Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 9: Lateral Earth Pressure

Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Determine the pressure exerted by the soil on a retained structures.
2. Identify the different cases and theories in the calculation of pressures applied by the earth on
different structures.

Content:

A. Introduction

Retaining structures such as retaining walls, basement walls, and bulkheads are commonly
encountered in foundation engineering, and they may support slopes of earth masses. Proper design
and construction of these structures require thorough knowledge of lateral forces that act between
the retaining structures and the soil masses being retained. These lateral forces are caused by lateral
earth pressure.

Lateral earth pressure is the force exerted by the soil mass upon an earth – retaining structure
such as a retaining wall. The magnitude and distribution of the lateral pressure acting on retaining
structures or foundations are important for the design of excavation bracing, retaining walls,
waterfront, and near shore structures. There are two general types of lateral earth pressure or force,
the earth pressure and environmental force.

Earth pressure is the major contribution to overall lateral pressure, and it can be divided into
three scenarios such as follows: active earth pressure, passive earth pressure, and earth pressure at
rest. The stages of earth pressure and their applications are (a) active earth pressure including all
types of retaining walls; (b) active – passive earth pressure including sheet piling and deep
excavation; (c) passive earth pressure including basement wall, underwater down slope, and
roadway sign; and (d) earth pressure at rest including pile foundation and bridge pier.
Environmental forces such as wind, wave, current, and earthquakes are closely related to the stability
of geotechnical engineering structures.

B. Characteristics of Lateral Earth Pressure

1. Earth Pressure at Rest

The rigid wall may have two directions of motion, into the bank or away from the bank. The
soil first undergoes first elastic deformation, then elastic plastic deformation, and finally uncontained
plastic flow. In simple terms, if no wall movement occurs, the lateral earth pressure is referred to as
earth pressure at rest.
2. Active Earth Pressure

The soil exerts a push against a wall by virtue of its tendency to slip laterally and seek its
natural slope or angle of repose, this making the wall to move slightly away from the backfill soil
mass. This kind of pressure is known as the “active earth pressure” of the soil.
3. Passive Earth Pressure

The retaining wall or the earth – retaining structure is the actuating element and soil provides
the resistance with soil develops in response to the movement of the structure toward it is called the
“passive earth pressure”, or more appropriately “passive earth resistance” which may be very much
greater than the active earth pressure. The surface over which the sheared – off soil wedge tends to
slide is referred to as the surface of “sliding” or “rupture”.

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C. Earth Pressures Coefficient

The coefficient of earth pressure is the principal stress ratio at a point in a soil mass. The
characteristics of the coefficient of earth pressures are given in terms of three types: active, passive,
and at rest.

1. Active earth pressure coefficient (Ka) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal
effective stresses when an earth retaining structure moves away (by a small amount) from the
retained soil.

2. Passive earth coefficient (Kp) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal effective
stresses when an earth retaining structure is force against a soil mass.

3. Coefficient of earth pressure at rest (Ko) is the ratio of the minor principal stress to the major
principal stress. This is applicable when the soil mass is in natural state without having been
permitted to yield or without having been compressed.

D. Methods for Analysis of Lateral Earth Pressure

There are two basic approaches for estimating lateral earth pressures, the theoretical and
empirical approaches.

1. Theoretical approaches

Theoretical approaches for estimation of lateral earth pressure include (a) Coulumb’s earth
pressure theory, (b) Rankine earth’s theory, (c) limit analysis, and (d) elasticity theory.

2. Empirical approaches

Empirical approaches are for the design of indeterminate foundation structures such as
bracing excavation and anchored bulkhead.

E. Retaining Walls

A retaining wall may be defined as a structure whose primary purpose is to prevent lateral
movement of earth or some other material. For some special cases, as in basement walls or bridge
abutments, a retaining wall may also have function of supporting vertical loads.

Types of Retaining Walls

1. Gravity retaining wall is a massive concrete wall relying on its mass to resist the lateral forces
from the retained soil mass.

2. Semi – gravity wall is in essence of gravity wall that has been given a wider base (a toe or heel or
both) to increase its stability. Some reinforcement is usually necessary for this type of wall.

3. Flexible retaining wall or a sheet pile wall is a long slender wall relying on passive resistance and
anchors or props for its stability.

4. Mechanical stabilized earth is a gravity type retaining wall in which the soil is reinforced by thin
reinforcing elements (steel, fabric, fibers, etc.).

5. T – Shaped wall is perhaps the most common cantilever wall. For this type of wall, the weight of
the earth in the back of the stem (the backfill) contributes to its stability.

6. L – Shaped wall is frequently used when properly line restrictions forbid the use of T – Shaped
wall. On the other hand, when it is not feasible (due to construction limitation) to excavate for a
heel, a reversed L – Shape may serve the need.

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7. Counterfort retaining wall consists of three main components: base, stem and intermittent
vertical ribs called counterforts, which tie the base and the stem together. These ribs, which act
as tension ties, transform the stem and heel into continuous slabs supported on three sides – at
two adjacent counterforts and at the base stem.

8. Buttressed wall is constructed by placing the ribs on the front face of the stem where they act in
compression.

9. Bridge abutment is a retaining wall, generally short and typically accompanied by wing walls.

F. Basic Concepts on Lateral Earth Pressures

1. The earth retaining wall is vertical.

2. The interface between the wall and soil is frictionless.

3. The soil surface is horizontal and no shear acts on horizontal and vertical boundaries.

4. The wall is rigid and extends to an infinite depth in a dry, homogenous, isotropic soil mass.

5. The soil is loose and initially in an at-rest state.

G. Earth Pressure at Rest

If a retaining structure does not move either to the right or to the left of its initial position,
the soil mass will be in a state of elastic equilibrium, meaning, the horizontal strain is zero. The ratio
of the horizontal stress to the vertical stress is called the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Ko.
σh
Ko = = 1 − sin∅
σv

Where: ∅ is the drained friction angle

1. For dense sand backfill:

K o = (1 − sin ∅) + [ d − 1] 5.5
dmin

Where: d = actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand behind the wall
dmin = dry unit weight of the sand in the loosest state

2. For fine – grained normally consolidated soils:

PI%
K o = 0.44 + 0.42 ( )
100
3. For Overconsolidated clays:

K o(overconsolidated) = K o(normally consolidated) √OCR

Preconsolidated pressure
OCR =
Present effective overburden pressure

H. Rankine Earth Pressure Theory

Principles and Assumptions

Rankine in 1857 proposed a procedure for cohesionless soils based on the Coulumb’s method
for horizontal ground surface, dry cohesionless soils, and smooth walls. The assumptions for
Rankine’s theory are virtually the same as those noted in Coulumb’s theory with the exception that
wall friction is neglected. As such, the resultant of the normal and shear forces are assumed to act
parallel to the ground surface. The theory was later extended by Resal (1910) and Bell (1915) to be
applicable to cohesive soils

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 The followings are the important assumptions in Rankine’s theory

a. The soil mass is semi – infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.

b. The ground surface is a plane which may be horizontal or inclined.

c. The face of the wall in contact with the backfill is vertical and smooth. In other words, the friction
between the wall and the backfill is neglected (this amount to ignoring the presence of the wall).

d. The wall yields about the base sufficiently for the active pressure conditions to develop; if it is
the passive case that is under consideration, the wall is taken to be pushed sufficiently towards
the fill for the passive resistances to be fully mobilized. (Alternatively, it is taken that the soil
mass is stretched or gets compressed adequately for attaining these states, respectively. Friction
between the wall and fill is supposed to reduce the active earth pressure on the wall and increase
the passive resistance of the soil. Similar is the effect of cohesion of the fill soil).

Thus it is seen that, by neglecting wall friction as also cohesion of the backfill, the geotechnical
engineer errs on the safe side in the computation of both the active pressure and passive resistance.
Also, the fill is usually of cohesionless soil, wherever possible, from the point of view of providing
proper drainage.

1. Vertical Face and Inclined Backfill

α α

h
Fa

h/3 Fp h/3

Active Case Passive Case

a. Coefficient of Active Pressure

cos α − √cos 2 α − cos2 ∅

K a = cos α
cosα + √cos 2 α − cos2 ∅

Where: α = angle that the backfill makes with the horizontal

∅ = angle of friction of soil

b. Coefficient of Passive Pressure

cos α + √cos 2 α − cos2 ∅

K p = cos α
cosα − √cos 2 α − cos 2 ∅

2. Vertical Face and Horizontal backfill

h
Fa Fp
h/3 h/3

Active Case Passive Case

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a. Coefficient of Active Pressure
1 − sin∅
Ka =
1 + sin∅
b. Coefficient of Passive Pressure
1 + sin∅
Kp =
1 − sin∅

I. Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory or Wedge Theory

Principles and Assumptions

The earliest analytical solution was the Coulumb method developed in 1776. It is also called
the wedge theory. Assumptions of the wedge theory include (a) backfill material is cohesionless soil,
(b) the failure surface and applied pressure surface are planes, (c) friction exists between the wall
and the soil, (d) the failure wedge may be treated as a rigid body, (e) failure is two – dimensional,
and (f) the soil is isotropic and homogeneous.

α α

F F
h a h p

h/3 h/3
β 

Wall Sloping Face (Active Case) Wall Sloping Face (Passive Case)

1. Active Pressure Coefficient

cos 2 (∅ − )
Ka = 2
sin(∅ + δ) sin(∅ − α)
cos2  cos( + δ) [1 + √ ]
cos( + δ) cos( − α)
2. Passive Pressure Coefficient
cos2 (∅ + )
Kp = 2
sin(∅ + δ) sin(∅ + α)
cos 2  cos( − δ) [1 − √ ]
cos( − δ) cos( − α)

Where:  = angle at the back face inclined with the horizontal

δ = wall friction angle
∅ = angle of internal friction

J. Factors of Safety

The structural elements of the wall should be so proportioned that the following safety
factors are realized:

1. Factor of Safety against Sliding:

Resisting Forces
FSs =
Active Forces
For granular backfill, FSs ≥ 1. 5
For cohesive backfill, FSs ≥ 2. 0

2. Factor of Safety against Overturning about the Toe:

Stabilizing Moments
FSo =
Overturning Moments
For granular backfill, FSo ≥ 1. 5

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 For cohesive backfill, FSo ≥ 2. 0

The horizontal components of the lateral forces tend to force the wall to slide along its base.
The resisting force is provided by the horizontal forces composed of friction and adhesion, and by
passive resistance of soil in front of the wall. The passive resistance is not to be counted on if there is
a chance that the soil in front of the wall may be eroded or excavated during the life of the wall.

Problems

1. A vertical retaining wall having a height of 6 m supporting a horizontal ground level at the top
and the soil beneath the ground surface has a unit weight of 15.74 kN/m3 and an angle of internal
friction of 30o. Compute the Rankine active force acting on the wall

2. A retaining wall having a smooth vertical back is to retain a drained cohesion less soil with a
horizontal surface to a depth of 9 m. The soil has an angle of internal friction of 30 o and a unit
weight of 19.8 kN/m3. Determine the total active thrust acting on the wall when there is a uniform
surcharge on the soil surface of 50 kN/m2.

3. Determine the active pressure at the bottom of the wall 4 m high which retains soil having an
angle of internal friction of 30o and cohesion of 4 kN/m2. Unit weight of soil is 18 kN/m3. Assume
no tension cracks occur in the soil.

4. A vertical retaining wall has a height of 5 m and supports a horizontal backfill on level with the
top of the wall. The water table is located 2.5 m below the top of the wall. The unit weight of soil
above the water table is 16.5 kN/m3 with an angle of internal friction of 30o. The saturated unit
weight of soil below the water table is 19.3 kN/m3 and an angle of internal friction of 30o.
Compute the lateral earth pressure at rest acting perpendicular to the wall and the overturning
moment.

5. A retaining wall is required to retain a soil mass having a depth of 10 m. Determine the Rankine
active force on the wall. Angle of internal friction of dry sand is 30o. Ground water table is located
4 m below the ground level surface. Dry unit weight of soil is 15. 60 kN/m3, the angle of internal
friction for the layer sand below the water table is 35o with a saturated unit weight of 17. 4 kN/m3.

6. A vertical retaining wall with a horizontal backfill has a height of 6 m and backfill having a unit
weight of 17.5 kN/m3, an angle of internal friction of 35o, angle of wall friction is 10o. Determine
the passive force on the wall using Coulomb’s theory.

7. A 6m cantilever wall retains soil that has the following properties: angle of internal friction 30o
and soil weighs 19.2 kN/m3. The ground surface behind the wall is inclined at a slope of 3
horizontal to 1 vertical and the wall has moved sufficiently to develop the active condition.
Determine the normal force acting on the wall using Rankine’s theory.

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K. Cantilever Sheet Piles

Pa
d Pp h+d
d 3
3
A

γs (h + d)2 K a
Pa =
2

γs d2 k p
Pp =
2

1 − sinØ
Ka =
1 + sinØ

1 + sinØ
Kp =
1 − sinØ

ƩMA = 0

d h+d
Pp ( ) = Pa ( )
3 3

Where: Ø = angle of internal friction

Pa = active force
Pp = passive force
Ka = active pressure coefficient
Kp = passive pressure coefficient

L. Braced Sheeting

1. Cuts in Sand (Non Cohesive Soil)

Pa = 0.65γHK a
strut
Where: s
Pa = pressure in kPa
γ = unit weight of sand in kN/m3 A
RA
H = height of cut wales anchored
Ka = Rankine active pressure coefficient B
H RB at hinged
Ø = angle of internal friction
Note: The sheet piles are assumed to be C
RC
hinged at the strut levels, except for the
top and bottom ones. sheet pile
Pa
Pecks Apparent

Pressure envelope for

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 2. Cuts in Clay (Cohesive Soil)

Case 1:
γH strut
when >4
c s

A
Pa = γH − 4C RA 0.25H
wales anchored
Pa = 0.3γH B
H RB at hinged

Where: C 0.75H
Pa = pressure in kPa RC
γ = unit weight of sand in kN/m3 sheet pile
C = cohesion of clay Pa
1 Pecks Apparent
C = qu
2 Pressure envelope for
qu = unconfined compressive strength
strut
s

A
RA 0.25H
Case 2: wales anchored
γH B
when <4 RB at hinged
c
H C 0.50H
Pa = 0.3γH RC

sheet pile
RD
0.25H

Pa
Pecks Apparent

Pressure envelope for

3. Cuts in Layered Clay with Different Properties

Convert the average values of cohesion and unit struts

weights the pressure envelopes in clay can be
used.
A Clay
H1 γ1
Average value of cohesion: wales C1
B
C1 H1 + C2 H2 H Clay
C=
H H2 C
γ2
Average unit weight of clay: C2

sheet pile
γ1 H1 + γ2 H2
γ=
H
Note: Then check: Case 1 (whichever is bigger) and Case 2

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 Problems
1. A vertical sheet pile supports a horizontal backfill having a height of 4. 5 m. The backfill has a unit
weight of 19. 67 kN/m3 and an angle of internal friction of 35o.

a. Compute the required depth of penetration. 4.5m γsat = 19. 67 kN/m3

b. Compute the total active force on the sheet
Ø = 35o
pile.
c. Compute the maximum bending moment in
the cantilever sheet pile. h

2. A cantilever sheet pile is 8. 2 m. Angle of friction of the soil supported by the sheet pile is 34o and
has a unit weight of 18. 74 kN/m3. There is water table below the base of the sheet pile.

a. Compute the active force acting on the sheet

pile. 5m
γsat = 18. 74 kN/m3
b. Compute the passive force acting on the sheet
pile. Ø = 34o
c. Compute the theoretical passive force that
3.2m
must be mobilized to ensure stability.

3. An anchored bulk head is to be constructed as shown in the figure, with the anchor bolt placed at
0.8 m below the ground surface.

0.8m Sand
T
Anchor bolt
a. Compute the total active force of soil and
2.4m γ = 18.70 kN/m3
water acting on the bulk head.
b. Compute the total passive resistance force of Ø = 32o
soil and water acting on the bulk head.
c. Compute the tension on the anchor bolt using
a factor of safety of 1. 5. Spacing of the anchor Sand
bolts is 3 m on centers. 2.8m
γsat = 18.92 kN/m3
Ø = 34o

4. A 7 m deep braced cut in sand is shown. In the plan the struts are placed at a spacing 0f 2 m on
center to center. Using Peck’s empirical pressure diagram.
strut
s
A 1m
a. Compute the strut load at level A. Sand RA
b. Compute the strut load at level C. wales 2m
γ = 16 kN/m3
c. Compute the strut load at level B. B
RB
7m 2m
C
RC
2m
sheet pile

Pa
Peck’s Pressure
Diagram for Sand

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5. A braced sheet pile to be used in an open cut in a sand is shown in the figure. Struts are spaced
longitudinally at 2. 5 m center to center. Unit weight of sand is 18. 24 kN/m3 and angle of internal
friction is 35o.
strut
s
A 1m
Sand RA
wales 2m
γ = 18.24 kN/m3
a. Compute the reaction at strut A. B
RB
b. Compute the reaction at strut D. 2m
c. Compute the reaction at strut B. 8m C
RC
2m
sheet pile D
RD
1m

Pa
Peck’s Pressure
Diagram for Sand
References:

1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012

2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

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