Research Methods

Experiments
 An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal relationship

in which an independent variable (IV) is manipulated and is

expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable (DV).

 There are three types of experiments:

o Laboratory experiments: A research method in which there is

an IV, DV, and strict controls. This looks for a causal

relationship and is conducted in a setting which is not the

usual environment for the participant with regard to the

behaviour they are performing.

o Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which is the

normal environment for the participant with regard to the

behaviour they are performing. The researcher has control

over a few variables, but it difficult to control all variables.

o Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a causal

relationship in which the IV cannot be directly manipulated by

the experimenter. Instead, they study the effect of an

existing difference or change. This is not a true experiment

as the experimenter cannot manipulate the levels of the IV.

 Laboratory experiments:
 Strengths Weaknesses

High levels of standardization hence it can be Artificial Environment hence

replicated easily to test for reliability it lacks ecological validity

High levels of control hence researches can be

Participants may show
more confident that the IV is directly affecting
demand characteristics
the DV
 Field experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses

Situational variables are difficult to

Realistic setting hence high
control so it is tough know if the IV is
ecological validity
affecting the DV

Limited demand characteristics so Issues in breaking ethics since the

behaviour is more likely to be participants do not know that they’re
natural and valid taking part in a study
 Natural experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses

High ecological validity because Difficult to know whether the IV caused

the IV is naturally occurring an effect on the DV

Valid representation of a person’s Difficult to replicate to test for reliability

behaviour as the event is naturally occurring
 Each experiment consists of an experimental and control condition.

 An experimental condition is one or more of the situations in an experiment

which represent the different levels of the IV and are compared, either with

one another or with the control condition.

 A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent. This is compared to

the experimental condition(s).

Self-Reports
 Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires and interviews.

 Questionnaires are a research method that involves asking questions,

mainly written, to gain information from the participants.

 There are four types of questionnaires:

o Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant likes or

dislikes something.

o Rating scales: questions that require the participant to represent

their answer on the numerical scale provided to them.

o Open questions: questions which allow the participant to give

detailed answers without any restrictions.

o Closed questions: questions which allow the participant to

respond using a few, stated responses without the opportunity to

expand on their answers.

 Interviews are a research method using verbal questions asked directly

to the participants.

 There are three types of interviews:

o Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order which

may be scripted. Consistency might also be required in the

interviewer’s posture, voice, etc., and hence these are highly

standardized.

o Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of questions,

however, the interviewer could add more questions if required to

clarify or get details on any previous answers.

o Unstructured: an interview in which most questions depend on

the respondent’s answers. A list of topics may be provided that

need to be covered for the interview.

 o
Strengths Weaknesses

Participants are more likely

Participants may give
to give truthful answers as it
socially desirable
does not involve talking to
answers
someone face to face

Questionnair A large sample can answer

es the questionnaire in a short Too many closed
time span which should questions may force
increase the an answer that does
representativeness and not reflect the
generalizability of the participant’s opinion
findings
Participants may be
Lots of open questions will less likely to give
make participants reveal truthful answers as
Interviews reasons as to why they they are face to face
behave in a particular way or with the interviewer or
have a particular opinion because of social-
desirability

Case Studies
 A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a person, family or

institute, that produced in-depth data specific to that instance.

Strengths Weaknesses
As researchers are focused
on one individual, they can As the research is focused on one person,
collect rich, in-depth data the case is unique which makes
which adds validity to the generalisations difficult
findings
 Strengths Weaknesses
Attachments may be formed between
High ecological validity as researcher and participant which may
participants are studied in reduce objectivity of data collected and
their everyday lives analysis of it. This could reduce the
validity of the findings.

Observations
 A research method that involves watching human or animal behaviour.

 An observer can be overt/covert or they can be participant/non-

participant observers.

 Overt observers are when the participants know who the researcher is

and that they are being observed. A covert observer could be present

in the group of participants observing them but they do not know who

it is.

 A participant observer is one who watches from the perspective of

being part of the social setting of the participants. A non-participant

observer does not become involved in the situation being studied.

 An observation can be structured/unstructured or

naturalistic/controlled.

 A structured observation is a study in which the observer records only

a limited range of behaviours. An unstructured observation is one in

which the observer records a range of behaviours, which is usually

confined to a pilot study to refine the behavioural categories.

 A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by watching the

participants’ behaviour in their normal environment without

 interference from the researcher in either social or physical

environment. A controlled observation is one which is conducted by

watching the participants’ behaviour in a situation in which the social

or physical environment has been manipulated by the researcher.

 General:

Strengths Weaknesses
If the participants are aware of the
If participants are unaware
observation, they may not act ‘naturally’
of the observation taking
but show more socially desirable
place - increases
behaviour. This can reduce the validity of
ecological validity
the findings
As behaviours are
It may be difficult to replicate the study if it
‘counted’, data can be
is naturalistic as many variables cannot be
analysed statistically with
controlled which reduces the reliability
minimal bias

 Participant observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
High ecological validity as the
There are ethical problems of
participants are observed in a real-life
informed consent
setting
As the observers become involved with The presence of an outsider
the group, they are more likely to can change the behaviours of
understand the motives and reasons the group members. This
for behaviours which increases the lowers the validity of the
validity of the findings findings
 Non-participant observation:
 Strengths Weaknesses
It can be difficult to make detailed
Participants behaviour will not
observations and to produce
be affected by observation
qualitative data that allows
because the observer is out of
understandings as to why the
sight
behaviours are occurring
Researchers’ observations are
more likely to be objective as
they are detaching from the
people they are observing
 Structured observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
The behavioural checklist allows The sampling of observed behaviour
objective quantitative data to tends to be restricted and does not
be collected which can then be give an idea of the reasons as to why
analysed statistically the behaviours are occurring

 Unstructured observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
They can generate in-depth, rich Observers may easily be drawn to
quantitative data that can help eye catching behaviours and hence
explain why behaviours are may not fully represent all the
occurring behaviours
 Naturalistic observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
As participants are unaware that Very little control over
they are being watched, they should extraneous variables which
behave more naturally, removing the makes it difficult to draw a cause
chances of demand characteristics and effect relationship
 Strengths Weaknesses
Replication may be difficult as
High ecological validity as the there cannot be a totally
observation takes place in a natural standardised procedure, hence
setting making it difficult to test for
reliability
 Controlled observation:

Strengths Weaknesses
As the set-up is controlled, the observers An artificial situation can
can be more confident about what is easily influence participants’
causing the behaviours behaviour
Less chance of extraneous variables Low ecological validity as the
affecting participants’ behaviour setting is artificial

Correlations
 A research method which looks for a causal relationship between two

measured variables. A change in one variable is related to a change in

the other, although, the changes cannot be assumed to be causal.

None of the variables are manipulated, they are only measured.

 A positive correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one

variable accompanies an increase in the other.

 A negative correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one

variable accompanies a decrease in the other.

  No correlation refuters to a situation where no definite trend occurs

and the two mentioned variables do not appear to be related to each

other.

Strengths Weaknesses
The researchers easily
Issues of causality because there could
establish a cause and effect
be a third variable affecting the changes
relationship
Correlations do not require Correlations are restricted to research
any manipulation so can be that are quantitative and so they cannot
used where experiments are be used to measure why behaviours are
unethical or impractical occurring

Hypotheses and Aims

 An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is generally

expressed in terms of what the study intends to show. It is written

before the experiment is carried out and does not predict the

outcomes.

 A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a difference between

levels of the IV in an experiment or a relationship between variables in

a correlation.

 An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which predicts the

difference or relationship between the variables in a particular

investigation.
  There are three types of hypothesis.

o A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting

the direction of a relationship between variables.

o A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a statement

predicting only that one variable will be related to the other, not

the direction of the relationship.

o A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that any

difference or correlation in the results is due to chance.

Variables
 Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation in an

experiment which is manipulated to create two or more conditions and

is expected to be responsible for changes in the DV.

 Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment which is

measured and is expected to change under the influence of the IV.

 Operationalization is the definition of variables so that they can be

accurately manipulated, measured or quantified and replicated.

Experimental Design
  This is the way in which participants are allocated to the different

levels of the IV.

 An independent measures design is an experimental design in

which a different group of participants is used for each IV level. If the

IV is naturally occurring, the researcher must use it.

 A repeated measures design is an experimental design in which

participants perform at every IV level. It cannot be used if the IV is

naturally occurring. It also uses counterbalancing (ABBA design).

 A matched pairs design is an experimental design in which

participants are arranged in pairs. Each pair is similar in important

ways to the study, and one member performs at a different level of the

IV.

 Independent measures design:

Strengths Weaknesses
As participants take art on only one
There may be participant
condition, they are less likely to guess the
variables affecting the DV
aim of the study, hence reducing the
rather than the IV
effects of demand characteristics
More participants are
There are no order effects that can required for this type of
reduce the validity of the findings design as compared to
repeated measures
 Repeated measures design:

Strengths Weaknesses
Eliminates any participant There is a chance of demand
variables as all of them characteristics as participants may work
take part in all conditions out the aim or change their behaviour.
Fewer participants are Order effects can affect the findings of the
 Strengths Weaknesses
needed as compared to study and reduce its validity. This could be
independent measures overcome using counterbalancing.
 Matched pairs design:

Strengths Weaknesses
Matching participants as
closely as possible on
measurable traits may Trying to match participants’ similar traits
help control for individual is very time-consuming.
differences affecting the
results.
Trying to match people exactly is
This design is better suited impossible as there will always be
when a repeated measures individual differences from one person to
design may not work due another. Therefore, the study may lack
to an order effect that may internal validity if these differences affect
affect results. the IV rather than the experimental
condition.
The sample may be smaller as trying to
find a large sample of people matching
similar traits may be difficult. This may
mean the findings may lack external
validity.

Controlling of Variables
 It is essential to control variables to be certain about the findings of a

study.

 An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts randomly,

affecting the DV in all levels of the IV, or systematically, affecting only

one level of the IV (called a confounding variable), so can obscure the

effect of the IV, making the results difficult to interpret.

 A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by an aspect of

the environment.
  Participant variables are another confounding variable caused by the

individual differences of participants.

 Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous variables constant.

These are required to ensure that the results of the study are reliable.

Types of Data
 There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.

 Qualitative data is descriptive, in-depth data indicating the quality of a

psychological characteristic.

Strengths Weaknesses
In-depth, detailed accounts given in the
Interpretation of data could be
words of participants are collected. It
subjective as these are words
can be argued that using qualitative
rather than numbers
data is not reductionist
As the data comes directly from the There may be researcher bias
participant, we can - the researcher may only
understand why the participant thinks, select data that fits into the
feels or acts in a particular way hypothesis or aim of the study
 Quantitative data is the numerical data about the quantity of a
psychological measure.
Strengths Weaknesses
As the data are numerical, it allows As the data are numerical, they
easier comparison and statistical miss out on why participants
analysis to take place. chose the answers that they did
Numerical data are objective and Using quantitative data can be
scientific, so there is a minimal seen as reductionist as it involves
 Strengths Weaknesses
chance of psychologists researchers reducing complex
miscalculating the data and ideas and behaviours to a number
drawing invalid conclusions. or percentage.

Sampling of Participants
 A population is a group sharing one or more characteristics from which

a sample is drawn.

 A sample is a group of people selected to represent the population in a

study.

 The sampling technique is the method used to obtain the participants

for a study from the population. There are three types of sampling

techniques.

o Opportunity sampling is when the participants are chosen

because they are available at the time and place where the

research is taking place.

o Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when participants are

invited to participate in studies via advertisements or emails.

o Random sampling is when all population members are allocated

numbers, and a fixed amount of these are chosen unbiasedly, for

example, by picking out numbers from a hat.

 o
Strengths Weaknesses

Large numbers of
participants can be Researchers are unlikely
Opportunit obtained relatively quickly to gain a wide variety of
y Sampling and easily because participants to allow for
researchers use people generalisation
who are around
Participants are more likely Researchers are unlikely
to participate if they have to gain a wide variety of
Volunteer already volunteered so the participants to allow for
Sampling drop-out rate should be generalisation because
lower, making participants will only be of
generalisations stronger a certain type
Obtaining details of the TP
Researchers can generalise to use to draw the sample
the target population (TP) may be difficult - a
with more confidence representative sample
Random cannot be guaranteed
Sampling
Researchers may gain a
‘perfect sample’ but still
have the problem that
participants will not take

Validity
 Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim

to be testing.

 Internal validity is how well an experiment controls confounding

variables. This allows the researcher to be more confident about the

causal relationship.

 Ecological validity is the extent to which the findings in one situation

would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the

situation represents the real world effectively and whether the task is

relevant to real life.

  Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents the real-

world situation.

 Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a measure

appears to test what it claims to.

 Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a measure that

has previously been validated.

 Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a study apply

to other settings and populations.

 Demand characteristics are features of an experiment that give away

the aims. This could cause participants to change their behaviour and

hence reduce the validity of the study.

 Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by an

individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent

between different researchers. This would increase the validity of the

study.

 Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased by one’s

feelings, beliefs or experiences and may differ between researchers.

Since this is not consistent, it may reduce the validity of the study.

Reliability
 This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent.
  Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are standardised so

that each participant experiences the same thing.

 External reliability is the extent to which the results of a procedure can

be replicated from one time to another, gaining consistent results.

 Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two

researchers interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same

records from the same raw data.

 There are two methods to test the reliability of a study: the split-half

method and the test-retest method.

 The split-half method involves the results of the first half of the

questionnaire or interview to be the same as the results of second half

when the questions are the same in both halves but presented in

different a manner.

 The test-retest method is a way to measure the consistency of a test or

task by using it twice and then comparing the results of each time to

check how similar they are.

Data Analysis
 Measures of Central Tendency: a mathematical way to determine

the typical or average score from a data set. This includes the mean,

median and mode.

 Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and dividing

them by the number of scores in the data set.

 Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked in order

(ascending order).

 Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.

 Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation or

spread within a data set. This includes the range and the standard

deviation.

 The range is between the most significant and negligible values with

an addition 1.

 Standard deviation calculates the average difference between each

score and the data set's mean.

 The normal distribution is an even spread of a symmetrical variable

about the mean, median and mode. It forms a bell-shaped curve and is

symmetrical.

 Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories and total or

average scores. There are gaps between the columns as the data is

not related linearly.

 A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.

 A scatter graph is a way to display data from a correlational analysis.

Ethical Guidelines
Introduction
 Ethical Issues: Problems in research that raise concerns about the

welfare of participants

 Ethical Guidelines: Pieces of advice that guide psychologists to

consider the welfare of participants and broader society

Ethical Guidelines in Relation to Human

Participants
 Based on the British Psychological Society’s (BPS) Code of

Human Research Ethics (2014)

 Privacy: An ethical guideline related to avoiding the invasion of the

participant’s personal physical space

 Debriefing: An ethical procedure giving all participants a full

explanation of the aims and potential consequences of the study at the

end so that they live in the same psychological state that they arrived

in

 Protection: Participants should not be exposed to any greater physical

or psychological risk than they would expect in their day-to-day life

 Informed consent: An ethical guideline stating that participants should

know enough about a study to decide whether they want to agree to

participate

 Right to withdraw: An ethical guideline relating to ensuring that

participants know that they can remove themselves and their data

from the study at any time.

  Deception: An ethical guideline is that participants should not be

deliberately misinformed about the aim or procedure of the study. If

unavoidable, the study should be planned to minimise the distress risk,

and participants should be thoroughly debriefed.

 Confidentiality: An ethical guideline stating that participants’ results

and personal information should be kept safely and not released to

anyone outside the study

Ethical Guidelines in Relation to Animal

Participants
 Based on the British Psychological Society’s guidelines for

Psychologists working with animals (2012)

 Replacement: Researchers should consider replacing animal

experiments with videos or computer simulations.

 Species and strain: Psychologists should choose a species that is

scientifically and ethically suitable for the intended use. Knowledge of

the animal’s previous experience is also essential.

 Numbers: According to the Animal Scientific Procedures Act (1986),

psychologists should always use the smallest number of animals that

still accomplish the research aims and goals. These could be calculated

via a pilot study and statistical programs.

 Procedures: Psychologists should consider research that enriches

rather than harms. Procedures that may cause discomfort, injury,

stress, etc., need a Project Licence, which can be gained after a cost-

benefit analysis.

 Pain and distress: Research causing physiological or psychological pain

or distress should be avoided. Whatever procedure is used, any

adverse effects on animals must be recognised and assessed, and

immediate action taken wherever necessary.

 Housing: Isolation & crowding should be avoided. Caging should

recreate aspects of the natural environment that are important to the

welfare of the animal and must take into account the social behaviour

of the species.

 Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli: The researcher should

consider the animal’s usual eating and drinking habits and metabolic

requirements. When using deprivation and aversive stimuli, the

researcher should ensure that there is no alternative way of motivating

the animal that is consistent with the aims of the experiment and that

the levels of deprivation are no greater than that needed to achieve

the experiment's goals.

 Anaesthesia, Analgesia & Euthanasia: Animals should be protected

from pain relating to surgery and euthanized if suffering lasting pain.

Procedures that are likely to cause pain and discomfort should be

performed only on animals that have been adequately anaesthetised,

 and analgesics should be used before and after such procedures to

minimise pain and distress whenever possible.

Issues and Debates

The Application of Psychology to Everyday

Life
 The practical use of a theory, or the findings of a study to help improve

processes or people’s lives, for example, in terms of bettering physical

or mental health, safety, production at work or sales by a company.

 Conducting useful research:

Strengths Weaknesses
It can be used to
Studies might be unethical to gain more valid
improve human
results
behaviour
Studies need to be high in ecological validity to be
of more use to society, but this can be quite
difficult if they are conducted in a laboratory.

Individual and Situational Explanations

 The extent to which a person’s beliefs or behaviours are controlled by

factors, such as their personality or physiology, unique to them

 (individual explanation) or by factors in the setting, such as the people

or place (situational explanation).

Strengths Weaknesses
If we find out which behaviours
are on which side of the debate, It is not always easy to separate
that can help to explain human individual and situational factors
behaviour
If there is an interaction
Studies might be unethical to gain
between both sides, then that is
more valid results
useful, too
Studies need high ecological validity
to be of more use to this debate, but
this can be difficult if it is a laboratory
experiment.

Nature versus Nurture

 Nature refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings or thinking

results from innate genetic factors.

 Nurture refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings or thinking

results from environmental influences such as learning or other people.

Strengths Weaknesses
If we find out which behaviours are on
It is not always easy to separate
which side of the debate, that can
out what is nature and what is
help to explain human behaviour
nurture
more clearly
If behaviour is seen to be purely
If there is an interaction between both
down to nature (genetics), this
sides, then that is useful, too
can be very socially sensitive
Studies might be unethical to
gain more valid results.
The Use of Children in Psychological
Research
 Giving consent is important for children under 16 & a risk assessment

must take place

 Refer to Ethical guidelines for human participants (Chapter 2 card 2)

The Use of Animals in Psychological

Research
 Refer to Ethical guidelines for animal participants (Chapter 2 card 3)