By Vaibhavi Mhaskar

Sound
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Types of waves:

1. Mechanical Waves
● A wave is said to be mechanical if the material medium is essential for its propagation.
● Examples are water waves, seismic waves, sound waves.

[Link] Waves
● The waves generated due to periodic vibrations in electric and magnetic fields are called
electric electromagnetic waves.
● Material medium is not essential for their propagation.
● Example is light waves.

[Link] Waves
● The wave which is associated with any object in motion is called matter waves.

Amplitude, Wavelength, Period, Double periodicity, Frequency

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● The largest displacement of a particle of a medium through which the wave is
propagating is called amplitude.
● It is denoted by “A”.
● It is measured in meter in SI unit.
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● Wavelength is the distance between two successive particles which are in the same state
of vibration.
● It is measured in meters.
● It is denoted by “λ”.

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● The time required to complete one vibration by a particle of the medium is called period
of the wave.
● What is measured then seconds.

[Link] Periodicity
● At every location, the wave motion repeats itself at equal intervals of time, hence it is
periodic in time.
● At any given instant, the form of wave repeats at equal distances, hence it is periodic in
space.
● In this way wave motion is a doubly periodic [Link] in space & time.

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● The number of vibrations performed by a particle during each second is called the
frequency of a wave.
● The SI unit of frequency is hertz(Hz).
● Frequency is a reciprocal of time period,i.e., n = 1/T.

Phase & Phase Difference

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● The phase of a sound wave refers to the position of a point in the wave cycle at a given
moment.
● It is often measured in degrees or radians and represents the fraction of a complete
cycle.

[Link] Difference
● Phase difference compares the positions of corresponding points in two sound waves at
a specific instant.
● It is the angular measure (in degrees or radians) by which one wave leads or lags behind
the other.
Relation between frequency, velocity and wavelength.

Characteristics of Progressive, Longitudinal & Transverse Waves.

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● All vibrating particles of the medium have the same amplitude, period and frequency.
● State of oscillation (phase) changes from particle to particle.

[Link] Waves
● All the particles vibrate in a direction, perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
a wave with same period and amplitude
● The medium through which the transverse wave passes gets divided into alternate crests
and troughs.
● A crest and trough form one cycle of a transverse wave.
● The distance between any consecutive crest or trough is called the wavelength of the
wave.
● Crest and troughs advance in the medium and are responsible for transfer of energy.
● Transverse waves can travel through solids and on surfaces of liquids only. EM waves are
exceptions; they do not require a material medium for propagation.
● Transverse view can be polarized.
● Medium conveying a transverse wave must possess elasticity of shape.
[Link] Waves
● All the particles vibrate in a direction parallel to the direction of propagation of wave
with the same period and amplitude.
● The medium through which the longitudinal wave passes gets divided into compression
and rarefactions.
● A compression and rarefaction forms one cycle of longitudinal wave.
● The distance between any two consecutive compression or rarefaction is called the
wavelength of a longitudinal wave.
● Compression and rarefaction advance in the medium and are responsible for transfer of
energy.
● Longitudinal waves can travel through solid, liquids and gases. It cannot travel through
vacuum or free space.
● Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized.
● For propagation of longitudinal waves the medium should possess the property of
elasticity of volume.

Newton's formula for velocity of sound

● Sound waves travel in the form of compressions and rarefactions.

● The density of a medium is greater at the compression and smaller at rarefaction.
● Hence the velocity of sound depends on elasticity and density of a medium.
● Considering all these things, Newton formulated the relation as follows;

where E is the proper modulus of elasticity of the medium & ρ is the density of the
medium.
● Newton assumed that the sound wave propagation is an isothermal process (temp.
remains constant.) and isothermal elasticity should be considered.
● The volume elasticity of air determined under isothermal change is called isothermal
bulk modulus and is equal to the atmospheric pressure ‘P’.
● Hence newton's formula for speed of sound in air it is given by,
Accuracy of Newton's formula for velocity of sound.
● The value of velocity of sound according to Newton's formula is found to be 279.9 mIs at
NTP.
● But the experimental value of velocity of sound at 0°C was determined earlier by a
number of scientists is 332 m/s.
● The difference between the predicted value by Newton's formula and the experimental
value is large and it is not due to experimental error.
● The experimental value is 16% greater than the value given by the formula.

Laplace Correction

● According to Laplace, generation of compression and rarefaction is a rapid process.

● The heat produced during the compression is lost during rarefaction. That's why the
total heat content remains the same. This process is called adiabatic process.
● Hence adiabatic elasticity must be considered.
● The adiabatic modulus of elasticity of air is given by,
E= γP
where P is the pressure, γ (gamma) is the ratio of specific heat of the air at const.
pressure (Cp) to the specific heat of air at const. volume (Cv), i.e. γ= Cp/Cv. It is called
adiabatic ratio.
For air it is 1.41
● Newton's formula for speed of sound in air as modified by Laplace to give,

● According to this formula velocity of sound at NTP is 332.3 which is in close agreement
with experimental value.
Echo

● An echo is the repetition of original sounds because of the reflection from some rigid
surface at a distance from the source of sound.
● At 22°C, the velocity of sound in air is 344 m/s.
● Our body retains sound for 0.I sec.
● To be able to hear a distinct echo reflecting surface should be at a minimum distance of
17.2 m.

Doppler effect

● Doppler effect is the apparent change in frequency of sound due to the relative motion
between source and listener.
● It is a real phenomenon.
● It is used for the study of sound waves and also for EM waves.
● These changes can be studied under three different conditions :
1. When the listener is stationary but the source is moving.
2. When the listener is moving but the source is stationary.
3. When listener and source both are moving.

Principle of superposition of waves.

● Waves don't show any repulsion towards each other.

● Therefore, two wave pattern can overlap in the same region of the space without
affecting each other.
● When two waves overlap the displacements are added vectorially.
● This additive rule is referred to as the principle of superposition of waves.
Reverberation

Definition:
The phenomenon in which echos joints up and a single sound is heard not just once, but
continuously is called reverberation.

Importance:
Reverberation characteristics are important in design of concert halls, theaters , etc

How to decrease Reverberation ?

Reverberation can be decreased by making the walls and roofs rough and by using curtains in
the hall.
Chairs and wall surfaces are covered with sound absorbing materials.
Porous cardboard sheets, perforated acoustic tiles, gypsum boards, thick curtains etc., at the
ceiling and at the walls are most convenient to reduce reverberation.

Acoustics

● The branch of physics, which deals with the study of production, transmission
and reception of sound is called acoustics.

● For proper acoustics in an auditorium the following conditions must be satisfied:

1. The surface behind the speaker should be parabolic with the speaker at its focus
so that the distribution of sound is uniform in the authorium.
2. Echoes and reverberations must be eliminated or reduced.
3. The Curved surface of the wall or ceiling should be avoided
4. Echelon effect: It is due to the mixing of sound produced in the hall by the
echoes of sound produced in front of regular structures like the stairs.
5. To avoid this stair type construction must be avoided in the hall.
6. The auditorium should be soundproof when closed.
7. For proper acoustics, no sound should be produced from the inside fittings, seats
etc. Instead of fans air conditioners may be used, soft action door closer should
be used.