ELECTRONIC DEVICES

BEC306A

MODULE 1: SEMICONDUCTORS

By,
MANJULA K
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of ECE, SJCIT
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 Modules
1. Semiconductors
2. P-N Junctions
3. Bipolar Junction Transistor
4. Field Effect Transistors
5. Fabrication of p-n junctions, Integrated
Circuits

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Text Books:
For module 1, 2, 3 and 5---
“Solid State Electronic Devices”, 7thEdition by
Ben. G. Streetman, Sanjay Kumar Banergee.

For module 4—
“Semiconductor Physics and Devices”, 4th
Edition by Donald A Neamen, Dhrubes Biswas.

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 Semiconductors
• Bonding forces in solids
• Energy bands
• Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators
• Direct and Indirect semiconductors
• Electrons and Holes
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic materials
• Conductivity and Mobility
• Drift and Resistance
• Effects of temperature and doping on mobility
• Hall Effect
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 Bonding forces in solids
• Ionic Bonding
• Metallic Bonding
• Covalent Bonding

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 Ionic Bonding
• The electrostatic bond between two ions
formed through the transfer of one or more
electrons
• The electrostatic attractions between the
positive and negative ions hold the compound
together.
• Example: Bonding in NaCl

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• If a sodium atom gives an electron to a
chlorine atom, both become more stable.

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8
NaCl crystal structure
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10
 Metallic Bonding
• outer energy levels overlap in metals
• valence electrons are not held by any
particular metal atom. They move easily from
atom to atom
• metal atoms contribute their valence
electrons to form a “sea” of electrons.

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• metallic bonding is due to the attraction
between metallic cation and the surrounding
free electrons

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 Covalent bonding
• Covalent bonding occurs when pairs of
electrons are shared by atoms.

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 Energy Bands
• Four quantum numbers can describe an
electron in an atom-
1. Principal quantum number (n):
2. Angular quantum number (ℓ):
3. Magnetic quantum number (m):
4. Spin quantum number (s)

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Principal quantum number :
• This describes the electron shell.
• n = 1, 2, ...
• As n increases, the electron is also at a higher
energy. Therefore, less tightly bound to the
nucleus.

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Angular quantum number:

• The secondary quantum number divides the

shells into smaller groups of orbitals called
subshells.
• ℓ =0,1,…,n-1

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Magnetic quantum number:
• This number divides the subshell into
individual orbitals which hold the electrons.
• There are 2l+1 orbitals in each subshell.
• Thus the s subshell has only one orbital, the p
subshell has three orbitals, and so on
• m= - ℓ,…-1,0,1,…+ ℓ

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Spin quantum number:
• It Specifies the orientation of the spin axis of
an electron.
• s= ±1/2

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sp3 hybridization =>one s orbital is mixed with three p orbitals

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Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO):

• Consider two atoms A and B which have atomic

orbitals described by the wave functions ΨA and
Ψ B.
• The combination of two atomic orbitals results in
the formation of two molecular orbitals-bonding
molecular orbital and the anti-bonding molecular
orbital.
• The wave function for the molecule can be found
by a linear combination of the atomic orbitals
ΨA and ΨB.
ΨMO = ΨA + ΨB
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Bonding Molecular Orbitals:
• When the addition of wave function takes
place, the type of molecular orbitals formed
are Bonding Molecular Orbitals.
• It is represented by ΨMO = ΨA + ΨB.
• They have lower energy than atomic orbitals
involved.

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Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals:
• These molecular orbital is formed by the
subtraction of wave function.
• We can represent them as ΨMO = ΨA – ΨB.
• They have higher energy than atomic orbitals.
• Energy of Bonding Molecular Orbitals is less
than that of Anti Bonding Molecular Orbitals.

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s

V(r) is the potential energy

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The Pauli exclusion principle:
• No two electrons in an atom can have
identical quantum numbers.
• Eg: If two electrons reside in the same orbital,
then their n, ℓ, and m values are the same,
therefore their ’s’ must be different, and thus
the electrons must have opposite spin of 1/2
and −1/2.

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Silicon atoms electron configuration : 1s22s22p63s23p2.
2 states for 1s level
2 states for 2s level
6 states for 2p level

For N atoms, there will be 2N, 2N, and 6N states

of type 1s, 2s, and 2p, respectively.
As the spacing between 2 atoms decreases, the
energy levels split into bands starting with the
outer (n=3)shell.

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• The band of 3s-3p levels contain 8N available
states.
• As the distance between the atoms
approaches the actual inter-atomic spacing of
silicon molecule, this band splits into
conduction band and valence band.
• The upper conduction band and lower valence
band are separated by an energy gap Eg
• Each band contains 4N states.

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• The forbidden band contains no electrons
energy states.
• At 0 k, electrons will occupy the lowest energy
states available.
• Therefore, 4N states in the valence band are
occupied by 4N electrons. i.e: Every state in
the valence band will be filled.
• The conduction band is completely empty of
electrons.

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Energy levels in Si as a function of inter atomic spacing:

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Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators

Typical band structure at 0 K 30

• The variation in band structure is
responsible for the electrical characteristics of
materials.
• For electrons to experience acceleration in an
applied electric field, they must be able to
move into new energy states.
• In silicon the valence band is completely filled
with electrons at 0 K and the conduction band
is empty.

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• There can be no charge transport within the
valence band, since no empty states are
available into which electrons can move.
• There are no electrons in the conduction band
so no charge transport can take place.
• Semiconductor materials at 0 K have basically
the same structure as insulators.
• But, the difference lies in the size of the band
gap Eg.

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• Example: the semiconductor Si has a band gap
of about 1.1 eV compared with 5 eV for
diamond.
• The relatively small band gaps of
semiconductors allow for excitation of
electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band by reasonable amounts of
thermal or optical energy.

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• In metals the bands either overlap or are
only partially filled.
• Thus electrons and empty energy states are
intermixed within the bands so that
electrons can move freely under the
influence of an electric field.

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Direct and Indirect semicondctors

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• The wave function of the electron is assumed to
be in the form of a plane wave moving, for
example, in the x- direction with propagation
constant k.
• The constant k is called a wave vector.
• The space-dependent wave function for the
electron is

• The function U(kx,x) modulates the wave

function-periodicity of the lattice(Bloch
functions)
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• The (E, k) diagram must be plotted for
the various crystal directions.

• The band structure of GaAs has a minimum

in the conduction band and a maximum in
the valence band for the same k value (k = 0).

• Si has its valence band maximum at a different

value of k than its conduction band minimum.

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• Transition from the minimum point in the
GaAs conduction band to the maximum point
of the valence band does not require change
in k.
• Transition from the minimum point in the Si
conduction band to the maximum point of the
valence band requires some change in k.
• Two classes of semiconductor energy bands-
a. direct
b. indirect

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• In a direct semiconductor, an electron in the
conduction band can fall to an empty state in the
valence band.
• The energy difference Eg is emitted as a photon
of light
--Eg: GaAs
• In an indirect semiconductor, an electron in the
conduction band minimum cannot fall directly to
the valence band maximum.
• It must undergo a momentum change as well as
change in its energy.
--Eg: Silicon, Germanium
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✓Assume that U is constant in
for an free electron. Then the x-component of
the electron momentum in the crystal is given
by

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 Electrons and Holes
• An empty state in the valence band is called as
a hole.
• If the conduction band electron and the hole
are created by the excitation of a valence
band electron to the conduction band, they
are called an electron-hole pair (EHP).

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• After excitation to the conduction band, an
electron is surrounded by a large number of
unoccupied energy states.
• For example, the equilibrium number of
electron-hole pairs in pure Si at room
temperature is about 1010 EHP/cm3 and the Si
atom density is 5 X 1022 atoms/cm3.
• The few electrons in the conduction band are
free to move using the many available empty
states.

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Electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor

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• In a filled band, all available energy states
are occupied.
• For every electron moving with a given
velocity, there is an equal and opposite
electron motion elsewhere in the band.
• The jth electron with wave vector kj is
matched by an electron at j' with the opposite
wave vector - kj.
• There is no net current in the band unless an
electron is removed.

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A valence band with all states filled, including states
j' and j
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• The effects of current in a valence band
containing holes can be analyzed by keeping
track of the holes.
• For example, if the jth electron is removed,
the motion of the electron at j' is not
compensated.

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• With N electrons/cm3 in the band, the current
density in a unit volume is

• If a hole is created by removing the jth electron;

the net current density is

• But the first term is zero. Thus the net current is

+qVj.

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• The hole energy increases downward and
the lowest energy state holes are found at
the top of the valence band.
• Conduction band electrons are found at the
bottom of the conduction band.
• (E, k) diagram is a plot of the total electron
energy as a function of the electron wave
vector

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• An electron at location A sees an electric field
given by the slope of the band edge gains
kinetic energy by moving to point B.
• In the (E, k) diagram, the electron starts at k =
0 and moves to a nonzero wave vector kB.
• The electron then loses kinetic energy as heat
and returns to the bottom of the band at B.
• The electron and hole wave vectors point in
opposite directions and these charge carriers
move opposite to each other.

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simplified band diagram for a semiconductor in
an electric field. 50
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic materials
Intrinsic semiconductor:
•A perfect semi-conductor crystal with no
impurities is called an intrinsic semiconductor
•There are no charge carriers at 0 K, since the
valence band is filled with electrons and the
conduction band is empty.
•At higher temperatures electron-hole pairs are
generated.

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Electron-hole pairs in the covalent bonding
model of the Si crystal.
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• The conduction band electron concentration n
(electrons/cm3) is equal to the concentration
of holes in the valence band p (holes /cm3).
• n=p = ni ni -Intrinsic carrier concentration.
• Recombination occurs when an electron in the
conduction band makes a transition to a hole
in the valence band.
• If we denote the generation rate of EHPs as gi
(EHP/cm3) and the recombination rate as ri ,
equilibrium requires ri = gi

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Extrinsic Material:
• The semiconductor in which impurities are
added is called extrinsic semiconductor.
• When a semiconductor crystal is doped, the
equilibrium carrier concentrations n0 and p0
are changed.
• Two types of doped semiconductors
a. n-type (mostly electrons)
b. p-type (mostly holes).

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• When impurities are added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, additional levels are
created in the energy band structure.
• An impurity from column V of the
periodic table (P, As) introduces an
energy level very near the conduction
band in Ge or Si.
• The column V impurities are called donor
impurities
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• This level is filled with electrons at 0 K, and very little
thermal energy is required to excite these electrons
to the conduction band.
• Thus at about 50-100 K all of the electrons in the
impurity level are "donated" to the conduction band.
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• Atoms from column III (B, Al, Ga, and In)
introduce impurity levels in Ge or Si near the
valence band.
• These levels are empty of electrons at 0

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• Electrons from the valence band are excited
into the impurity level, leaving behind holes in
the valence band.
• This type of impurity level "accepts" electrons
from the valence band
• The column III impurities are acceptor
impurities

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• In the covalent bonding model, donor and
acceptor atoms can be visualized as shown.

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 Conductivity and Mobility

(a) Random thermal motion

of an electron in a solid
(b) Well directed drift velocity with
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an applied electric field.
• At room temperature, the thermal motion of
an individual electron may be visualized as
random scattering from lattice vibrations,
impurities, other electrons, and defects.
• This scattering is random
• Hence, there is no net motion of the group of
n electrons/cm3 over any period of time.

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• If an electric field Ex is applied in the x-
direction, each electron experiences a net
force ,–qEx from the field.
• This force causes a net motion of the electron
group in the, –x direction.
• Let p= Total momentum of the group and px =
x-component of the total momentum
• The force of the field on the n electrons/cm3 is

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• The net acceleration is balanced in steady
state by the decelerations of the collision
processes.
• the steady field Ex produces a net momentum
p-x
• The net rate of change of momentum
when collisions are included must be zero
in the case of steady state current flow.

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• Consider a group of N0 electrons at time t = 0
and define N(t) as the number of electrons
that have not undergone a collision by time t.
• The rate of decrease in N(t) is proportional to
the number of electrons left unscattered at t.

• Therefore,

• is a constant of proportionality.

• represents the mean time between

scattering events 64
• The probability that any electron has a
collision in the time interval dt is

• Thus the differential change in px due to

collisions in time dt is

• The rate of change of px due to the

decelerating effect of collisions is

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• The sum of acceleration and deceleration
effects must be zero for steady state.

• The average momentum per electron is

• constant net velocity (The drift speed)in the -x

direction is

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• The current density resulting from the net
drift = Number of electrons crossing a unit
area per unit time (n<vx>) multiplied by the
charge of electron (-q)
Jx = -qn<vx>
• The current density is proportional to the
electric field,

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• The quantity un, called the electron mobility,
describes the ease with which electrons drift
in the material.
• The conductivity:

• The mobility can be expressed as the average

particle drift velocity per unit electric field

• Unit of mobility: cm2/V-s 68

• The current density can be written in terms of
mobility as

• If both electrons and holes participate in

conduction then,

• Where the mobility of holes

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 Drift and Resistance

Drift of electrons and holes in a semiconductor bar.

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• The resistance of the semiconductor bar is

• conventional current is in the direction of hole

flow and opposite to the direction of electron
flow.
• for every electron leaving the left end (x = 0)
of the bar, there is a corresponding electron
entering at x = L.
• Hence, the electron concentration in the bar
remains constant at n.
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• As a hole reaches the ohmic contact at x = L, it
recombines with an electron, which must be
supplied through the external circuit.
• As this hole disappears, a corresponding hole
must appear at x = 0 to maintain space charge
neutrality.
• The generation of an EHP at x = 0, is the
source of this hole.

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Effects of Temperature and Doping on
Mobility
• The two types of scattering mechanisms that
influence electron and hole mobility are lattice
scattering and impurity scattering.
• In lattice scattering a carrier moving through
the crystal is scattered by a vibration of the
lattice, resulting from the temperature.
• The frequency of such scattering events
increases as the temperature increases.
• Therefore, the mobility decreases as the
sample is heated.
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• Scattering from crystal defects such as ionized
impurities becomes the dominant mechanism
at low temperatures.
• Impurity scattering events cause a decrease in
mobility with decreasing temperature.
• The approximate temperature dependencies
are T-3/2 for lattice scattering and T3/2 for
impurity scattering

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• The mobilities due to two or more scattering
mechanisms add inversely:

Fig: Approximate temperature dependence of mobility with both

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lattice and impurity scattering.
• As the concentration of impurities increases,
the effects of impurity scattering are felt at
higher temperatures

• Problem: A Si bar 0.1 cm long and 100 um2 in

cross-sectional area is doped with 1017 cm-3
phosphorus. Find the current at 300 K with
10 V applied.(for this doping, the un=
700cm2/V-s)

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77
 The
[Link]
Hall Effect
[Link]

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• If a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to
the direction in which holes drift in a p-type
bar, the path of the holes will be deflected.
• The total force on a single hole due to the
electric and magnetic fields is

• In the Y-direction the force is

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• To maintain a steady state flow of holes, the
electric field Ey must balance the product VxBz

• The establishment of the electric field Ey is

known as the Hall effect, and the resulting
voltage VAB = Eyw is called the Hall voltage.
• The Hall field is proportional to the product of
the current density and the magnetic flux
density

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• The constant RH is called the Hall
coefficient
• The hole concentration p0:

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• The resistivity is given by

• The conductivity is given by qupp0

• Thus, the mobility is simply the ratio of the

Hall coefficient and the resistivity.

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