Important Formulae

o 1 2 9

Angle and its Measurement

Length of an arc, S r
Asectoryxx0-txs
Kalpe

Nerial
by KC
Trigonometry -I

Trigonometric ratios:
hypotenuse

B adjacent ide( A cos adjacentside AB

sin ppositeside BC 11 hypotenuse AC
bypotenuse AC adjacent side AB
tan Ppositeside BC iv. cot oppositeside BC
adjacentside AB cosec ypotenuse AC
bypotenuse AC vi. opposite side BC
V sec adjacentside AB
trigonometric functions:
Interrelation between (if cos 9 z 0)
(if sin 0) cos
Cosec Sin8 Cot cos (if sin @ 0)
iv
an Sin0 (if cos e 0) sin
cos8

functionsin different quadrants:

Signs of trigonometric
lies in Qundrant
111 IV

Trigonometrie
functions +ve ve ve
+ve
sin
Ve -ve
COs
ve
ve
tan
423
 Perfect Mathematics
Values of
trigonemetric functions for the angles 0,30,
Angles 45,60, 90°:
30

Trigonometric
450
600
functions 6
90

COS 2
2
Lar
0

Co
not defined not defined
Sec
2

2
cosec not defined
2
ThOt de fined

Fundamental
1 Identities:1
sin 0+ cos
ii. I+ cot0-
cosec 0, where sin @z0
asee 8, where cos 8=0

Trigonometric functions of sum

Trigonometry-11
cos Acos and difference of angles:
1 cos (A-B)
sin (A + B)sin A cos B+sin A sin B
B+ cos A sin B cos (A + B)= cos A
tan (AB)anA+tan B sin cos B- sin A sin B
-tan A tan B Vi.
(A-B) = sin A cos B-cos A sin
B
tan (A B)=an A- tan B
Vii. cot (A4 B) = cot Acot B-1 1+tan Atan B
cot B+ cot A viii. cot (A B)= CotA cot B+l
Trigonometric Functions of Allied Angles: cot Bcot A
Allied
angles

t
funetions 6--) (-0) (+0)
(2-0) (2n+0)
sin 0 sin cOs 8 COs 0 Sin Sin
cos cos Sin 0 Sin cos Sin e sin
cOs -Sin 9
tan 0 tan 0 cot e Sin 0 Cos 9
cot tan tan e Cas
cot 0 Cot
tan tan cot e COt 6 tan 6 tan
cOt tan 0
cOsec0 cosec 0 Sec O tan cot
Sec 0 cosec cot 8
sec e Sec
sec 0 cosec 0 cosec sec 0 Cosec
sec 0 cOsec 0
cosec 9 sec
424
 Important Formulae
igonometric funetions of double angles (20):
sin 20 2sin cos @ 2 tan 2un
1+ tan ii. cos 28 cos 8-sin tan 20
1-an
-1-2sine
-2 cos -1
|-tan 23
1+tan0

Trigonometric Functions of half angles:

i

-1-z-2oa -
2 tan 1- tan
sin =
I+ tan /8)
ateria.by_
KC cos
14tan

2 tan
V tan
1- tan
b.
Note: a. 1+cos @- 2eos
Trigonometric functions of triple angle (30):
sin 30 3 sin -4 sin' cos 30 -4 cos 8-9 eos
i.
3tan -tan'0
iii. tan 30 = 1-3tan 8
(Factorization formulae):
Formulae for conversion of sum or difference into products
sinDcosD sin C- sin D2 cos
sin C+sin D 2 2 2
con C-ços D-icosDos(D) iv.

triangle
Trigonometric functions of angles of a
are
C the angles of atriangle ABC, then A+B+CwE
IfA, B, cos (BCPoos-A)osA
+C) sin (-A) - sin A
sin (B cos (C+A)-cosB
sin (C+ A) sin B
C cos(AB) -cos C
sin (A B) sin
(m-A) -tan A
tan (B+ C tan
-tan B
tan (C t A)
B)-tan C
tan (A+
coS

(A+B-cos
2
cos
A
A
s i2 n -
cos
cos sin
sincos
425
 Std. Xi : Perfect Mathematics-1

Formulae for converslon of product into sum or difference (Defactorization fornmalae):

cos A sin Bsin (A+ B) -sin (A-B)
2sin Acos B sin(A+B) + sin (A-B) 2
2cos Acos Bcos (A+B) + cos (A-B) 2 sin A sin B cos (A-B)- cos (A+ B)

Determinants and Matrices

Cramer's Rule for equations involving three unknown variables

If ax +by t cz d, ayr + by t oz d and ay+ by + cz d, are three linear equations in three
unknowns x, y, z, then
D D provided D 0
D D

where D-a, b,
D,-a b,
l4, b,
D,- 4,4, .D by_KC
Area of Triangle:

Area of AABC- ;

5 Straight Line

Equations of line in different forms: e s h

xh KXh
(hc) (h >0)

Study X
h
X

y=k
(k<o)

i. Equation of X-axis isy= 0 Equation of Y-axis is x=0

The equation of aline parallel to Y-axis is x=h. iv. The equation of a line parallel to X-axis is y=k.
V. Slope point form:
The equation of the line having slope mand passing through the point A(x1. y) isy -y= ma-).
Vi. Slope Intercept form:
The equation of aline having slope mand y-intercept c is y=mr tc.
vii. Two-Point form:

The equation ofaline passingthrough two points A(i.) and B(*3, y)iswhere x # h#n
vii. Double Intercept form:
The equation of the line having x-intercept a and y-intercept b(where a =0 and b 0) is +=1.
b
1X Normal Form:
Ifthe perpendicular drawn from the origin to a line has length pand inclination a, then the equation of the
line is
XCOS +y sin p.

426
 Important Formulae

Slope and intercepts of the line ax + by +cm0:

-coefficientof x -interceptand y-intercept
slope coefficient of y

The distance of theorigin from the line ax +by +c0 h o 1 2 3

The distance of the point P(,y) from the line ar +bytc=0

ax+by, +cl
P Va'+b
The distance between two parallel lines ar+by +c-0 and ax +by +eg 0
osialb y K G
6 Circle

Equation of a circle in different forms:

Standard form: O 1 2 3

'r is
equation ofa circle with centre at the origin and radius

Centre- radius form:

(h, k) a
the equation of acircle with its centre at
(-h +-k -
Diameter form:
points (r,nJ) and (,P) is
equation of acircle on the line segment joining the
( - ) - )+-)6-)a0
General equation ofa circle
ty2gr +2f+e=0
-f)
Centre of the circle is Cu (-gg+f-c
and radius of thecircle is r=
circle
The cequations of the
V.
(-h Krare given by
=k+rsin 0
Kh+r cos 6, y
Y-axis:
Circles touching X and centre (h, k) touches
When a circle with |ycoordinate of centre
X-axis, its radius
-kl

o A ( h , 0) X

centre (h, k) touches

When a circle with -coordinate of centre
Y-axis, itsradius
B(0, k)

427
 Std. Xl :Perfect Mathematics-I
Circles touching both the axes:

X
2 3

(r,-)

Equation of Tangent to a circle:

The equation of atangent to the circle
xyrat Pl, y) is
Equation of atangent to the circlex+=rin parametric formxxt9
at Pr cos B, r sin 8) is x cos 6y sin 8 =r
Condition of tangency:
A line y m+c isa tangent to the circle x² +y-a, ifc tya'm+a and
the pgint of contact is
a'm a

Conie sections

Types of Parabola:

Types
General terms *-4by =-4by

Y
Right handed Left handed

3
2. Focus
(a, 0) (-4,0)
(0, b)
Upward Downward
Equation of Directrix S(0,- b)
4 Length of latus rectum 4a y+b0
4a
5. Co-ordinates of end 4b
4b
point of latus rectum (a,2a), (a, -2a) (-4, 2a), (-4, -2a)
(2b, b). (-2b, b) (2b, -b), (-2h,-b)
6 Axis of symmetry X-axis X-axis
7 Equation of Axis y=0 y0
Y-axis Y-axis
8. Tangent at Vertex Y-axis Y-axis
Focal distance of a X-axis X-axis
point P(, y)
b-)
128
Types of Elipse:

Horizontal Elipse Vertical Elipse

Shape

(0. 0)
Centre

Co-ordinates of vertices (a,0) (0,

Major axis-2a Wajogas 2b
Length of axes
Minor axis 2b Minor axis2a

26
Length of latus rectum

Relation betweena, b, e

Eccentricity e

(t ae, O) (0, be)

Co-ordinates of foci

directrices
Equation ofdi

2ae 2b
Distance between foci
26
Distance between directrices

Equation of major axis is x 0

Equation of major axis is y 0
Equation of axes
Equation of minor axis is x=0 Equation of minor axis is y =0

Endpoints of latus rectum

Kac0s andy=b sin Xa cos andy=b sin

Parametric form
Xta
Equation of tangent at vertex
2b
2
Sum of focal radii

429
Std. Xi : Perfect
Mathematics-1
Types of Hyperbola:

-1
a
Standard Hyperbola Conjugate Hyperbola

Centre
(0,0) (0,0)
Co-ordinates of vertices
(ta,0) (0,+ b )
Length of axes
Transverse axis 2a Transverse axis -2b
Conjugate axis = 2b Conjugate axis = 2a
Length of latus-rectum 2b
a

Relation between a,b,e a-be-1)

Eccentricity
a b

Co-ordinates of foci (tae, 0) (0, tbe)

Equation of directrices
e

Distance between foci 2ae

2be
2a 2b
Distance between directrices
e

Equation of transverse axis is y=0 Equation of transverse axis is x=0

Equation of axes
Equation of conjugate axis is x=0 Equation of conjugate axis is y=0

Endpoints of latus rectum

Parametric form Xa sec 0 and y b tan Xa tan and y=b sec0

Equation of tangent at vertex yb,y=-b

Difference between focal radii 2a 26

430
 Important Formulae

Equation of
Conic sections
Eecentricity Equation of tangent at a
Point of contact
Condition of
the curve point (rP) tangency
on it
Circle
eeam' a

Parabola e-1 C
2ar+x)

Ellipse 0<e<l e=gm b

(a> b)

-a'm
Hyperbola e>1

Curve Equation of auxiliary circle Equation of director cirele

+y-a (circle)
Matera +y-2a

(a> b)

P+y--b

Measures of Dispersion

O 1 2 3

Range:
Range L-S
Smallest value
Where, L= Largest value and S
Deviation:
Variance and Standard
Let the variableX takes the values x. , X3, Let x be the
Raw data:
arithmetic mean. Then.

S.D. =, Var(X)
131
Std. Xl: Perfect Mathematics-1
Ungrouped frequency distribution: Let x be the values of variable X with comespondine
variance of Xis defined as
frequencies fi. f,....f respectively, then the

Var ()-o-
Var(X) -a,2-('
N
29
S.D,,Var (X)
Grouped frequency distribution: Letx Xy be the mid points of the intervals and
K a l p e s h
frequencies, then the variance of X
fi. 3, .., f be the corresponding
is defined as

Var (X) - oN- - )b y

KG
Var (X) d N ()
S.D.=,Var (X)

Mean and Standard Deviation for the combined series:

K a l p e s h

nË+n2

Where, GS.D. of first group having n, items

; -S.D. of second group having ny items
Xmean of first group
-mean of second group
dy= - &d=
Coefficient of Variation:

C.V.= 100 x

Probability

Addition theorem:
defined over a sample space S. then
IfA andB are any two events
P(AnB)
P(A UB) = P(A) + P(B)- exclusive events, then P(A B)=0
IfA andB are two mutually
P(A UB) = P(A) + P(B)
events, then P(A) +P(A)-1
IfA and A' are complementary
Conditional Probability: is
conditional probability of both the eventsA and Bover the sample space S
The

432
 Important Formulae
P(A/B) P(An
PB)
B) where B ee PB/A) PAOB) where A e
P(A)
Multiplication theorem:
IfA and Bare two events over the sample space S, then
PUA B) - P(B) P(AB) P(AnB) P(A) P(BA)
Independent events:
PAB) - P(A/B') - PA) P(B/A) = P(BIA)=PB)
IfA and B are independent events, then
PA B)- PA) P (B) b Aand B' are also independent
Kalpe
AK
and B
aare
lalso
pindependent
e
 Important Formulae
Complex Numbers
Properties of addition:
If z1, Z2, Zy are
complex numbers, then
Zt Z Z t zi
11. (commutative)
ZË + (Z + z3) = (zit z) + zs
iii. ZË +0=0+z =z (associative)
iv. Zt z, =2Re(z1)
(identity) aterial
by_kC
V. Z+z, =Z, + z,

Properties of multiplication:
i Z1.Z; = Z.Z1 (commutative)
i. (Z1.Z2).Zs =Z.(Z.Z3) (associative)
ii. (z,.1) =1.z =z (identity)
iv.

V. Ifz =a+ib z.z =a'+6

Properties of conjugate of a complex number:
i. () =z
ii z+Z=2 Re(z)
z-7 =2i. Im(z)
iv
vi.
vi. Z,-Z,=Z-Z,
vii. z, z, = 7Z,
1X (42,Z, )-7-4-7,..
X.

Properties of division:
i.
-ib
ii.
a+ib

Powers of i:
a.

b.
C. P-ti-c1) i --i
990
 Important Formulae

f-t.i-0fxii
fy-(-1)-1l and so on
Argument of z in different quadrantsaxis:

Za+ib Example Quadrant/Ax0s

0-arg z= tan Example
(0 S0< 2n)
a>0,b=0 =0 8-0
z=4 On positive real (X) axis

a>0,b>0 z1+i In quadrant I

a-0,b <0 z6i On positive imaginary

(Y) axis
9=tan +, tan
a<0,b>0 z-5+i In quadrant II
6 6

a<0,b-0 z-8 On negative real (X) axis

=tan+n, 0=tan
a<0,b<0 z-1 In quadrant Ill e 4
3
On negative imaginary 2 2
a=0, b<0 axis
=tan +2n, 6-tan

In quadrant IV
a>0,6<0
4

numbers:
Properties of modulus of complex
numbers, then
Ifz,, Z, are complex
(z) = 0
z=0 ie., Re (z) = Im
i
Im(2) s|
ii. -4sRe (2) s |l;-s
V

vi
2Re (z.z2)
Vi. zza-lz+zal+
+za-2Re (z1.z)
Vi. Z-z=z (zi +za)
IX Zt za+ z-Zal2
X laz -bza+ bz, +azal
beR.
-(a+b)(z+za), where a, 391
Std. Xl:Perfect Mathematics- 11
Properties of argument of complex numbers:
arg(z) =0 ifz is a positive real number
ii. arg(z) - if zis purely imaginary and Im{z) >0
2
arg z T if z is a negative real number.
1V arg z if zis purely imaginary and Im(z) <0
V. Let Z1, Z 0 be two complex numbers. Then
arg(z1 Z) =arg ztarg Z
b arg arg z -arg z3
arg(z") =n arg z
Euler's form of a complex number:
Z=e cos + i sin and
z=e=cos -isin 0
This form of representation of z is known as the terial
Exponential
byKC form.
Properties of 1, o, o:
i. o=1
ii. =1 or o+ o+1 =0
iii

o-(o-l and so on.

iv
V.

Sequences and Series

nterm of A. P.:
Ifa is the first tem and d is the common difference of an A.P., then
t,at(n- )d.

Sum of first n terms of A.P.

Ifa is the first term and d is the common difference of an A.P., then

The general term or the n" term of a G.P.:

Ifa is the first term and r is the common ratio of a G.P., then

Sum of the first n terms of a G.P. (S):

Ifa is the first term and r is the common ratio of a G.P., then
i. S,-arct,r a1
ii.

Ifr= 1, thenS, =a+a+.. n times

S, na
iv S,-S-1
Properties of G.P.: Important Formulae
three numbers in G.P. are ,a, ar. (Common ratio )
four numbers in G.P.
are,,ar, ar(Common ratio
five numbers in G.P.
are,a, ar, ar. (Common ratio )
Sum of infinite terms of G.P. :
Sum to infinity ifir|<1
If|r|2 1, then sum to infinity does not exist.
Types of Means:
Arithmetic Mean (A.M.)
The A.M. of two numbers a and b is D bykC
2
Geometric Mean (G.M.)
The G.M. of two numbers a and b is vab
ii. Harmonic Mean (H.M.)
The H.M. of twonumbers a and b is
a+b

iv.

b
G= AH
A2G2H
Mater
I, A, Gand Hare A.M. G.M. and H.M. of two positive hurmbers xand yrespectively, then

n" term of A.G.P.:

-[a+(n -1)d] -1
dr
ii. Sum to infinity of A.G. P,is+ (1-1
Properties of sigma notation:
i

i. Sk, -k, , where kis aconstant.

rel

iii. k=kn, where k is a constant.

iv.
special series (Bernoulli's
Theorems):
Sum upto n terms of
numbers
Sum of first n natural

ie., r 1+2+3+ ....tn= n(n+1)

2

natural numbers
Sum of squares of first n n(n+1)(2n +)
tn'
ie, Se- 1+2+3² +... 6

natural numbers
Sum of cubes of first n
n'(n+1)'
+n'
ie., S-1'+2+3 +... 4

395/402
 Std. Xi : Perfect
Mathematics - Il
3 Permutations and Combinations

Factorial Notation:
n!=1x2 x3 x ... x(n-1) xn
Properties of the factorial
For any positive integers m, notation:
n.,
n! =nx (n 1)!
n>1, n!=nx (n - 1) x(n -2)!
n>2, n!=nx(n- 1) x (n -2) x (n -3)!
iv. (m +n)! is always divisible m! as well as
by n!
Permutations:
i.
"P,
n

(n-r)!
ial_by
KC
i. Ifr=n, then "P, "P:
"P,-n!
0!
iii. Ifr= 1, "P =n
iv Ifr= 0, "Po 1
n!

Circular Permutations:
The number of circular permutations of ndifferent objects =(n - 1)!
Properties of Permutations:
i. "P, n!
"Po =1
iii "P =n
"P, =nx-'Pe-)
=n(n-1) xP-2)
=n(n-) (n-2) >x P-3) and so on.
"P-n -rtl
Relation between permutation and combination:
P n!

Properties of Combination:
"Co =1, "C,= 1, "Cj ="C,-1 =n
i. "C,-="C, 1Sr[n
ii.
iv.
"C,="Ca-f
"C, +"C,-j= n*lc,
n
V "Co o(n-0)! n!
Vi. If"C, "C, then eitherx y or xmn-y
vii. "C,
1B91
396/402
vii. "Co +"C, +... "C, - 2 Important Formulae
ix. "Co+ "C, +"C+ ... -
"C, +"C,+ "C,+ ... =2h- )
X

C-2) =..
xi. "C, has maximum value if
when n is even

2 when n is odd.
Number of ways of selecting one or more things from n
different things = 2"-1.

Method of induction and binomial theorem

Bionomial Expansion:
i. (a+ by ="Co a b' +"C, ab+C, ab+ ... +"C, a'b
(a- bj' ="Ca'b'-"Ca'b' +"Cat...-l "Cab
General term in the expansion of (a + b):
t1="C,a b
sial
by.
Middle term(s) in the expansion of (a + b)°:
Ifn is even, then there are odd number of terms in the expansion of (a+b)".
Hence 2 term is the middle term.

ii Ifn is odd, then there are even number of terms in the expansion of (a +b)".
Hence+and(D+3)
2
terms are two middle terms.
2
Binomial Coefficients:
i Co + C;+ C +... +C, =2"
[Link] +C,+C t ..., =Cj +Ct... =2"-l

Sets and Relations

Properties of complement ofa set:

i (A'y = A
ii. X'=
=X
iv. IfAc B, then B' cA'.
Properties of union of sets:
then
IfA, B, Care any three sets,
1. AUA (ldentity for union)
ii. AUU-U
(Commutativity)
AUB=BUA
(AB)UC=AU(BUC) (Associativity)
(ldempotent law)
V. AUA=A 391
 Std. Xi: Perfect
Vi
Mathematics -l
AUAU
vii. 1fA cB, then A UB-B
vii. AcAUB, BcAUB
Properties of intersection of sets:
If A, B, Care any three sets,
then
An¢-¢
AnUA (ldentity for intersection)
AnB BoA
iv. (Commutativity)
V. (AnB)nC-An(BnC)
AnAA (Associativity)
(ldempotent law)
Vi. AnA
vii. IfACB, then AB-A
vii. AOBcA, ABcB
ix. a

b AnBUC)=(AnB)U(AnC)
AUBn C)= (AuB)n(AuC) (Distributivity)
De morgan's laws:
IfA andBare two subsets of a universal set X, then
(ABYwA'oB
(AnByA'UB'
Properties of difference of sets:
A-BAand B-AcB.
The setsA-B, AOBand B-A are mutually ie. the intersection of any of these two sets is
the null (empty) set.
A-B- AnB, B-A=A'oB
AUB-(A- B)U(A B)U(B-A)
V. (A-B)UB-A)- AAB is called symmetric difference of sets AandB
Properties of symmetric difference of set A and set B:
AAB (AB)-(AB)
AAA
iii. AA A
iv IfAAB = AAC thenB-C
V AAB= BAA
Vi. An(BAC) =(AnB)A(A nB)
Properties of Cardinality of Sets:
For given two sets A, B
i. n(A UB) =n(A) + n(B) -n(A B)
IfA and B are disjoint sets, then
n(An B) =0
n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B)
11. n(An B) + n(An B) =n(A)
IV. n(A' B) + n(AnB) =n(B)
V. n(An B')+n(A nB) + n(A' nB)= n(AUB)
Vi For any sets A, B,C.
n(A UBUC)=n(A) +n(B) +n(C) - n(An B)- n(Bn C) -n(Anc)+n(AOBOC)
vii 1fn(A) =mthen n[P(A)] =2", Where p(A) is power set of A
viii. nfAAB) =n(A) + n(B) -2n (AB)
 Important Formulae
Maximum and Minimum of Sets:
min (n(AUB)) max
(n(A), n(B))
i max (n(AUB)) n(A) + n(B)
min (n(AnB)) 0
max (n(AnB)) min (n(A), n(B)}

Functions

Properties of Logarithmic Function:

log, (mn) log, m+ log, n
log, log, m- log, n
log, (m")-nlog, m erial
by_KC
iv log, m logm
logn
(Change of base property)
(On [Link]., any base, but same, can be chosen)
V. log,a 1
vi. log, r
log, a
vii. x

Properties of Greatest integer function or step function:

X-1<)sx
[x+n]-+n,n:an integer

iv

Forne Nand xe R.

7 Limits

Algebra of limits:
Iff() and g () are any two functions, such that lim fx) =land lim g) = m, then
lim(f(*) +g()] =limf() +limg(r)
=|t m
limf()x g()] =limf()xlimg()
xm
lim[kf()=kx lim f() =k,
where "k is a constant
lim ) limf() where m0
iv
"LB(*) limg() m
 Std. Xl : Perfect
Formulae for limit of a function:
Mathematics-Il
lim na

lim ma-m-1

Iim

Formulae for limit of a trigonometrie

sin 6
function:
i.

i1. lim
Material
by KC
tan 0
im

iv. lim
-o tan0

V
lim sinp pe -1, (p constant.)

Vi
tan pe
lim -1, (p constant.)
p

vii. limp 1.(p constant.)

sin p0

viii. lim tanpep -1,(p constant.)

Limits of exponential and logarith miefunetions

i lim

limloga(a> 0, a=0)
ii. lim(l + e
iv. lim

V lim L(p constant)

vi. lim loga,(p constant )

vii e log{l+p)1(p constant)

0 px

vi. lim(1+ po=e(p constant)

398
 Important Formulae

Continuity
Continuity from the right and from the left:
Afunction fix) is said to be continuous from the
right at xa if im f)=f(a)
Afunction fr) is said to be continuous from the
left atxwa if lim f)f(a)
Ifa function is continuous on the right and also on the left of a then
it is continuous at a because
lim f)lim f)- f(o)

9 Differentiation

DIfferentiation by first principle:

r)- Bm*h)-r(o)
Right hand derivative:
Ify=fx) is a real valued function and a is any real number, then lim h
O,ifit exists, is called the
right hand derivative of f()atx- gand is denoted by R'(a) or a).
Left hand derivative:
Ify fr) is areal valued function and ais any feal number, then lim ifit exists, is calledthe
left hand derivative of f) at x*a and is denoted by Lf'(a) or f'(a)
Iffa)and f'(a) are equal, then f() is diflerentiable at xa
Derivatives of Standard Functions:
Constant Function:
(k)-0, where k is a constant
Algebraie Functions:

b.
24k
C.

Trigonometric Functions:
d(sinx) - coSr
d

b (cosr)
d
--sinr
(tanx) sec'x
dx
dde Scc) [Link]
d
 wE atematics

de (cosecr) -coseccotr
d
L
de (cots) - cosec'x
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:
(logr)

() log a
1
d (log,x)
xlog, a
Rules of differentiation:
Ifu and v are
differentiable functions of x, then
(uv) du dv
de d d
d du dv
(u-
de dr dr
(uv) udvd u
dx ds dy

iv.
d
(kv) d
kis aconstant
du dv
dd,ve0