Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and
Technology University (HSTU)
Advanced Medical Physics II
PHY 553
Submitted by: Submitted to:
Sabrina Akter Md. Sujan Islam
SID #1808145 Asst. Prof.
Dept. of Physics Dept. of Physics
HSTU HSTU
Answer to the Question no. 17
(i) Electron Beam Therapy
Electron beam therapy is a form of radiation therapy that uses high-energy electrons to treat
cancers located near the surface of the body. Unlike photon-based treatments, electrons have
limited tissue penetration, making them highly effective for superficial tumors such as skin
cancer, chest wall recurrences of breast cancer, or nodal disease close to the skin. The dose
decreases rapidly beyond the tumor, sparing deeper tissues and organs from damage. This
therapy requires precise planning to ensure the correct energy and depth of penetration.
(ii) Brachytherapy
Brachytherapy, also known as internal radiation therapy, involves placing radioactive materials
(such as seeds, ribbons, or wires) directly inside or next to a tumor. This localized delivery
allows high doses of radiation to be concentrated on the cancer cells while minimizing exposure
to nearby healthy tissues. Brachytherapy is commonly used to treat prostate cancer, cervical
cancer, and breast cancer. Depending on the duration of treatment, it can be classified into low-
dose rate (LDR) or high-dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy. The procedure may involve temporary
or permanent placement of radioactive sources.
(iii) Cobalt-60 Therapy
Cobalt-60 therapy is a type of external beam radiation therapy that utilizes gamma rays emitted
by the radioactive isotope Cobalt-60. It has been widely used for treating various cancers,
including head and neck cancers, cervical cancers, and certain brain tumors. Cobalt-60 units
are particularly advantageous in resource-limited settings due to their durability and cost-
effectiveness compared to linear accelerators. Although largely replaced by advanced
technologies in many regions, Cobalt-60 remains a valuable tool in radiation oncology.
(iv) Three-Dimensional Conformal Radiation Therapy
(3D-CRT)
Three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy is a technique that uses advanced imaging (CT
or MRI scans) to create a detailed, three-dimensional map of the tumor and surrounding
anatomy. The radiation beams are carefully shaped to conform to the tumor's size and shape,
allowing for precise targeting. This reduces the risk of damaging surrounding healthy tissues
and organs while delivering a high dose to the tumor. 3D-CRT is widely used for treating
various cancers, including lung, prostate, and breast cancer.
(v) Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT)
Intensity-modulated radiation therapy is a sophisticated form of external beam radiation that
delivers varying intensities of radiation beams to different parts of the tumor. Using computer
algorithms, IMRT shapes the radiation dose to match the tumor’s geometry, minimizing
exposure to healthy tissues and organs. It is particularly beneficial for tumors located near
critical structures, such as head and neck cancers or prostate cancer. IMRT improves treatment
precision, reducing side effects and allowing for higher radiation doses to be delivered.
(vi) Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a systemic cancer treatment that uses powerful drugs to destroy cancer cells
or inhibit their ability to grow and divide. Unlike localized treatments like radiation or surgery,
chemotherapy travels through the bloodstream, affecting cancer cells throughout the body. It is
often used for metastatic cancers, where the disease has spread to multiple areas. Chemotherapy
may be used alone or in combination with other treatments, such as radiation therapy or surgery.
Side effects, including nausea, fatigue, and hair loss, occur because chemotherapy can also
affect healthy, rapidly dividing cells.
(vii) Teletherapy
Teletherapy is a form of external beam radiation therapy where the radiation source is
positioned at a distance from the patient. Machines such as linear accelerators are used to
deliver high-energy radiation to target tumors with precision. Teletherapy is highly versatile
and is used for a wide range of cancers, including brain, breast, and lung cancers. It often
incorporates advanced imaging and treatment planning techniques to ensure accuracy. By
targeting the tumor from outside the body, teletherapy minimizes harm to healthy tissues while
achieving effective cancer control.
Answer to the Question no. 20
(i) Bladder Cancer
Bladder cancer treatment typically involves a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and
immunotherapy depending on the cancer stage. For early-stage tumors, Transurethral Resection
of Bladder Tumor (TURBT) is performed to remove the cancerous cells, followed by
intravesical chemotherapy (e.g., BCG) to prevent recurrence. In more advanced stages,
cystectomy (removal of the bladder) may be necessary, along with chemotherapy or
immunotherapy, such as checkpoint inhibitors to target cancer cCance
(ii) Brain Cancer
Brain cancer treatment depends on the type, size, and location of the tumor. Surgery is the most
common first step for accessible tumors, aiming to remove as much as possible without
damaging critical brain functions. If the tumor cannot be entirely removed, radiation therapy is
used to target and kill any remaining cancer cells. For aggressive types like glioblastomas,
chemotherapy (e.g., temozolomide) is used, and newer treatments like targeted therapy and
immunotherapy (e.g., checkpoint inhibitors) are emerging options.
(iii) Breast Cancer
Breast cancer treatment includes a combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and systemic
therapies such as chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and targeted therapies. For localized tumors,
a lumpectomy or mastectomy may be performed, followed by radiation to eliminate any
remaining cancer cells. Hormone therapy (e.g., tamoxifen) is used for estrogen receptor-
positive cancers, and targeted therapy such as trastuzumab is used for HER2-positive cancers.
For aggressive or metastatic cases, chemotherapy is often required in addition to these
treatments.
(iv) Lung Cancer
Lung cancer treatment is based on the cancer's type (non-small cell lung cancer [NSCLC] or
small cell lung cancer [SCLC]) and stage. Early-stage NSCLC may be treated with surgery to
remove the tumor. For more advanced stages, treatment may include chemotherapy, radiation
therapy, and targeted therapy if specific mutations (e.g., EGFR, ALK) are present. In some
cases, immunotherapy (e.g., pembrolizumab) is used to boost the immune system to fight the
cancer.
(v) Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer treatment depends on the cancer’s aggressiveness. Early-stage prostate cancer
may be monitored through active surveillance if it is slow-growing, or treated with radiation
therapy or surgery (prostatectomy) if necessary. For advanced or aggressive cancers, hormone
therapy (to lower testosterone) is used to slow growth, and chemotherapy may be employed
when the cancer becomes resistant to hormone treatment. Some patients may also benefit from
targeted therapies or immunotherapy in certain cases.
(vi) Liver Cancer
Liver cancer treatment typically involves a combination of surgery, ablation therapies, and
targeted drugs. For tumors confined to the liver, surgical resection or liver transplantation may
be performed, especially if the patient’s liver function is otherwise good. Ablation therapies
such as radiofrequency or microwave ablation are used for smaller tumors. For more advanced
liver cancers, targeted therapies like sorafenib and immunotherapy are used to slow tumor
progression and manage symptoms. In cases where surgery is not an option,
chemoembolization or radioembolization may be used to deliver treatment directly to the
tumor.