluations. Concept screenings usually involve
4 Mock-ups (dummies): three-dimensional, tangible important are: how tolerant are the respondents large numbers of product ideas and concepts, and
representations of the product idea (see figure 2.71). towards new products and new situations? How therefore are more frequent in the beginning of the
Mock-ups are a kind of prototype that only shows the innovative, or conservative, are the respondents? design process. Concept optimisation takes place
external (form) characteristics of a product idea (see Such psychological aspects have a big influence on near the end of the design process, when aspects of
‘Three-dimensional Models’ in section 2.2). the results of the product concept evaluations. the concept need to be improved and optimised.

The selection of respondents is an important Different types of evaluations can be used for How to Use Product Concept
aspect of product concept evaluations. Respondents product concept evaluations. One of the commonest Evaluation?
that are invited belong to one or more of the methods used is the personal (individual) interview. Starting Point
preformulated user groups. You can make a selection Another form can be focus groups, or discussion The starting point of a product concept evaluation is
based on the sociocultural characteristics or on groups. In focus groups, a product concept evaluation a number of concepts to be judged (with a minimum
demographical characteristics. An important issue takes place with a small group of people, and has of two), and a reason for conducting the evaluation.
to be taken into account is the respondents’ level the form of a group discussion. Product concept The reasons determine the type and purpose of the
of knowledge of the product category. To assess evaluations are structured according to preformulated product concept evaluation.
 How to
Product Concept ste p 1:
report
Report
g o al
Evaluation
poste r

determine goal of collect concepts make plan for invite set up test analyse results
product concept for evaluation product concept respondents environment
evaluation (min.2) evaluation to evaluation

Expected Outcome equipment. fig.2.72

The expected outcome is a validated choice between 7 Conduct the concept evaluation. Example of a three-
a number of concepts in case of a concept screening 8 Analyse the results, and present the results concisely, dimentional model
or a go/no-go decision, or a better understanding of using either a report or a poster. used in a panel
what aspects require improvement/optimisation. evaluation
Tips and concerns (student work)
Possible Procedure • Make sure that you search for a valid representation
1 Describe the goal of the product concept evaluation. of the user group when inviting respondents
2 Determine what type of product concept evaluation (don’t forget to provide them with some form of
you want to conduct. compensation).
3 Gather or create the appropriate concepts for the • Make sure you structure the evaluation systematically
evaluation. with the questions you want to ask the respondents.
4 Create a plan for the product concept evaluation.
This plan should include: the goal(s) and type References and Further Reading
of evaluation, a description of the respondents, Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
questions you want to ask the respondents, aspects Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
of the product concept that need to be evaluated,
van Raaij, W.F. et al. (1999) Product en Consument, Utrecht:
a description of the test environment, the means of
Lemma.
recording the evaluation, a plan of how you are going
to analyse the results. Schoormans, J. and de Bont, C. (1995) Consumentenonderzoek
5 Search for and invite respondents to the evaluation. in de productontwikkeling, Utrecht: Lemma.
6 Set up the test environment, including recording fig.2.73 Example of an animation; a car simulator
(from student report)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Concept Evaluation – 2.4
Delft Design Guide | Part 2 |
 Keywords: Usability
Product Usability Evaluation

What Is Product Usability Evaluation? product being tested while observers watch and
A product usability evaluation is an evaluation take notes. Several other test instruments such as
intended to validate the product-user interaction. scripted instructions, paper prototypes, and pre-
Product usability evaluation, or usability testing helps and post-test questionnaires can be used to gather
us to understand the quality of your designs (ideas feedback on the product being tested. The aim is to
or concepts) according to usage. Usability is defined observe how people function in a realistic manner,
as the effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction so that you can see problem areas, and what people fig.2.75 Example of a product usability evaluation
with which specific users achieve specific goals in a like. It is important to set up usability evaluations by means of Emo-cards, developed by Pieter Desmet
specific context of use. Product usability evaluation is systematically, and to approach the evaluations as (from student report)
primarily done by means of observation techniques. formal research projects.
Users are invited to complete tasks while talking The elements of a product usability evaluation
out loud, or discussing their motivation with the An important aspect of product usability evaluations are the product, the respondent, the test setting
researcher, rather than showing users a rough draft is verifying presumptions regarding the use of and the type of evaluation. The product is often a
and asking, “Do you understand this?”, a product. Presumptions that are investigated prototype, either with limited functionality or almost
Setting up a usability test involves carefully creating in product usability evaluations are the product full functionality. The choice of respondents depends
a scenario of use tasks, or a realistic situation, in characteristics (materials and shapes) that provide on how they represent the user group. As product
which the person performs a list of tasks using the the users with “hints” as to how to use the usability evaluations are very time-consuming, often
products. These product characteristics are also a limited number of respondents is chosen. The test
called use cues. Use cues are meaningful product setting can be either a controlled environment such
characteristics that are given to products to show as a laboratory, or one in which users act in their
users what functionalities a product has and how natural environment. The type of evaluation could
these functionalities can be used. Some use cues be self-completion reports, where users are asked to
are deliberately designed, and some use cues are report on their usage of the product (for example by
discovered in the usability evaluation. One of the thinking aloud, or through retrospective interviews).
goals of product usability evaluations is to test Evaluation can also take the form of asking questions
designed use cues, and discover the unobvious to users while performing tasks, or even measuring
use cues. human characteristics (for example eye tracking).

fig.2.74 Example of a product usability evaluation

(from student report)

Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product

Delft Design Features
Guide | 2Product
| Part Usability
| Creating Evaluation
a Design Goal – 2.4
2.1
 Delft Design Guide | Part 2 | Evaluation of Product Features | Product Usability Evaluation – 2.4

2. Evaluation of simulated use of concepts, which verify (test) the usage and ease of use (usability) of
typically takes place with the use of sketches of ideas new product ideas and concepts.
and concepts, and with scenarios or storyboards (see
sub-sections on these topics in 2.2). Expected Outcome
3. Evaluation of use of final designs, which typically The outcome of product usability evaluations with
takes place with three-dimensional models that have existing products is often a list of requirements with
a limited functionality. These types of evaluations which the new product must comply. Product usability
take place during the design process. evaluations with new products result in a list of useful
4. Evaluation of use of prototypes, which typically takes aspects and issues about the use of the new product
places at the end of the design process. These types and improvements that could resolve those issues.
of evaluations make use of almost fully functioning
fig. 2.76 Example of a product usability evaluation prototypes. Possible Procedure
(from student report) 1 Determine the research objective.
During usability testing, the aim is to observe people 2 Describe the presumptions, in other words: in what
When Can You Use Product Usability using the product in a situation that is as realistic way do the use cues designed by the designer
Evaluation? as possible, so as to discover errors and areas of help the user in using the product? Describe the
In the design process, product usability evaluations improvement. presumptions very explicitly. Presumptions are not
can be conducted at several moments. The nature of predictions, though!
the usability evaluations depends on the moment in How to Use Product Usability 3 Formulate research questions.
the design process: Evaluation? 4 Design your research. Think about: what type of
1. Evaluation of the use of existing products, which Starting Point models are you using (scenarios, storyboards,
typically takes place in the beginning of the design The starting point of product usability testing is the prototypes), the research environment, make
process to analyse existing, analogous products. need to investigate the usage of existing products or instructions, determine the type of evaluation.

How to
Product environment qualitative
do analysis
Usability usecues scenario
help?
Evaluation how? make quantitative
instructions analysis

determine describe formulate design your make observations analyse results communicate
research presumptions research research and record and redesign results
objective questions usability testing
5 Do the observations. Record the usability evaluations. References and Further Reading
6 Analyse the results. You can choose to do a Roozenburg, N.F.M. and Eekels, J. (1995) Product Design:
qualitative analysis or a quantitative analysis. Fundamentals and Methods, Utrecht: Lemma.
7 Redesign the product on the basis of the results.
Roozenburg, N. and Eekels, J. (1998, 2nd ed.) Product
Often improvements are suggested in the evaluation.
Ontwerpen: Structuur en Methoden, Utrecht: Lemma.
8 Communicate the results.
van Raaij, W.F. et al. (1999) Product en Consument, Utrecht:
Tips and Concerns Lemma.
• You may include a limited number of qualitative
Schoormans, J. and de Bont, C. (1995) Consumentenonderzoek
questions that will help inform future design research,
in de productontwikkeling, Utrecht: Lemma.
but don’t let these questions sidetrack the users from
their primary tasks. van Eijk D. (2004) Dictaat Ontwerpergonomie, Delft: Industrieel
Ontwerpen.
• Employ guerrilla testing techniques if money and time
Kanis H. (2005) ‘Observation as a design tool’, In: Dictaat
are limited. You don’t always need formal recruiting
Design Observation, Delft: Industrieel Ontwerpen.
or testing facilities. Use your personal network to find
unbiased people to test. Use a conference room as Kanis H. et al. (1993) ‘Use cues in the Delft Design Course’, In:
a test lab. Any testing you can do is better than no Dictaat Design Observation, Delft: Industrieel Ontwerpen.
testing at all.

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