CFC TSS

MUHAZI SECTOR
RWAMAGANA DISTRICT

MODULE CODE&TITLE: GENAP302_APPLIED PHYSICS

Competence: Apply General Physics

SECTOR: ALL SECTOR EXCEPT HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM, ARTS

AND CRAFTS, ICT AND MULTIMADIA

RTQF LEVEL: LEVEL 3

TRAINER: Mme Florence MUKESHIMANA

Email:
fmukeshimana32@[Link]

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LO 1: DESCRIBE BASIC MEASUREMENT IN PHYSICS

1.1: DERIVATION OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

 Definition of physical quantities

A quantity may be defined as any observable property or process in nature with which a number
may be associated. This number is obtained by the operation of measurements. The number may
be obtained directly by a single measurement or indirectly, say for example, by multiplying
together two numbers obtained in separate operations of measurement.

Physical quantities are quantities which can be measured. A physical quantity can be represented
by:

 Symbol of the quantity

 A numerical value for the magnitude of the quantity
 The unit of measurement

Examples of physical quantities are: mass, time, force, velocity, etc.

 Types of physical quantities

There are two types of physical quantities, which are:

 Fundamental (basic) physical quantities (which are 7)

 Derived physical quantities.

1.1.1. Meaning of fundamental physical Quantities

Fundamental quantities are those quantities that are not defined in terms of other quantities. In
physics there are 7 fundamental quantities of measurements namely length, mass, time,
temperature, electric current, amount of substance and luminous intensity. But we will study only
3 fundamental quantities: length, mass and time.

 Mass: the mass of a body is the measure of the amount of matter in an object.
 Length: is the measurement of the physical quantity of distance.
 Time: is a relative measurement of an interval of change that has occur between two time
frames, as calculated or compared with the changes.

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1.1.2. Meaning of derived physical quantities
Quantities which are defined in terms of the fundamental quantities via a system of quantity
equations are called derived quantities. Examples of derived quantities include area, volume,
velocity, acceleration, density, weight and force. Some derived physical quantities, their SI units
and symbols.

Derived quantity Definition SI unit in terms Alternative name for

of basic units SI unit
Area length x length m2 -
Volume length x length x length m3 -
Density mass/volume kgm-3 -
Speed, Velocity length/ time ms-1 -
Acceleration Velocity/ time ms-2 -
Momentum mass x velocity kgms-1 -
Force momentum/ time kgms-2 Newton (N)
Pressure Force/ area kgm-1s-2 Pascal (Pa)
Work, Energy Force x length kgm2s-2 Joule (J)
Power work/ time kgm2s-1 Watt (W)
1.1.3: International system of units (SI) and metric prefixes in everyday use

In order to measure any quantity, a standard unit (base unit) of reference is chosen. The standard
unit chosen must be unchangeable, always reproducible and not subject to either the effect of aging
and deterioration or possible destruction. Before 1960, there were several systems of
measurements in use around the world. In 1960, an international system of units was established.
This system is called the International System of Units (SI). Fundamental physical quantities, their
SI units and symbols.

Physical quantities are of wide range of magnitude. For example, the mass of earth is about 6 000
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg while the diameter of a molecule is 0.000 000 0001m. Writing
such quantities is very tedious and clumsy. Some words have been used with SI units as short-cut
to writing such magnitude. These words are associated with certain magnitude. For example, a

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word like kilo for 1000. Since these words are used or fixed before the SI units, they are called
prefixes.

Some common prefixes and their symbols.

SI Prefixes
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
101 Deca da 10-1 Deci d
102 Hecto h 10-2 Centi c
103 Kilo k 10-3 Milli m
106 Mega M 10-6 Micro 𝜇
109 Giga G 10-9 Nano n
1012 Tera T 10-12 Pico p
1015 Peta P 10-15 Femto f
1018 Exa E 10-18 Atto a
1021 Zetta Z 10-21 Zepto z
1024 Yotta Y 10-24 Yocto y
1.1.4: Dimension analysis of physical quantity

 Definition of dimensions of physical quantities

Dimension is the product or quotient of fundamental physical quantities, raised to appropriate
powers to form a derived physical quantity. In general the dimension of any quantity Q is written
in the form of a dimensional product, 𝑫𝒊𝒎 𝑸 = 𝑳𝒂 𝑴𝒃 𝑻𝑪 𝑲𝒅 𝑰𝑬 𝑵𝒇 𝑱𝒈 where the exponents a, b, c,
d, e, and g, which are generally small integers that can be positive, negative or zero, are called the
dimensional exponents. The dimension of a derived quantity provides the same information about
the relation of that quantity to the base quantities as is provided by the SI unit of the derived
quantity as a product of powers of the SI base units. There are some derived quantities Q for which
the defining equation is such that all of the dimensional exponents in the expression for the
dimension of Q are zero. This is true, in particular, for any quantity that is defined as the ratio of
two quantities of the same kind. Such quantities are described as being dimensionless, or
alternatively as being of dimension one. The coherent derived unit for such dimensionless
quantities is always the number one, 1, since it is the ratio of two identical units for two quantities

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of the same kind. The unit of a physical quantity and its dimension are related, but not identical
concepts. The units of a physical quantity are defined by convention and related to some standard;

 Assigning dimensions to physical quantities

 Rules of writing dimensions of physical quantities

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The rules for writing dimensions of physical quantities are designed to ensure consistency and
clarity in representing their fundamental properties. Here are the key rules:

1. Use of fundamental quantities: Dimensions are expressed in terms of fundamental quantities,

such as: Length (L), Time (T), Temperature (K), Electric current (I), Mass (M), Amount of
substance (N), Luminous intensity (J).
2. Dimensional formulas: It expresses the dimension of physical quantity as a product of the
powers of the fundamental quantities.
3. Use exponents for powers: Exponents are used to indicate the power of each fundamental
quantity in dimensional formula.
4. No dimension for dimensionless quantities: Dimensionless quantities are such as
trigonometric functions, strain, refractive index
5. Write in square brackets
6. Product and division dimensions
 Benefit of dimensional analysis
 Consistency of an equation: Dimensions help verify the correctness of the equations and
formulas
 Identifying relationships between variables: Analyzing the dimensions of different
quantities, one can often determine how various physical quantities depend on one another,
even without knowing the exact value.
 Unit conversion: Dimensions help in converting units between different measurement
systems.
 Derivation of formulas: Dimensional analysis can help derive unknown formulas by relating
the dimensions of various physical quantities involved.
 Universal understanding: Dimensions provide a universal language across different
disciplines and countries, ensuring physical laws are understood regardless of the unit system
in use.
 Limitation of dimension analysis
 Dimension analysis can’t derive relation or formula if a physical quantity depends upon more
than three factors having dimension
 Cannot determine dimensionless constant.
 Limited to physical quantity (Cannot be applied to angles, strain, refractive index)

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 Cannot derive complete formulas

1.2: Calculation of experimental errors

 Definition of experimental error

Experimental errors are deviation between the observed measurements and the true values in
the experiment.

Sources of errors in measurement of physical quantities

All measurements of physical quantities are uncertain and imprecise to some limit. There are three
sources of errors.

 Negligence or inexperience of a person.

 Faulty apparatus.
 Inappropriate method or technique.

Standard measurement is an exact quantity that people agree on to be used for comparison or as
a reference to measure other quantities. The science of measurement is called metrology.

 Types of experimental error

1. Random errors

Random errors are unpredictable variations that occur in measurements. They result from random
fluctuations in the experimental setup, environment, or the limitations of measurement precision.
They may be due to: poor instrument sensitivity, random noise, random external disturbances, and
statistical fluctuations (due to data sampling or counting). Random errors are small for a good
experimenter and taking the mean of a number of separate measurements reduces them in all cases.

Causes:

 Inherent variability in the measurement process (e.g: Reading variabilities on a digital

scales)
 Uncontrolled environmental factors (e.g: Variations of temperature)
 Human error in measurement (e.g: Slight differences in how an instrument is read)

Correction:

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  Random error can be minimized by taking multiple measurements and averaging them.
 The use of more precise instruments can also reduce the magnitude of random errors.

2. Systematic errors

Systematic errors are constituent and repeatable errors that occurs due to inaccuracies in the
experimental setup or measurement instruments. These errors affect all measurement in the same
way.

Causes:

 Faulty instruments (e.g: A miscalibrated scale)

 Incorrect experimental techniques
 Environmental factors (e.g: Temperature or pressure fluctuations affecting measurements)
 Observer bias

Correction: Identifying and correcting the source of error, or using graduation to adjust for it.

 Absolute and relative error (uncertainties)

1. The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the true value.

∆𝑳 = |𝑳𝟎 − 𝑳|. Where the vertical bars denote the absolute value, L0 true value and L denotes
measured value.

2. The relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted (True)
|𝑳𝟎 −𝑳|
measurement. 𝒆𝒓 =
𝑳𝟎

3. Percent uncertainty is the ratio of absolute uncertainty and true value times 100%. It is given
|𝑳𝟎 −𝑳|
by the formula: %𝒆𝒓 =
𝑳𝟎
𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎%

Example1. If the measurement is 5.2cm and the uncertainty is 0.1cm, calculate the percent
uncertainty.

𝟎.𝟏𝒄𝒎
Answer: %𝒆𝒓 = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓.𝟐𝒄𝒎

=2%

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Example 2. If a measurement is recorded to be 1.12 and the true value is known to be 1.00.
Calculate the absolute error.

Answer: ∆𝑳 = measured value- the actual value (true value)

=1.12-1.00

=0.12

Accuracy and precision

Accuracy refers to correctness and means how close the result is to the true value. Accuracy
depends on how well the systematic errors are compensated. For example, if you are measuring
the length of 10 cm object, an accurate measurement would be close to 10 cm.

Experimental precision refers to how consistently you can get the same measurement, regardless
of whether it’s close to the true value. For example, if you measure the object multiple times and
always you get 9.5cm, your measurement is precise but not accurate.

In summary, accuracy is about being correct, and precision is about consistent.

Rules related to significant figures

A significant figure is a number of meaning full digits. It is also any non-zero digits or trapped
zeros

General rules

A. All non-zero numbers are significant (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6,7,8 and 9),

 91 has two significant 9 and 1

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  123.45 has five significant figures.
 5683 has four significant figures 5, 6, 8 and 3 6
B. All zeros between non zero numbers are always significant (trapped zeros) Example:
 209 has three significant figures
 101.12 has five significant figures.
 5083. Has four significant figures 5,0,8 and 3
C. All Leading zeros (zeroes that precede all non-zero digits) are not significant.
Leading zeroes are always placeholders (never significant).
 0.002 m are just placeholders to show where the decimal point goes, they were not
measured. The length can be written as 2 mm. so, there is one significant figure.
 0.00000462. Has three significant figures 4, 6 and 2.
 0.0701. Has three significant figure 7, 0, 1.
D. All zeros which are to the left of the decimal point and are in a number 10 are always
significant
 800.08, there is five significant figures 8,0,0,0 and 8
 9000.006 has seven significant figures.
 100.7x107 has four significant figures.
E. All zeros that are at the right end of a number (Trailing zeroes) in number that
contain a decimal point are significant.
 12.2300 has six significant figures1, 2, 2,3,0,0.
 0.0001223000 has seven significant figures.
 120.00 has five significant figures etc
F. Zeros after non-zero number (Trailing zeros) in a number without a decimal are
generally not significant (Trailing zeros are zero digits with no non-zero digits to the
right of it).
 190000= 2 significant digits
 807000 = 3 significant figures
 1223000= 4significant figures
 Rounding off the numbers

Rounding off a number is to approximate it to a less or exact value.

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Example: if you wanted to round-off 2.6525272 to three decimal places then you would first count
three places after the decimal. 2.652|5272

All numbers to the right of cutting line (|) are ignored after you determine whether the number in
the third decimal place must be rounded up or rounded down.

The following rules will be found useful when rounding off figures
 If the first of the digits to be dropped (reading from left to right) is 1, 2, 3 or 4, simply
replace all dropped digits with the appropriate number of zeros. For example, 57,384
rounded off to the nearest thousands becomes 57,000.
 If the first of the digits to be dropped (reading from left to right) is 6, 7, 8 or 9, increase the
preceding digit by 1. For e.g., 5,383 rounded off to the nearest hundred becomes 5,400.
 If only one digit is to be dropped and this digit is 5, increase the preceding digit by 1 if it
is odd, and leave it unchanged if it is even. Thus, if 685 is to be rounded off to the nearest
tens it becomes 680, while 635 rounded off to the nearest tens becomes 640.

Example1

Round-off π = 3.141592654 . . . to 4 decimal places.

Answer π = 3.1416 rounded to 4 decimal places.

Example 2: Round-off 9.191919 . . . to 2 decimal places

Answer 9.191919 = 9.19 rounded to 2 decimal places.

1.3. Using measuring instruments at workplace.

An instrument is a tool or a device which can be used in order to measure the size or quantity of
a given object or substance according to its standard unit. Measurements involve comparing an
unknown quantity with a known fixed unit quantity (standard unit). This measurement consists of
two parts, the unit and the number indicating how many units are there in the quantity being
measured. In order to obtain various measurements, early scientists had to develop measuring
devices. A measuring device has a scale marked in the standard or multiple units of the quantity
to be measured.

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  Instruments used for measuring length

Meter rule, sometimes called a ruler or line gauge, is a device used in geometry and technical
drawing, as well as the engineering and construction industries, to measure distances or draw
straight lines.

Measuring tape: Used for measuring longer distances like room dimensions or body
measurement. Length greater than one meter.

Vernier caliper: Used for measuring small objects with high precision, such as diameters of pipes
or thickness of materials. Typically range of 0 to 150mm or more.

Micrometer: used for very precise measurement of small objects, like the thickness of sheet metal
or the diameter of the wire. Common ranges are 0-25 or 0-50mm

 Instruments used for measuring mass

The device used to measure the mass of the objects are: Balance scale or beam balance, Digital
balance.

The instrument used to measure the weight of object are called: Force gauge, Spring balance.

 Instruments used for measuring time

Stop clock or stopwatch/chronometer is a specific type of mechanical timepiece tested and

certified to meet certain precision standards of time. Time is measured using either analogue or
digital watches or clocks.

Digital stopwatch can measure very small time intervals. It can display hours, minutes, seconds,
and milliseconds

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LO2: DESCRIBE MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

In this learning outcome, we are going to study linear motion. We shall pay attention to the time
taken, distance covered, speed, velocity and acceleration of the motion and their relationships.
Motion in a straight line is called linear motion or rectilinear motion.

There are two types of linear motion namely: uniform motion and non-uniform motion.

Uniform motion in this motion, the speed of the moving remains the same or constant.

Non-uniform or uniform accelerated motion in this motion the speed of an object changes at a
constant rate, a good example is the free fall.

2.1: EXPLAINATION OF DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

CONCEPTS
 Position is a particular portion of space occupied by something.
 Trajectory is the path followed by a moving body.
 Distance is the total length of the path (or trajectory) followed by a moving body.
 Displacement is the shortest distance between the initial and final position of the body. It
is also a distance travelled in a particular direction.
Example
Let the particle moves from a position A and then to position B

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Example

Suppose a boat starts at point A moves 40 km East to point B followed by 30 m North to point C
as shown in Figure below.

It should be noted that the distance can be greater or equal to the displacement in magnitude.

We can determine its distance and displacement covered as follows:

Distance = AB + BC = 40 m + 30 m = 70 m
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝐶 = √𝐴𝐵 2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = √402 + 302 = 50𝑚
 Speed

The distance moved by a body per unit time is called speed. In this motion, direction is not
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅
considered. Thus, 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

The SI unit of speed is metres per second (m/s). Other units of speed such as kilometres per hour
(km/h) and centimeters per second (cm/s) are also in common use.

When a body covers equal distances in equal time intervals, it is said to move with uniform speed.

Example: What is the speed of a racing car in metres per second if the car covers 360 km in 2
hours?

Solution:

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒌𝒎 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒎 𝟓𝟎𝒎

𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟐𝒉 𝒉 𝒔
As you travel in a car or bus, you notice that the speedometer of the car keeps on showing different
values of speed. The speed at any given instant in your journey is called instantaneous speed.

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Average speed of a body is the total distance covered by the body over the total time taken i.e.

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Example

A car moving along a straight road ABC as shown in Figure below, maintains an average speed of
90 km/h between points A and B and 36 km/h between points B and C.

Calculate the:
(a) Total time taken in seconds by the car between points A and C.
(b) Average speed in metres per second of the car between points A and C.
Solution

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

a)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 1.5
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = = ℎ = 60𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 90

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 2.4

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = = ℎ = 240𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 36

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 60𝑠 + 240𝑠

b)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 (1.5 + 2.4) ∗ 1000
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 13𝑚/𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 300

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  Velocity

Velocity is the rate of change of distance in a particular direction. Velocity is also defined as the
displacement covered per unit time or the rate of change of displacement. Therefore,

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = . The SI unit of velocity is metres per
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
second (m/s).

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
When stating or describing the velocity of an object, the direction of velocity should always be
indicated. In doing so, we state direction say north, south, upwards, downwards, etc. A negative
sign in a value of velocity is commonly used to indicate movement in the reverse direction.

When velocity in a particular direction is constant, the velocity is referred to as uniform velocity.

Example:

A car travelled from town A to town B 200 km east of A in 3 hours. It then changed direction and
travelled a distance of 150 km due north from town B to town C in 2 hours. Calculate the average

(a) speed for the whole journey.

(b) velocity for the whole journey.

Solution:

a)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 (200 + 150)𝑘𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 70𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (3 + 2)ℎ

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 √2002 + 1502 𝑘𝑚

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 50𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (3 + 2)ℎ

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  Average and instantaneous acceleration

Acceleration: When the velocity of a body changes with time it is said to be accelerating.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity i.e. 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑚
The SI unit of acceleration is metres per square second or 𝑠2

When the velocity of a body decreases, it is said to be decelerating or retarding. Deceleration or

retardation is negative acceleration. This is usually shown with a negative sign before the value
E.g: – 4 m/s2, deceleration at 4m/s2.

A body moving with uniform velocity has zero acceleration since there is no change in velocity.
When the rate of change of velocity with time is constant, the acceleration is referred to as uniform
acceleration. Acceleration is a vector quantity.

Example:

A car accelerates from rest to a velocity of 20 m/s in 5 s. Thereafter, it decelerates to a rest in 8 s.

Calculate the acceleration of the car (a) in the first 5 s, (b) in the next 8 s.

Solution:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 20 − 0 4𝑚

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = = 2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 5 𝑠

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 0 − 20 2.5𝑚

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = = 2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 8 𝑠

The average acceleration of an object is the rate at which velocity changes. Therefore,

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Example

The velocity of a car moving towards the East increases from 0 to 12m/s in 3.0 s. Calculate its
average acceleration.

𝑑
Instantaneous acceleration is a continuous function of time 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 𝑣(𝑡)

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Example

A particle is in motion and is accelerating. The function form of the velocity is 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝟐𝟎𝒕 −
𝟓𝒕𝟐 𝒎/𝒔

1. Find the function form of the acceleration

2. Find the instantaneous velocity at t=1, 2, 3, and 5s

3. Find the instantaneous acceleration at t=1, 2, 3, and 5s

Solution

𝒅𝒗(𝒕) 3. a (1s)=10m/s2
1. 𝒂(𝒕) = =20-10t m/s2
𝒅𝒕

a(2s)=0m/s2
2. v (1s)=15m/s
a(3s)=-10m/s2
v (2s)=20m/s
a(5s)=-30m/s2
v (3s)=15m/s

v (5)=-25m/s

2.2. ILLUSTRATION OF LINEAR MOTION USING CORRESPONDING GRAPHS

 Slope and general relationships

Rise: In a graph, the rise refers to the vertical change between two points on a line. It is the
difference in the y-values (Vertical axis) of the two points. 𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
Run: The run refers to the horizontal change between two points on a line. It is the difference in
x-values (Horizontal axis) of the two points. 𝑹𝒖𝒏 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
Slope: The slope of a line is a measure of its steepness and is calculated as the ratio of the rise to
𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
the run. 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = =
𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏

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  Graph of displacement vs. time

 Graph of velocity vs. Time

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  Application of equations of motion
If 𝑢 is an initial velocity, 𝑣 is final velocity, 𝑎 is acceleration , 𝑡 is time and 𝑆 is the displacement
of the moving body, then we have the following formulas:
i. 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1
ii. 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2

iii. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
Analyze freely falling objects
All freely falling bodies are attracted towards the center of the earth with a uniform acceleration
called acceleration due to gravity (g). Near the earth’s surface 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/𝒔𝟐 and on the moon’s
surface 𝑔 = 1.67𝑚/𝑠 2
The free fall of a body towards the earth is one of the most common examples of motion with
constant acceleration.

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Special Cases
Case (i): For downward motion
For a particle moving downwards, a = g, since the particle moves in the direction of gravity.
Case (ii): For a freely falling body
For a freely falling body, a = g and u = 0, since it starts from rest.
Case (iii): For upward motion
For a particle moving upwards, a = − g, since the particle moves against the gravity.
Example1: A stone is dropped from a height of 50m and it falls freely. Calculate the (i) distance
travelled in 2 s, (ii) velocity of the stone when it reaches the ground.
Example2: A body projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 40m/s from the ground, comes
to rest momentarily at the top most position and returns to the ground. Calculate.
(a) The maximum height reached by the body.
(b) The total time of flight

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LO3: ANALYSE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION

In learning outcome 2 we dealt with motion along a straight line. We now consider the motion of
objects that move in paths in two (or three) dimensions. Before beginning our discussion of motion
in two dimensions, we will need a new tool, vectors, and how to add them.

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF SCALARS, VECTORS AND VECTOR COMPONENTS

 Scalars

Scalars are the quantities that are fully described by numerical value (magnitude) alone, without
any reference to direction. For example, Mass, temperature, time are scalar quantities.

Operation on scalars
Addition and subtraction: Scalars can be added or subtracted using arithmetic. For example,
adding temperatures or masses.

Multiplication and division: Scalars can be multiplied or divided by other scalars or vectors.

 Vectors

Vectors are fully described by both a numerical value (magnitude) and a specific direction. For
example, velocity, force, and displacement are vector quantities.

Operation on vectors
Addition and subtraction: Vectors can be added or subtracted using vector addition rules. This
takes both magnitude and direction into account. Vectors are often represented graphically as
arrows, where the length of arrow correspond to the magnitude of the quantity and arrow in the
direction of the vector. Let 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ be two vectors. We define a new vector 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ .The vector

addition of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗, by geometric construction.

o Draw the arrow that represent 𝐴⃗,

⃗⃗ at the tips of the arrow for 𝐴⃗,
o Place the tail of the arrow that represents vector 𝐵
o The arrow that starts to the tail of 𝐴⃗ and goes to the tip of 𝐵
⃗⃗ is defined to be the vector
addition.

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We can now define the subtraction of one vector from another vector. The difference between two
vectors 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ is defined as 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 (−𝐵)

Note: The triangle rule of vector addition is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶

Multiplication:

o Scalars multiplication: A vector can be multiplied by a scalar, result in a new vector with
same or opposite direction (If a scalar is positive or negative respectively)
o Dot product: The dot product of two vectors results in a scalar, representing the product
of their magnitudes and the cosine of the angle between them.
o Cross product: The cross product of two vectors, result in a vector that is perpendicular
to the plane containing the original vectors, with magnitude dependent on the sine of the
angle between them.

 Vector components in Cartesian coordinate system

Point and position vector

The natural way to describe the position of any point is to use Cartesian coordinates. In two
dimensions, we have a diagram like this, with an x-axis and a y-axis, and an origin O. To include
vectors in this diagram, we have a vector 𝑖⃗ associated with the x-axis and a vector 𝑗⃗ associated
with the y-axis.

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If we take any point in this diagram, for instance the point P with coordinates (3, 4), then we can
write ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑷 = 𝟑𝒊⃗ + 𝟒𝒋⃗. It is important to appreciate the difference between these two expressions.
The numbers (3, 4) represent a set of coordinates, referring to the point P. But the expression 𝟑𝒊⃗ +
𝟒𝒋⃗ is a vector, the position vector OP. An alternative way of writing this is as a “column vector”:
3
( ) means the same as 𝟑𝒊⃗ + 𝟒𝒋⃗
4
Components of the position vector
Let consider the graph

As we see by adding 𝑉𝑥 and 𝑉𝑦 gives 𝑉. 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑥 +𝑉𝑦 then 𝑉𝑥 and 𝑉𝑦 are the components of 𝑉

⃗⃗⃗| = √𝑽𝒙 𝟐 + 𝑽𝒚 𝟐 by Pythagorean theorem.

The magnitude of the vector 𝑉 will be given by |𝑽

𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Using trigonometric ratios we have { 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑦

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3.2. ILLUSTRATION OF DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

 Displacements in two dimensions

Suppose a particle moves on plane along the curve as shown in the figure below. At time 𝑡1 the
particle is at the point P and some later time 𝑡2 , the particle is at Q. As the particle moves from P
to Q in the time interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 , the position vector changes from 𝑟1 = 𝑂𝑃 to 𝑟2 = 𝑂𝑄.

P(x1, y1)

Q(x2, y2)

From triangle rule of vector addition, we can see that:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑃𝑄
𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = ∆𝑟

Here 𝑟1 = 𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦1 𝑗⃗ and 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦2 𝑗⃗

∆𝑟 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗⃗ = ∆𝑥𝑖⃗ + ∆𝑦𝑗⃗

 Velocity vector

The Average Velocity Vector

We define average velocity during time interval as the ratio of the displacement of that interval
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝒓 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
time. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = = ⃗𝑖 + ⃗𝑗=𝑽𝒙 + 𝑽𝒚
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕

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The Instantaneous Velocity Vectors

Instantaneous velocity vector: is the limit of the average velocity as Δt approaches zero. Its
direction is along a line that is tangent to the path of the particle and in the direction of motion.

∆𝒓
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑽 𝒊𝒏 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕

⃗⃗| = √𝑽𝒙 𝟐 + 𝑽𝒚 𝟐 and 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝑽𝒚 )

The magnitude of the velocity is given by: |𝑽 𝑽 𝒙

Example1: A sailboat has coordinates (130 m, 205 m) at t1=0.0 s. Two minutes later its position
is (110 m, 218 m). Find its average velocity and magnitude of the average velocity.

Example2: A dragonfly is observed initially at position: 𝑟⃗1 = (2.00𝑚)𝑖⃗ + (3.50𝑚)𝑗⃗. Three

seconds later, it is observed at position: 𝑟⃗2 = (−3.00𝑚)𝑖⃗ + (5.50𝑚)𝑗⃗. What was the dragonfly’s
average velocity during this time?

 Acceleration Vectors

The average acceleration vector is defined as the rate at which the velocity changes. It is in the
direction of the change in velocity.

⃗⃗
∆𝑉
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝑡

The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the average acceleration as Δt approaches zero.

∆𝑽
𝑎⃗ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂 𝒚
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕

⃗⃗ always points in the direction of motion. The acceleration vector 𝑎⃗ can point
The velocity vector 𝑉
anywhere.

Example: A Thrown Baseball The position of a thrown baseball is given by: 𝑟⃗ =

12𝑚 16𝑚 4.9𝑚
[1.5𝑚 + ( ) 𝑡] 𝑖⃗ − [( )𝑡 − ( ) 𝑡 2 ]𝑦⃗. Find the velocity and the acceleration as a function
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠2

of time.

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3.3 ANALYZE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

 Motion in two dimension

The motion is said to be two dimensional, if two or three coordinates are required to specify the
position of the object in space changes with respect to time.

 Projectile motion

We can define a projectile as anybody thrown into space/air. The path taken is called a
trajectory. The motion of a projectile unless taken otherwise is a free motion under gravity. We
assume that air resistance is negligible in this kind of motion.

Application of projection motion

 Football player kicking a ball at a certain angle if the ball is kicked so that it does not roll
on the ground, it will move at certain angle relative to the ground.
 The launch of missile in modern warfare.
 A fireman wishes to know the maximum height on the wall he can project water from the
hose.

Projection angle: It is the angle formed by the initial velocity of the body and the horizontal axis
through which the body is thrown.

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  Equation of motion

This is the motion in the x-y plane; we consider axis OX and OY. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣𝑜 has two components even the
acceleration. We have:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 = 0
𝑎
For the acceleration: {
𝑎⃗𝑦 = −𝑔⃗

𝑉𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
For Velocity: {
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡

According to OX axis, we have the rectilinear uniform motion whose velocity is constant and has
value 𝑣𝑜𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 cos 𝛼= constant

According to OY axis, we have the rectilinear uniformly decelerated motion with acceleration –
gt.

Horizontal motion

1
𝑎𝑥 = 0 , 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 , we have 𝒙 = 𝒖𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 → (𝟏)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Vertical motion

𝑽𝒚 = 𝒖𝒚 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 − 𝒈𝒕 → (𝟐)

𝟏 𝟏
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒚 = 𝒖𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒖𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐 → (𝟑)
𝟐 𝟐

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Equations (1) and (3) represent the parametric equations of the motion. Using the equations
developed above, obtain the parametric equation. We have:

𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 − 𝒈 ( 𝟐 ) → (𝟒)
𝟐 𝒖 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 𝜽

Maximum height

Let 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 be the maximum height reached by projectile. 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 if and only if 𝑣𝑦 = 0 (means
𝟎 = 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 − 𝒈𝒕 ).

𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝒕= → (𝟓) 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕.
𝒈

When we consider equation 5 and 3, we see that the maximum height is given by:

𝒖𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐𝒈

The Horizontal Range of the Projectile

The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from the initial position (𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0) to the
position where it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the horizontal range R. Horizontal rage also
is the distance travelled during the time of flight. To calculate this range denoted R, it’s important
to know that 𝑅 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 when 𝑦 = 0

𝟏 𝒙𝟐
By solving the equation 4 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 − 𝟐 𝒈 (𝒖𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 𝜽) = 𝟎 we have 𝑥=

𝒖𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
0 (𝐴𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) or 𝑹 = 𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒈

𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Note: the total time of flight is double of the time of reaching maximum height, i.e 𝑡 = 2
𝒈

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LO4: DEMONSTRATE ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA

IC4.1: DESCRIPTION OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES AND THEIR

CONSERVATION

Electric charges

 Electrostatics: It is a branch of electricity that deals with the study of electric charges at
rest

 The structure of atoms can be described in terms of three particles: the negatively charged
electron, the positively charged proton, and the uncharged neutron.

 The elementary charge, usually denoted by e is the electric charge carried by a single
proton or, equivalently, the magnitude of the negative electric charge carried by a single
electron, which has charge −1 e. This elementary charge is a fundamental physical
constant.

 The protons and neutrons in an atom are located in the nucleus. The charge of electron is
(e-) = -1.6 x 10-19 C that of proton is (p+ ) = +1.6x10 -19 C. Neutron is neutral particle, it
has no charge.

 There are two types or kinds of electric charges in nature. Negative charge and Positive
charge.

Laws of electrostatic charges

The law states that the like charges (charges of the same sign) repel one another and unlike charges
(charges with opposite signs) attract one another.

Conservation of electric charges

The Law of conservation of electric charges states that the net amount of electric charge produced
in any process is zero.

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Electrification (charging) methods

 Charging by rubbing

 Charging by contact

 Charging by induction

Electrostatic field

 An electric field is a space around the charged object where force is exerted on the charged
particle.

 Electric field lines (lines of force) in an electric field are imaginary lines drawn through
an area or place.

The rules for drawing electric field lines

 Electric field lines therefore point away from positive charges and towards negative
charges.

 Field lines are drawn closer together where the field is stronger.

 Field lines never cross.

Electric field at a point charge

 An electric field is also described as the electric force per unit charge.

 The formula of electric field is given as E = F/Q.

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Electric field between two charges

The electric field (E) between two charges is a vector field that describes the force experienced by
a positive test charge placed in that region. The electric field is generated by the charges and
provides information about the force that a positive charge would experience at any point in the
field.

IC4.2: DETERMINATION OF THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

Coulomb’s law of electrostatic charges

The law states that “Two electrically charged bodies experience an attractive or repulsive force F,
which is inversely proportional to the square of the distance(r) between them and directly
proportional to the product of their electric charges Q1 and Q2”, that is:

Electric field intensity and potential

The intensity of an electric field at any point is determined by the force acting on a unit positive
charge (+C) placed at that point. If a positive point charge Qo (test charge) is placed at any point
in an electric field and it experiences an electric force F, Electric field (E) is the electric force (F)
divided by the magnitude of the test charge (Q).

 The force acting on a charge in an electric field is given by 𝐹 = 𝑄𝐸

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  Its unit is newton per coulomb N/C

 The electric field is a vector quantity.

 If charge is negative, then the electric field is will be negative otherwise it is positive

Electric field strength due to distribution of electric field

Superposition is the term used to describe the addition of two or more electric fields to yield or to
produce another. Consider many point charges Q1, Q2, Q3…Qn and their corresponding electric
fields caused by the individual point charges E1, E2, E3 …En. The resultant electric field (net
Electric field) at a point p is the vector sum of the field at p due to each point charge distribution.

E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ….+En

Electric field potential and its mathematical treatment

The electric potential V (at a point P) is defined as the work done (W) in moving the positive test
charge q from a large distance (infinity) to that point.

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Effect of an electrostatic field on a moving charge

 When a charged particle moves through an electrostatic field, it experiences a force due to
the interaction between its charge and the electric field. This force can lead to both
deflection and acceleration of the charged particle.
 The force (FF) experienced by a charged particle of charge (q) moving with velocity (v) in
an electric field (E) is given by the equation: F=q⋅E. This force can be decomposed into
two components: one parallel to the velocity vector (v) and one perpendicular to it. The
component parallel to the velocity affects the particle's acceleration (a), and the component
perpendicular to the velocity causes deflection.

IC4.3: DEMONSTRATION OF EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON CHARGED

PARTICLES

Capacitor

Capacitor is an electronic component capable of storing electrical energy in electric field,

especially one consisting of two conductors separated by dielectric.

Capacitance (C) is a fundamental property of a capacitor that quantifies its ability to store electric
charge per unit voltage. It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the electric charge (Q) stored
on one plate of the capacitor to the voltage (V) across the plates. Mathematically, capacitance is
𝑄
expressed by the formula: 𝐶 = 𝑉 . Where Q is electric charge, V is potential difference. Its SI unit

is Faraday.

Parallel Plate Capacitors are formed by an arrangement of electrodes and insulating material or
dielectric. A parallel plate capacitor can only store a finite amount of energy before dielectric
breakdown occurs.

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Effective capacitance for capacitor network

 In series

Capacitors can be connected in series: The equivalent capacitance for series-connected capacitors
can be calculated as

 In parallel

When simplified, is the expression for the equivalent capacitance of the parallel network of three
capacitors:

Electrostatic energy stored by a capacitor

The energy stored in a capacitor is electrostatic potential energy and is thus related to the charge
Q and voltage V between the capacitor plates. A charged capacitor stores energy in the electrical
field between its plates. As the capacitor is being charged, the electrical field builds up. When a
charged capacitor is disconnected from a battery, its energy remains in the field in the space
1
between its plates. 𝐸 = 2 𝑐𝑣 2

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Examples of electrostatic phenomena

 Electrostatic discharge (ESD): It is the release of static electricity when two objects come
into contact. E.g. A balloon rubbed against one’s hair.

 Lightning arrestors: Arrestors are typically installed near critical appliances or points of
entry, such as an electrical panel or near a generator. When potentially dangerous lightning
strikes, the arrestor activates and diverts the lightning to ground where it will disperse
harmlessly

 Paint spraying: A positively charged electron within the spray nozzle charges the paint
particles. Because these particles all have a positive charge, they repel each other and break
apart, resulting in a fine mist coat evenly.

 Photocopier machines: Negatively charged powder spread over the surface adheres
through electrostatic attraction to the positively charged image areas.

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 LO5: APPLY GEOMETRIC OPTICS

5.1. DESCRIBE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT IN HOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM

 Key terms:

Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behavior and properties of light.

Geometric optics is a branch of optics where light is described by rays

Light is a form of energy.

Propagation of light refers to the manner in which an electromagnetic wave transfers its energy
from one point to another.

Beam and rays

A ray of light is the path along which light travels in a medium. In diagram, a ray of light is
represented with a straight line and an arrow pointing from the source to the destination of light as
shown.

A beam of light is a collection or group of light rays. There are three types of beam of light rays:

(a) Parallel beam: consists of rays that are parallel to one another

(b) Convergent beam: consists of rays of light that meet at a point i.e converge

(c) Divergent beam: consists of rays of light originating from a point source and diverge (spread)
to different directions

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 The properties of light

 Light is a form of energy.

 It enables us to see the surrounding objects.
 Light itself is not visible but its effect is felt by the eye.
 It travels at a speed of approximately 300 000 000 m/s or 3 × 108 m/s.
 It always propagates on straight line. (Formation of shadow and eclipse)
 Light does not need any medium for its propagation (Light can travel in vacuum)

Source of light

There are two sources of light: luminous and non-luminous sources.

(a) Luminous sources of light These are sources (objects) that emit their own light.

Examples of non-living luminous objects are sun, stars, fire, candle flame and electric bulb.
Examples of living things that are luminous objects are fireflies and glow worm.

(b) Non-luminous sources of light These are objects that do not emit their own light. We get to
see these objects when they reflect the light falling on them from luminous source onto our eyes.
The moon is a good example of a non-living thing that is non-luminous source of light. Others are
a wall and a car. Examples of a living things that are non-luminous sources are trees and animals.

Transparent, translucent and opaque materials

Transparent materials: These are materials that allow all the light falling on them to pass through
them freely. Examples of transparent materials are air, water and clear glass.

Translucent materials: These are materials that allow some light falling on them to pass through.
Examples of translucent materials are frosted glass, oiled paper, wax paper, ice, tinted windows
and some plastics.

Opaque materials: These are materials that do not allow light to pass through. Examples of
opaque materials are rocks, wood, soil, metals and exercise book.

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5.2 APPLICATION OF LIGHT REFLECTION ON SURFACES

Reflection is the bouncing back off of light as it strikes a surface. The ray coming from the source
is called incident ray. The ray moving away from the reflecting surface is called reflected ray.

Types of reflection

There are two types of reflection; regular and diffuse (irregular) reflections.

 When light is reflected by a plane or a smooth surface, the reflection is regular i.e parallel
incident rays are reflected parallel to each other.
 When reflection occurs at a rough surface, it is called diffuse reflection i.e incident parallel
rays are reflected in random directions. Figures below show the two types of reflections.

Laws of reflection

The laws of reflection of light state that:

1. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

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Formation of image in plane mirrors

Image formation for a point object

Image formation for a point object We need a minimum of two incident rays from a point object
to the mirror in order to locate the position of the image using a plane mirror. The reflected rays
from the plane mirror, when produced backwards appear to meet at a point. This is the position of
the image. The image is virtual as it only appears to be there and it cannot be projected on a screen.
The figure below is called Ray diagram.

Measure the perpendicular distance (OM) from the point object O to the mirror and the
perpendicular distance (IM) from the position of the virtual image I to the mirror. The image
distance from the mirror is equal to the object distance from the mirror, OM = IM

Image formation for an extended object

Place an extended object in front of a vertical plane mirror and observe the image formed. Is the
image upright or inverted? What is the size of the image? The image is erect and the size of the
image is the same as the size of the object.

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Formation of image in Spherical or curved mirrors

A spherical mirror is a mirror that has the reflecting surface which is curved. There are two types
Concave Mirrors: The reflecting surface is curved inwards.
Convex Mirrors: The reflecting surface is curved outwards.

Terms used in curved mirrors

(i) Pole (P): Midpoint of the mirror
(ii) Centre of curvature (C): Centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
(iii) Radius of curvature (R): Distance between pole and centre of curvature.
(iv) Principle axis: A line passing through P and C.
(v) Focus (F): An image point on principle axis
(vi) Focal length (f): Distance between P and F.
(vii) Power: The converging or diverging ability of mirror
(viii)Aperture: is the surface of the mirror
Rules of image formation and sign convention
Rules for ray diagrams
Rule 1: Ray that is drawn parallel to the principal axis it is reflected back through the focal point
F.
Rule 2: Ray that is drawn through the focal point it is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
Rule 3: Ray that is drawn through the center of curvature, C, it is reflected back on itself.

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Sign conventions
(i) All distances are measured from the pole.
(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive while in the direction
opposite of incident rays are taken negative.
(iii) Distances above the principle axis are taken as positive and below the principle axis are taken
as negative.

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Applications of spherical/curved mirrors
i. Concave mirror: Used as a shaving mirror, In search light, in cinema projector, in telescope,
etc.
ii. Convex mirror: In road lamps, side mirror in vehicles etc.

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5.3 APPLICATION OF LIGHT REFRACTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA
Refraction is the bending of light that occurs because light travels at different speeds in different
materials.

Interface is a boundary between two regions of space occupied by different matter in different
physical states

Light is moving from an optically dense medium to an optically less dense medium. Light is
refracted away from the normal.

Light is moving from an optically less dense medium to an optically denser medium. Light is
refracted towards the normal.

When an incident light is perpendicular to the surface, it continues to travel undeviated in a straight
line but the speed of light is reduced in the glass. This is, sometimes, referred to as the normal
refraction.

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Laws of refraction

1. The incident ray, Normal, refracted ray at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane
2. The ratio of sine of incidence angle to the sine of refracted angle is constant. This is known
as Snell’s law

Refractive Index

The refractive index of a material is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in the
medium. A vacuum is a region with no matter in it, not even air. However, the speed of light in air
𝐶
is very close to that in a vacuum. 𝑛 = 𝑣, Where n= refractive index (no unit), c=speed of light in a

vacuum =3x108m/s, v=speed of light in a given medium (m/s)

Snell’s Law of refraction

The angles of incidence and refraction when light travels from one medium to another can be
calculated using Snell’s Law.

Where n1 = Refractive index of material 1, n2 = Refractive index of material 2, θ1 = Angle of

incidence and θ2 = Angle of refraction

Example 1: A light ray, with an angle of incidence of 350, passes from water to air. Find the angle
of refraction using Snell’s Law. Discuss the meaning of your answer. (refractive index of water is
1.33, for air it is 1).

The light ray passes from a medium of high refractive index to one of low refractive index.
Therefore, the light ray is bent away from the normal.

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Example 2: A light ray passes from water to diamond with an angle of incidence of 750. Calculate
the angle of refraction.

Real and apparent depth

If object and observer are situated in different medium then due to refraction, object appears to be
displaced from its real position. Example: An object is in denser medium and observer is in rarer
medium

Example: A coin is placed at the bottom of a 40 cm deep pond. The refractive index for water is
1.33. How deep does the coin appear to be?

Critical angle and total internal reflection

Critical Angle is the angle of incidence where the angle of refraction is 900. The light must shine
from a dense to a less dense medium.

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Total Internal Reflection takes place when light is reflected back into the medium because the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

Condition: Total internal reflection takes place when

 Light shines from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium.
 The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

Calculating the Critical Angle

Now we shall learn how to derive the value of the critical angle for two given media. The process
is fairly simple and involves just the use of Snell’s Law that we have already studied. Snell’s Law
states that:

Example1: Given that the refractive indices of air and water are 1 and 1.33, respectively, find the
critical angle.

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Example2: Calculate the critical angle for glass-air interface, if the refractive index of glass is
1.50. Answer: 41.8°

Example3: Calculate the refractive index of diamond, if the critical angle for the diamond is 24°.
Answer: 2.46

Refraction of light through a prism

1. Deviation of a ray of light by a glass prism

A prism has a refracting medium bound by two plane surfaces inclined to each other at an angle.

In a prism, a ray of light suffers two refractions and the result is deviation

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Dispersion of light by a prism

Dispersion is the splitting of white light into its constituent colours. This band of colours of light
is called its spectrum.

Isaac newton observed that a beam of white light incident on a prism splits into its constituent
colors to form “a visible spectrum. In the visible region of spectrum, the spectral lines are seen in
the order from violet to red. The colours are given by the word VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue,
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red) Violet colour suffers the maximum deviation and red the
least.

Refraction of light through thin lenses

A thin lens is transparent medium usually made in glass or plastic bounded by one or two
spherical surfaces.

1. Types and characteristics of lenses

Lenses are of two basic types, convex which are thicker than the edges and concave which
the reverse is true.

a. Convex (Converging) lens b. Concave (Diverging) lens

Convex lens or converging lens
The concave lens or diverging lens is
is one which is thicker at the
one which is thicker at the edges than
middle than at the center.
at the middle

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2. Geometric terms of spherical thin lenses

 Principle axis of spherical thin lenses is the line joining the center of curvature, c, of the
two surfaces. We now consider paraxial rays, i.e. rays close to the principle axis making
very small angles with it.

 Principle focus, F (or focal point) of a thin lens is the point on the principle axis toward which
paraxial rays converge (convex lens) or appear to diverge from (concave lens) after
refraction.

The distance F1P or PF2 is called the focal length, f, of the lens. A convex lens is a
converging lens and has real foci while a concave lens is a diverging lens and has virtual
foci.

3. Rules of Ray diagram

i. A ray parallel to the principle axis after refraction passes through the principle
focus or appears to diverge from it.

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 ii. A ray through the Centre of the lens (called the optical Centre) continues straight
undeviated (It is only slightly displaced laterally the middle of the lens acts like a
thin parallel side block).

iii. A ray through the principle focus is refracted parallel to the principal axis.

4. Formation of images

i. Formation of images by a converging lens

Case 1: Object OB just beyond C (2F)

Characteristics of image: it is real, inverted, and smaller than object.

Case 2: Object OB at 2F

The image is: at 2 F, real, inverted and the same size as object.

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5. Lens formula
Consider a convex lens of focal length, f, which forms a real image IM of an object OB as
shown in Fig. below

Triangles OBP and IMP are similar (3 angles are equal)

Note: In calculation, the focal length of a diverging lens is taken as negative; the image
distance v is also negative since the image is virtual.

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Example

1. An object is placed i) 14cm, ii) 8cm in front of a convex lens of focal length10cm. Find the
image distance and magnification in each case.

Solution

i) We have: 𝑢 = +14𝑐𝑚 (real object), 𝑓 = +10𝑐𝑚 (convex lens)

Substitute in or

The magnification:

ii) We have 𝑑 = 8𝑐𝑚 (real object),𝑓 = +10 (convex lens)

Substitute in,

𝑣 = −40𝑐𝑚, The minus sign means the image is virtual. Also the magnification
2. An object of height 2 cm is placed 8 cm from a convex lens and a virtual image is formed
on the same side as the object at 24 cm from the lens. Calculate (a) the focal length of the
lens (b) the height of the image formed.

3. A convex lens produces a real image of an object and the image is 3 times the size of the
object. The distance between the object and the image is 80 cm. Calculate the focal length
of the lens.

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 LO6: CHARACTERIZE SOURCES OF ENERGY IN THE WORLD
6.1. EXPLANATION OF BASIC CONCEPTS OF WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
 Explanation of work
Work is defined as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of the force. i.e.
Work = force × distance moved in the direction of the force. W = F × d

The SI unit of work is Joule. Where 1 joule =1 newton × 1 meter

A joule is the work done when a force of 1 newton moves a body through a distance of 1 meter.

Bigger units used are: Kilojoules (1 kJ) = 1 000 J, Mega joule (1 MJ) = 1 000 000 J

Note: Whenever work is done, energy is transferred.

 Positive work when the direction of motion and that of the force are the same. For example,
when a person is pushing a car, he does a positive work.
 Negative work when the direction of motion is opposite to the direction of the force. Examples;
when a stone is thrown up vertically, the work of the force of gravity is negative.
 The work is zero when the displacement is zero despite of the action of the force. When a person
tries to move a lorry and remains at rest, that person has done zero work.

Example1: A horizontal pulling force of 60 N is applied through a spring to a block on a

frictionless table, causing the block to move by a distance of 3 m in the direction of the force. Find
the work done by the force.

Example2: A horizontal force of 75 N is applied on a body on a frictionless surface. The body

moves a horizontal distance of 9.6 m. Calculate the work done on the body.

 Explanation of energy
Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. Work done = Energy transferred. SI unit of energy is
Joules (J).

Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion or
due to its position. It can either be kinetic energy or potential energy of both. When an object is
falling down through the air, it possesses both potential energy (PE) due to its position above the
ground, and kinetic energy (KE) due to its speed as it falls. The sum of its PE and KE is its
mechanical energy. Mechanical energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy.

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Potential energy: The energy possessed by a body (e.g. a stone) due to its position above the
ground is called gravitational potential energy.

Example: A crane is used to lift a body of mass 30 kg through a vertical distance of 6.0 m. How
much work is done on the body? What is the P.E stored in the body? Comment on the two answers.

Kinetic energy: It possesses energy as it moves. The energy which is possessed by a moving
object due to its speed is called kinetic energy (KE). Examples of objects that possess KE include
moving air, rotating windmills, falling water, rotating turbines and a moving stone. In general, any
moving body possesses energy called Kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of a moving body is
given by:

Law of conservation of energy

If Initial P.E = Final K.E We say that energy has been conserved. This is summarized in the law
of conservation of energy.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but is simply
converted from one form into another.

The law of conservation of mechanical energy

You should have learnt that the law of conservation of mechanical energy states that, the total
mechanical energy (sum of potential energy and kinetic energy) in a closed system will remain
constant/same (The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy anywhere during the motion must
be equal to the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy anywhere else in the motion).

Work energy theorem

The work-energy theorem states that the work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic
energy: ∆𝑾 = ∆𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑲. 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑲. 𝑬𝒊
Example: The driver of a 1 000 kg car traveling at a speed of 16.7 m/s applies the car’s brakes
when he sees a red robot. The car’s brakes provide a frictional force of 8000 N. Determine the
stopping distance of the car.

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  Explanation of power
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑋𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Power is the rate of doing work. i.e. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = . The SI Unit of power
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒⁄
is Watt (W) and 1𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Large units used are kilowatt and megawatt. 1Kilowatt = 1 000 W and 1Megawatt = 1 000 000 W

Example: What power is expended by a boy who lifts a 300N block through 10 m in 10s? Answer:
Power=300Watt

What is a kilowatt-hour (kWh)?

One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the amount of energy used by an engine operating at a power of 1
kilowatt for 1 hour.1kWh= 3.6*106 J
Example: Calculate the increase in kinetic energy of a car of mass 800 kg when it accelerates from
20 m s-1 to 30 ms-1.
6.2: IDENTIFICATION OF TYPES OF ENERGY
 Energy

Energy is not visible; it occupies no space and has neither mass nor any other physical property
that can describe it. However, it exists in many forms, some of these forms include:

Solar energy: This energy from the sun is in form of radiant heat and light.

Sound energy: In each case, kinetic energy has been converted to sound and heat energy.

Sound energy is the energy associated with the vibration or disturbance of bodies or matter.

Heat energy: The hotness is due to heat energy that has been transferred from the hot part to the
cold part of the nail. Therefore, heat energy only travels from a hot object to a cooler one. Heat
energy is a form of energy that is transferred from one body to another due to the difference in
temperature.

Electrical energy: Electrical energy is the energy produced by the flow of electric charges
(electrons).

Nuclear energy: Nuclear energy is the energy that results from nuclear reactions in the nucleus of
an atom. It is released when the nuclei are combined or split.

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 Chemical energy: Chemical energy is a type of energy stored in the bonds of the atoms and
molecules that make up a substance.

Source of energy
There are two kinds of energy sources;

1. Primary sources.

2. Secondary sources.

Primary sources of energy

Primary Sources are sources which can be used directly as they occur in the natural environment.
They include:

 Flowing water: the flowing water from dams rotate turbines at the bottom of the dam which turn
the generator resulting in generation of electricity
 Nuclear: Nuclear energy is created through reactions that involve the splitting or merging of the
atoms of nuclei together
 Sun: The sun is the biggest source of energy and has played an important role in shaping our life
on earth since the dawn of time.
 Wind: Wind is caused by the sun heating the earth unevenly. The air is heated differently causing
hotter air to expand rise, and the colder one to condense and sink. This results to the movement of
air and hence formation of wind.
 Geothermal (interior of the earth): Geothermal gradient is the difference in temperature between
the core (interior) of the earth (planet) and its surface brings about conduction of heat from the
core to the surface.
 Fuels: Fuels are substances which produce heat when burnt in the presence of oxygen.
 Light energy: The potential of light to perform work is called light energy. It is formed through
chemical radiation and mechanical means. It is a form of energy produced by hot bodies and travels
in a straight line.
 Biomass (living thing and their waste materials): Biomass is the total mass of organic matter in
plant or animal. It is used to generate energy e.g. through burning to give heat energy.

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Secondary sources of energy

Secondary sources are energy sources that are generated from primary sources. For instance,
electricity is a secondary source because it is generated for example from solar energy using solar
panels or from flowing water using the turbines to generate hydroelectricity.

Other secondary sources of energy include; petroleum products, manufactured solid fuels, gases,
heat and bio fuel.

 Identification of source of energy

Renewable energy sources

A renewable energy source is an energy source which can’t be depleted/ exhausted. They exist
infinitely i.e. never run out. They are renewed by natural processes.

Examples include: Sun, Geothermal, and Wind

Non-renewable energy sources

These are sources which can be depleted because they exist in fixed quantities. So they will run
out one day.

Examples are: Coal, crude oil, natural gas, and uranium.

Fossil fuels like coal, crude oil, natural gas are mainly made up of carbon. They are usually found
in one location because they are made through the same process and material. Millions of years
ago dead sea organisms, plants, and animals settled on the ocean floor and in porous rocks. With
time, sand, sediments and impermeable rock settle on the dead organic matter, as the matter
continue to decay forming coal, oil and natural gas. Earth movements and rock shifts creates spaces
that force these energy sources to collect at well-defined areas. With the help of technology,
engineers are able to drill down into the sea bed to mine these sources and harness the energy
stored in them.

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 Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable sources

No Renewable energy sources Non-renewable energy sources

It can be used again and again throughout its life. It cannot be used again and again but one
1. day it will be exhausted.

These are the energy resources which cannot be They are the energy resources which can be
2. exhausted. exhausted one day.

It has low carbon emission and hence environment It has high carbon emission and hence not
3. friendly. environment friendly.

It is present in limited quantity and vanishes

4. It is present in unlimited quantity. one day

5. Cost is low. Cost is high.

Renewable energy resources are pollution free. The non-renewable energy resources are
6. not pollution free.

It has low maintenance cost as compared

7. It has high maintenance cost. with the renewable energy resources.

Large land area is required for the installation of its Less land area is required for its power plant
8. power plant. installation.

Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy etc are the Coal, petroleum, natural gases are the
9. examples of renewable resources. examples of non-renewable resources
Environmental effects of the use of energy sources

The following are some of the effects of use of the energy sources to the environment:

 Air and water pollution

 Deforestation
 Climate change and global warming.
 Land degradation

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 6.3. ANALYZING RELATIVE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS
ENERGY SOURCES
1. Non- renewable (fossil fuel) energy
Fossil fuels: They are remains of plant or animal that existed in a past geological age and that has
been excavated from the soil. Types of fossil fuels

 Coal is a solid organic rock made up mostly of carbon. Coal was formed from the waste of plants
that lived in forests and swamps millions of years ago.
 Petroleum: It is also called crude oil. It was produced after millions of years by the bacterial
decomposition of animals and plants which were buried underground to great depths inside the
earth due to the earth quakes, cyclones and storms.

Advantages of using fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are relatively cheap and easy to obtain. This is the reason why most people prefer using
gas or kerosene for cooking over electricity.

Disadvantage of Burning fossil fuels

 Their supply is limited and they will eventually run out.

 Fossil fuels release carbon dioxide when they burn, which adds to the greenhouse effect and
increases global warming. Of the three fossil fuels, for a given amount of energy released, coal
produces the most carbon dioxide and natural gas produces the least.
 Coal and oil release Sulphur dioxide gas when they burn, which causes breathing problems for
living creatures and contributes to acid rain
2. Renewable sources
I. Wind energy

Advantages of wind energy

 Very cheap way of generation of electricity

 Do not require fuels and can be run at low cost with minimum maintenance costs.

 Safe because they do not produce substances which pollute air or water.

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 Disadvantages

 Very expensive to set up because of a lot of work must be done to select a proper site with
correct wind velocity and abundant wind supply.
 The wind does not always blow, and wind direction may vary.
II. Geothermal energy

It is heat energy from the earth. Heat energy from the hot interior of the earth can rise the
temperature of underground rocks in the earth‟s crust to very high temperatures

Advantages

 The pollution can be controlled by putting water or steam back into the earth High
production in energy

Disadvantages

 The installation is very expensive; It requires a very greater space

 The sources are not easily accessible; there is loss of internal energy
III. Solar energy

Advantages
 The power source of the sun is absolutely free.
 Solar cells have no moving parts,
 The installation is not expensive
 No pollution of atmosphere

Disadvantages

 Used only in sun season; weak efficiency

 Storage system is expensive
IV. Hydropower

It is a transformation of the energy stored in a depth of water into electricity. The potential energy,
or energy due to height, can be extracted by flowing the water through turbines as it moves from
a higher level to a lower one.

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 Advantages

 The installation is not expensive: Big efficiency about 90%

 Source of water is available
 No pollution of atmosphere
 Require no fuel

Disadvantages

 Very expensive to set up because of high costs in setting suitable places, purchase of
necessary materials and construction of the station and supply power lines.
 Some energy is lost in sound and internal energy.
 Weak power produced; its function is accorded to the seasons

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