PLATE TECTONICS: DEFINITION

 The term tectonics comes from the Greek

“tektonikos” and refers to building or
construction.
 In geology, tectonics is the study of the
formation and deformation of Earth’s
crust that result in large-scale structural
features.
 PLATE TECTONICS: HISTORY

1912 - Alfred
Wegener (1880-1930)
noticed that most of
the continents seem to
fit together like a
puzzle.
Wegener proposed
that the continents
were once
compressed into a
single continent
which he called
Pangaea (meaning
“all lands”) and
over time they have
drifted apart into
their current
distribution.
WEGENER’S CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

Wegener
believed that
Pangaea was
intact until
about 230 mya,
when it began
to break up and
drift apart.
RATE OF MOTION ALONG PLATE
MARGINS AND FAULTS

average rate of
movement between
adjacent plates and
fault blocks:
10 cm / year
or
100 km in 1 m.y.
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT EVIDENCES:
 Same fossilized
plants and
animals from the
same time period
were found in
South America
and Africa,
Europe and North
America, and
Madagascar and
India. Many of the
organism could
not have traveled
across the vast
oceans that
currently exist.
 Same glacial
scraping patterns
can be found along
the coasts of South
America and South
Africa indicating
that they have been
close together at
the time of ancient
ice age.

 Late Ordovician
glacial deposits
have been
discovered in the
Sahara desert in
Northern Africa and
in several localities Arrows indicate the direction of glacial movement
in Southern Africa.
based on striations preserved in bedrock.
Various mountain When the continents are
ranges of the same age brought together, a single
and style are currently continuous mountain
separated by oceans range is formed.
Maritime, nonmarine, and glacial rock sequences of
Pennsylvanian to Jurassic age are nearly the same
for all Gondwanaland continents.
 Coral reefs and coals derived from tropical
plants can be found in the Arctic and Antarctic.
INSIDE THE EARTH
 PLATE INTERACTIONS
 Divergent Plate
Margins
– two neighboring
plates move away
from each other

 Convergent Plate
Margins
– two neighboring
plates move
toward each other

 Transform Fault
– two neighboring
plates slide
alongside each
other
Portion of the
East African Rift
SAN ANDREAS FAULT
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
THE OCEAN FLOOR
 SUMMARY: PLATE TECTONICS MAIN FEATURES

 The lithosphere is broken into a series of

separate plates that move relative to each
other. The margins of the plates are sites of
considerable geologic activity (creation of the
ocean floor, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
mountain building, etc.).

 The theory of plate tectonics explains the

major structural features of Earth as a result
of movements of a series of these
lithospheric plates.
 SUMMARY: PLATE TECTONICS MAIN FEATURES

 Earth’s lithosphere floats on the denser,

plastic asthenosphere beneath, and it rises
and sinks in attempts to maintain equilibrium.

 Convection currents beneath the plates move

the crustal plates in different directions.

 The source of heat driving the convection

currents is radioactivity deep in the Earth’s
mantle.
WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE?

An earthquake is a feeble shaking

to violent trembling of the ground
produced by the sudden displacement
of rocks or rock materials below the
earth’s surface.
Many
cultures
believed
that Earth
rested on
some types
of
organisms
whose
movements
cause it to
shake.
Japan-a giant catfish; China – an ox; India-giant mole; South
America – a whale; Indians of North America – an immense tortoise;
Mongolia- a giant frog
Classes of Earthquakes

Artificially Produced Earthquakes

Volcanic Earthquakes
Tectonic Earthquakes
ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCED EARTHQUAKES
- induced by humans through a variety of activities
VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES
- induced by the rising of magma beneath active volcanoes
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
- due to stresses set up by movement of plates that make
up the earth’s crust.
3 CATEGORIES OF EARTHQUAKES
 Shallow-focus earthquakes
- depth less than 70 km
 Intermediate focus earthquakes
- depth between 70-300 km
 Deep focus earthquakes
- depth greater than 300 km

Note:
90% of all earthquakes occur at a depth of less than 100 km
3% of all earthquakes are deep
 EARTHQUAKE PRONE AREAS

 along tectonic plate margins

 along active faults

Faults are zones of weakness in rocks along which
displacements had occurred or can occur again. They may
extend for hundreds of kilometers across the earth’s surface
and tens of kilometers downwards, even down to the base of
the lithosphere. Faults showing signs or documented history
of recent displacements are called ACTIVE FAULTS.
along active faults
 EPICENTER VS. FOCUS

 Focus
- is the location within the crust where
the energy is released

 Epicenter
- is the point on the earth’s surface
vertically above the focus
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE EPICENTERS
 VIBRATIONS PRODUCED BY EARTHQUAKES
 Body Waves
- Primary Wave or P-wave
compress and expand material in the same direction as the
movement
- Secondary Wave or S-wave
move material perpendicular to the direction of the wave
movement

 Surface Waves
- Rayleigh Wave or R-wave
move material in an elliptical path
- Love Wave or L-wave
move material back and forth in a horizontal plane
perpendicular to the direction of wave movement
 SEISMOGRAPH
- is an instrument that detects, records and
measures the various vibrations produced by an
earthquake.
INFORMATION DERIVED FROM SEISMOGRAPH:

 Measure the
intensity of
vibrations along
the surface where
the instrument is
located.
 Determine the time,
epicenter, focus
and duration of the
earthquake.
SEISMOGRAM
- is the record made by a seismograph.
LOCATING THE EPICENTER

Seismologists can locate the epicenter of an

earthquake by triangulation, a method that
involves taking seismographic measurements
from at least three separate seismic stations.
Seismologists measure the time it takes seismic
waves to reach the recording stations, as well as
the magnitude of the waves, and triangulate the
measurements to calculate the location of the
epicenter.
INTENSITY VS. MAGNITUDE

 PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale

- a scale (1-10) based on how people, man-made
structures, natural objects and land surfaces
behave and react in the areas affected by an
earthquake.

 Richter Magnitude Scale

- a scale (1-10) for expressing the total energy
(magnitude) released by an earthquake.
PHIVOLCS EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALE
RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE
HOW MUCH ENERGY IS RELEASED IN AN
EARTHQUAKE?

A Magnitude 8 earthquake has a

seismic energy equaling 10,000
atomic bombs of the vintage that
destroyed Hiroshima during the end
of World War II.
THE PHILIPPINES AS AN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRY
 EARTHQUAKE GENERATORS IN THE PHILIPPINE
ARCHIPELAGO
 Philippine Trench
 East Luzon Trench
 Manila Trench
 Collisional Zone between
Palawan and Mindoro
 Negros Trench
 Collisional Zone between
Zamboanga Peninsula
and western Mindanao
 Sulu Trench
 Cotabato Trench
 Davao Trench
 Philippine Fault Zone
and its many branches
 Many active faults (e.g.,
Lubang, Tablas,
Casiguran and Mindanao
Faults)
 EARTHQUAKE DISTRIBUTION IN THE PHILIPPINES
AND THEIR SEISMICITY

Zone 1 – Related to the Manila Trench subduction zone, dipping east

6.61 %
Zone 2 – Related to subduction along thr East Luzon Trench, dipping west
60.50 %
Zone 3 – Related to subduction along Sulu Sea Trench and Antique Trough
0.86 %
Zone 4 – Related to the Philippine Trench subduction zone, dipping west
12.09 %
Zone 5 – Related to the Cotabato Trench subduction zone
1.57 %
Zone 6 – Related to the activity along the Philippine Fault
4.31 %
Zone 7 – Possibly related to a west dipping subduction zone surfacing at Agusan
Davao Trough
14.07 %
Note: This account for over 3.2 % of the world’s seismic activity
 Seismicity
of the
Philippines,
THE TOP TEN PROVINCES THAT ARE AT RISK TO
EARTHQUAKES ARE:

La union and Pangasinan are

1. Surigao Del Sur prone to earthquakes, especially
2. La Union the deep-focused ones, due to the
Manila Trench while Surigao del
3. Benguet Sur and Davao Oriental have
4. Pangasinan earthquake hazards due to the
Philippine Trench and nearby
5. Pampanga active faults. Frequency of
6. Tarlac shallow and left-lateral strike-slip
earthquakes in Nueva Vizcaya,
7. Ifugao Nueva Ecija, Eastern Pangasinan,
8. Davao Oriental Benguet and La Union can be
attributed to its location along the
9. Nueva Vizcaya Philippine Fault Zone. However,
10. Nueva Ecija ifugao, despite having less
earthquake occurrences is at risk.
 EARTHQUAKES IN THE PHILIPPINES

 August 2, 1968
Famous because of the collapse of the Ruby Tower,
more than 200 people died in this earthquake affecting
Manila and Central Luzon
 August 17, 1976
More than 2,000 people died not because of the actual
quake, but by a 5-meter or 15-foot tsunami that swept
the southern portion of Mindanao.
 July 16, 1990
1,600 people died from this quake which inflicted heavy
damage in Cabanatuan City, Baguio City, Dagupan city
and Agoo.
 PREDICTING EARTHQUAKES

 Study of past earthquakes in the area

would determine the probability of
another earthquake to occur in the same
place.
 Some geologists place seismic
equipment in fault zones to monitor
activity as well as the strain being exerted
in the rocks.
Hazards Posed by Earthquakes
 TSUNAMI

Tsunami - Tsunami, Japanese word meaning “harbor wave,” used as

the scientific term for seismic sea waves that can cause
catastrophic damage when they hit a coastline.
 TSUNAMI WARNING

Pacific Tsunami Information Center, Hilo, Hawaii

THE TOP TEN PROVINCES THAT ARE AT RISK TO
TSUNAMIS ARE:

1. Sulu
2. Tawi-tawi
3. Basilan
4. Batanes
5. Guimaras
6. Romblon
7. Siquijor
8. Surigao del Norte
9. Camiguin
10. Masbate
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
 A strong
earthquake in your
area is a natural
tsunami warning.
Do not stay in low-
lying coastal areas
after a local
earthquake
During the retreat of sea
level, interesting sights are
often revealed. Fishes may
be stranded on dry land
thereby attracting people
to collect them. Also,
sandbars and coral flats
may be exposed. These
scenes tempt people to
flock to the shoreline
thereby increasing the
numbers of people at risk
when the on rushing
waves of tsunami hit the
area.
If unusual sea
conditions like
extreme lowering of
sea level are
observed, it is best to
regard this as warning
for an approaching
tsunami and
immediately move
towards high grounds.
Approaching
tsunami waves are
sometimes
heralded by
noticeable rise or
fall of coastal
water. This is
nature’s tsunami
warning and
should be heeded.
Never go down
to the beach to
watch for a
tsunami. When
you can see the
wave, you are
too close to
escape it.
A tsunami is not
a single wave but
a series of
waves. Stay out
of danger areas
until an “all
clear” is issued
by competent
authority.
 Place: off west coast northern Sumatra, Indonesia
 Date: December 26, 2004
 Magnitude: 91 to 9.3
 Fatalities: 230,000 people
 Tsunami wave height: 30 meters (100 feet)
 Environmental Impact: It has been reported that
severe damage has been inflicted on ecosystem
such as mangrove, coral reefs, forests, coastal
wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes, rock formations,
animal and palnt biodiversity and groundwater.
 Caused the entire planet to vibrate and triggered
other earthquakes as far as Alaska
 GROUND RUPTURE

Ground rupture – is a deformation on the ground that marks the

intersection of the fault plane with the earth’s surface.
 GROUND SHAKING

Liquefaction – is a process where particles Landslide – are downward movement of

Loosely consolidated and water-saturated slope materials either slowly or quickly.
Deposits of fine sand are rearranged into
More compact state.
The top ten provinces that
are at risk are:

1. Ifugao
2. Lanao Del Sur
3. Sarangani
4. Benguet
5. Mountain Province
6. Bukidnon
7. Aurora
8. Davao del Sur
9. Davao Oriental
10. Rizal
Landslides are also triggered by
various conditions such as:
Poor vegetation

Human modification of land

Heavy rainfall
LANDSLIDE DUE TO POOR VEGETATION

A debris flow at Brgy. Catbawan, Pintuyin, Panaon Island

LANDSLIDE DUE TO HUMA MODIFICATION

Cherry Hills Subdivision

LANDSLIDE DUE TO HEAVY RAINFALL

Brgy. Guinsaugon, St. Bernard, Southern Leyte

 WHAT IS A VOLCANO?

The term volcano signifies a vent,

hill or mountain from which
molten or hot rock and / or
gaseous materials are ejected.
How are volcanoes formed?
Where are they found?

Subduction zone volcanism

Spreading center volcanism
Intraplate volcanism
 SUBDUCTION ZONE VOLCANISM

The sinking of tectonic plates

along trenches can cause partial
melting of the downgoing lithosphere
and of mantle rocks above it to induce
the formation of magma, which occurs
at a depth of about 120 km. The
resulting magma is buoyant enough to
rise and ultimately reach the earth’s
surface to form volcanoes.
 SPREADING CENTER VOLCANISM

Magma rising through fissures

and cracks along the diverging
plates causes the formation of
volcanoes.
 INTRAPLATE VOLCANISM

Volcanoes are formed by

stationary “hot spots” which dump
highly fluid magma on the surface of
moving tectonic plates directly above
them. A single hot spot can produce
a chain of volcanoes over the surface
of a plate.
 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
● ACTIVE VOLCANO
- erupted within historical times (within the last 600 years),
accounts of these eruptions were documented by man; erupted
within the last 10,000 years based on analyses of datable
materials.(Philippines: 23 volcanoes)
● POTENTIALLY ACTIVE / DORMANT
- morphologically young-looking but with no historical records
of eruption... (Philippines: 26 volcanoes)
● INACTIVE / EXTINCT VOLCANO
- no record of eruptions; physical form is being changed by
agents of weathering and erosion via formation of deep and long
gullies.(Philippines: 281 volcanoes)
A 1. Babuyan Claro
2. Banahaw
C 3. Biliran
T 4. Bud Dajo
5. Bulusan
I 6. Cagua
V 7. Camiguin de
Babuyanes
E 8. Canlaon
9. Didicas
10. Hibok-hibok
V 11. Iraya
12. Iriga
O 13. Kalatungan
L 14. Makaturing
15. Matutum
C 16. Mayon
A 17. Musuan (Calayo)
18. Parker
N 19. Pinatubo
O 20. Ragang
21. Smith
E 22. Taal
S
 WHAT IS A VOLCANIC ERUPTION?

VOLCANIC ERUPTION is the

process wherein molten rock
materials (magma or lava) are
emitted or ejected in the form
of flowing masses (lava flows
and pyroclastic flows),
discrete particles (volcanic
ash and pyroclastic) and
steam (water vapor and gases)
from a crater, vent or fissure.
TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Strombolian
Vulcanian
Pelean
Phreatomagmatic
Phreatic
Plinian
STROMBOLIAN – weak to violent eruption characterized by lava
fountaining and pouring out of molten lava.
 VULCANIAN

Eruption resulting
from the sudden
release of large
quantities of
accumulated
magmatic gas
which lifts fine ash
and blocks from
the magma.
 PELEAN
Eruption caused by
the released of large
quantities of gas from
a near- or at-surface
extremely viscous
magma that hurls out
ash and other
pyroclastic materials.
This eruption is
characterized by the
presence of “nuee
ardente” or glowing
avalanche consisting
of hot gases made
dense by a suspended
load of pyroclastic
materials.
 PHREATO-
MAGMATIC

Eruption resulting
from the
simultaneous
ejection of fresh
magmatic
materials and
steam produced
by the contact of
groundwater with
the ascending
magma.
 PHREATIC

Explosion driven by
steam produced by
heating and
expansion of
groundwater due to
an underlying hot
source.
PLINIAN – usually the most powerful and involves the explosive
ejection of relatively viscous lava. large eruption can send ash and
volcanic gas tens of miles into the air.
SHAPES OF VOLCANOES

Shield
Cinder
Composite
Caldera
 SHIELD VOLCANO
Shape: Dome-
shaped, low and
wide
Materials: Lava
flows from the
vent, spreading
across the wide
structure; usually
has side vents
Examples: Mauna
Loa in Hawaii and
Mount Pinatubo
 CINDER VOLCANO

Shape: conical
shape, very steep
Materials: Mostly
volcanic ash, which
adds on to the size
of the volcano.
Nearby soil
becomes fertile.
Examples: Mt.
Paricutin in Mexico
and Taal volcano
 COMPOSITE / STRATOVOLCANO
Shape: Tallest
among the three
types of volcanoes
Materials:
Combination of lava
and volcanic ash,
making the
combination very
sticky
Examples: Mount
Saint Helens, Mount
Fuji and Mayon
Volcano
 CALDERA VOLCANO

Caused by the
collapse of the
area around the
vent due to an
explosive
eruption.
 VOLCANIC HAZARDS

 PRIMARY:
• ashfall / tephra fall
• pyroclastic flow
• lava flow
• volcanic gas
 SECONDARY
• lahar/flooding
• debris
avalanche/landslides
• subsidence
Materials Ejected by Volcanoes
 RISK TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
 Camiguin – has the highest risk because the land area is
so small such that a volcanic eruption can affect the
whole province.
 Sulu – ranked second because it has the most number of
active and potentially active volcanoes
 Biliran
 Albay
 Bataan
 Sorsogon
 South Cotabato
 Laguna
 Camarines Sur
 Batanes
LAHAR FLOW

BEFORE

AFTER
PYROCLASTIC
FLOW

BEFORE

AFTER
TROPICAL CYCLONES
 WHAT IS A TROPICAL CYCLONE?

 A storm system characterized by a large low-

pressure center and numerous
thunderstorms that produce strong winds and
heavy rain.

 Depending on its location and strength, a

tropical cyclone is referred to by names such
as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic
storm, tropical depression, and
simply cyclone.
The Philippines lies in the
path of turbulent and
destructive typhoons.
The Philippine
archipelago which is
surrounded by water, lies at the
western rim of the Pacific
Ocean, north of the equator and
about 1,000 kilometers from
the Asia Mainland.

It is bounded on the west by

the South China Sea, on the
east by the Pacific Ocean, on
the north by the Bashi Channel
and on the south by the
Sulu and Celebes Seas.

Philippine Area of Responsibiliy

(PAR) is bounded by the black
lines .
 4 CATEGORIES OF TROPICAL CYCLONES IN THE
PHILIPPINES ACCORDING TO WIND SPEED

 Tropical Depressions
 have maximum sustained winds of 55 kph to
64 kph.
 Tropical Storms
 have maximum sustained winds of 65 kph
to119 kph.
 Typhoons
 have maximum sustained winds of 120 kph to
185 kph with
 Super Typhoons
 have maximum winds exceeding 185 kph.
 FLOOD
- are due to the
complex combination
of weather, climatic
and human activites.
Most floods occur as a
result of moderate to
large-scale rainfall
events.
 CAUSES OF FLOODING

 NATURAL CAUSES  MAN-MADE CAUSES

 heavy rainfall  dam failures

 high tide levels  blockage of waterways

 storm typhoon surges by garbage and

buildings
 lowering of ground due
to earthquakes  improper design of
street drainage
 melting of the earth’s
snow and ice caps
 TYPES OF FLOOD

 SHEET FLOOD  FLASH FLOOD

 long duration  Short duration

 covers wide areas  Covers narrow
 slow current or areas
standing water  Slow to strong
deadly current
 While natural
disasters remain
out of control, the
ability to prepare
and respond to
them properly and
effectively is
within our control.

Thank you…