QUADRATIC FUNCTION

A function f is quadratic function if and only if f(x) can be written in the form
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
where a, b, c constants and a  0

Example: f(x) = x2 – 3x + 2 (quadratic)

f(x) = –3x2 (quadratic)
f(x) = 1/(x2 + 1) (not quadratic)

Solving quadratic equations

I. Quadratic formula

ax2 + bx + c = 0

 b  b2  4ac
x
2a
b2 – 4ac is called the discrimant.
If b2 – 4ac < 0, neither of the quadratic solutions are real numbers.
If b2 – 4ac = 0, the quadratic has repeated real number solution.
If b2 – 4ac > 0, the quadratic has two distinct real number solutions.

II. Rules for factoring

(1) xy + xz = x(y + z)
(2) x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b)
(3) ab x2 + (ad + bc)x + cd = (ax + c)(bx + d)
(4) x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2
(5) x2 – 2ax + a2 = (x – a)2
(6) x2 – a2 = (x + a)(x – a)

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Rule (3)

A x2 + B x+ C = 0

ab x2 + ad + bc x + cd
(ax + c) (bx + d) = 0

 Choose values of a, b, c, d (trial and error method)

ax c

bx d

 Those values need to fulfill these conditions:

(ax) (bx) = Ax2
ad x + bc x = Bx
(c) (d) = C

 Factor the expression in the form (ax + c)(bx + d)

Example:

Given 6x2 – 25x + 25 = 0. Solve for x.

Using quadratic formula:

a = 6, b = –25, c = 25

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

  b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 (25)  (25) 2  4(6)( 25)
x
2(6)
25  625  600
x
2(6)
25  5
x  30 / 12 or 20 / 12
12
 5 / 2 or 5 / 3
x  {5 / 3 , 5 / 2}

Using rules for factoring:

3x 5

2x -5

where
(3x) (2x) = Ax2 = 6x2
15x + 10x = Bx = 25x
(5) (5) = C = 25

 (ax + c)(bx + d) = (3x – 5)(2x – 5)

Find x:
(3x – 5)(2x – 5) = 0
3x – 5 =0
x = 5/3
2x – 5 =0
x = 5/2
x = {5/3 , 5/2}

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Example:
Solve the equations
1. 4x – 4x3 = 0
4x(1 – x2) = 0
4x(1 – x)(1 + x) = 0
 x = 0, 1, –1

2. x(x + 2)2 (x + 5) + x(x + 2)3 = 0

x(x + 2)2 [(x + 5) + (x + 2)] = 0
x(x + 2)2 (2x + 7) = 0
 x = 0, –2, 7/2

y  1 y  5 7(2 y  1)
3.  
y  3 y  2 y2  y  6
Multiply both sides by (y + 3)(y – 2)
(y – 2)(y + 1) + (y + 3)(y + 5) = 7(2y + 1)
2y2 – 7y + 6 = 0
(2y – 3)(y – 2) = 0
y = 3/2 or 2 (ignore)
y = 3/2

4. x2 = 3
x2 – 3 = 0

( x  3 )( x  3 )  0
x  3  0 or x  3  0
x 3

5. 4x2 – 17x + 15 = 0
a = 4, b = 17, c = 15

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

  b  b 2  4ac  (17)  (17)2  (4)( 4)(15)
x 
2a 2(4)
17  49
  3, 5 / 4
8
6. 2  6 2 y  9 y2  0

a  9, b  6 2 , c  2
6 2  0
y
2(9)
2
 y
3
7. z2 + z + 1 = 0
a = 1, b = 1, c = 1
1  3
z No solution
2

GRAPHING A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

The graph of the quadratic function y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola.

 If a > 0, the parabola opens upward. If a < 0, it opens downward.
b   b 
 The vertex is (x, y) =  , f  
 2a  2a  
 If a > 0, the vertex is the lowest point on the parabola. f(x) has a minimum value
at this point. If a < 0, the vertex is the highest point on the parabola. f(x) has a
maximum value at this point.
 The y-intercept is c.
 The x-intercepts are found by setting y = 0 and solving for x.
a>0 a<0

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Example: Graph f(x) = x2 – 4x + 12

(i) a = –1, b = –4, c = 12

a < 0, opens downward ().

(ii) Vertex
x = –b/(2a) = –(–4)/(–2) = –2
y = f(–2) = (2)2 – 4(2) + 12 = 16
(x, y) = (2, 16)

(iii) y-intercept and x-intercept

If x = 0, f(0) = (0)2 – 4 (0) + 12 = 12

y-intercept (0, 12)

If y = 0, x2 – 4x + 12 = 0
(x – 6)(x – 2) = 0
x = 6 or 2
x-intercepts (6, 0), (2, 0)

y (-2, 16) y

(-2, 16)

12  12 

 
  y
-6 2 x -6 2
f(x) = –x2 – 4x + 12

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Application: Maximum Revenue

The demand function for a manufacturer’s product is p  1000  2q , where p is the price
(RM) per unit and q units are demanded (per week) by consumers. Find the level of
production that will maximize the manufacturer’s total revenue, and determine this
revenue.
R  pq
 (1000  2q)q
 1000q  2q 2

R is a quadratic function. Since a < 0, the parabola opens downward, R is maximum at

the vertex (q, R).
b 1000
q   250
2a 2(2)

Maximum revenue  1000(250)  2(250) 2  125,000

SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

TWO-VARIABLE SYSTEMS (2 x 2)

A set of linear equations

a1x  b1 y  c1  0 …… (1)
a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 …….(2)

 A system of two linear equations in the variables x and y.

 Need to find the values of x and y for which both equations are true simultaneously.
A pair of (x,y) of such values is called a solution of the system.

• There are three different linear systems:

one solution no solution infinitely many solutions

If L1 and L2 are drawn on the same plane, there are three situations that could occur :

(i) L1 and L2 may intersect at exactly one point, (a,b). Thus the system has
the solution x=a and y=b.
(ii) L1 and L2 may be parallel and have no points in common. There is no
solution.
(iii) L1 and L2 may be the same line. The coordinates of any point on the line
are a solution of the system. There are infinitely many solutions.
Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014
Two methods to solve simultaneous equations:

(1) Elimination by substitution

(2) Elimination by addition

Example Method of Elimination by Substitution

3 x  4 y  13 ……….. (1)
2 x  3 y  3 ……….. (2)

From (1) 3 x  4 y  13
4 13
x y
3 3

4 13
Substitute y  for x in (2)
3 3

2x  3y  3
4 13
2( y  )  3 y  3
3 3
8 26
y  3y  3
3 3
8 y  26  9 y  9
17 y  17
y  1
x3

Example Method of Elimination by Addition

3 x  4 y  13 ………. (1)
3y  2x  3 ………. (2)

Aligning the x- and y- terms 3 x  4 y  13 ………… (1)

2x  3y  3 ………… (2)

To eliminate y, multiply (1) by 3 and (2) by 4

9 x  12 y  39 ……….. (3)
8 x  12 y  12 ……….. (4)

Adding (3) to (4)

17 x  51
x3
y  1
Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014
Example (no solution)

x  2 y  8  0 ………… (1)
2 x  4 y  4  0 ………… (2)

From (1), substitute 8-2y for x in (2)

2 x  4 y  4  0 ………… (2)
2(2 y  8)  4 y  4  0
 4 y  16  4 y  4  0
20  0 This equation is never true =>No solution

Example (infinite solutions)

x  5y  2 ………… (1)
1 5
x  y 1 ………… (2)
2 2

From (2) x  5y  2
x  2  5y

Substitute 2-5y for x in (1)

2  5y  5y  2
00 This equation is always true.

Any solution of x = 2-5y is a solution of the system. x  2  5 y where y can be any real
number.

THREE VARIABLE SYSTEMS (3 x 3)

The methods used in solving a two-variable system of linear equations can be used to
solve a three-variable system of linear equations. A general linear equation in the three
variables x, y, and z is an equation having the form

Ax + By + Cz = D where A, B, C, D are constants and are not all zero.

A general linear equation in three variables represents a plane in space and a solution to
a system of such equations is the intersection of planes.

Solving a three-variable system, example:

2x  y  z  3 ………… (1)
 x  2 y  2z  1 ………… (2)
x  y  3z  6 ………… (3)

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Choose two pairs of different equations and eliminate the same variable from each pair.

Pair 1 2x  y  z  3 ………… (1)

x  y  3z  6 ………… (3)

To eliminate y, equation (1) + equation (3)

3x  2z  3 ………… (4)

Pair 2  x  2 y  2z  1 ………… (2)

x  y  3z  6 ………… (3)

To eliminate y, multiply equation (3) by 2 and add to equation (2)

 x  2 y  2z  1 ………… (2)
2 x  2 y  6 z  12 ………… (3) x 2

x  4z  11 ………… (5)

Solve simultaneously (2 x 2)
3x  2z  3 ………… (4)
x  4z  11 ………… (5)

(4) x 2 6x  4z  6 ………… (6)

x  4z  11 ………… (5)

(6)-(5) 5x  5
x 1
z 3
y  2

NONLINEAR SYSTEM

A system of equations in which at least one equation is not linear is called a nonlinear
system. Often solve a nonlinear system by substitution. Example:

x 2  2x  y  7  0 …………. (1)
3x  y  1  0 …………. (2)

From (2) y  3 x  1 , and substitute into (1)

x 2  2 x  (3x  1)  7  0
x2  x  6  0
( x  3)( x  2)  0
x  3 or x  2

If x  3, y  8 ; If x  2, y  7

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

APPLICATIONS OF SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

Equilibrium

The point of equilibrium is where demand and supply curves intersect.

Example
Determine the equilibrium point if the supply and demand equations as follows:
p = 0.5x + 1 and p = –0.3x + 5 where p is price and x is quantity.

0.5x + 1 = 0.3x + 5
0.8x = 4
x = 5

When x = 5, p = 0.5(5) + 1 or p = 0.3(5) + 5

= 3.5 = 3.5

Equilibrium point (x, p) = (5, 3.5) or (p, x) = (3.5, 5)

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Example
Determine the equilibrium point if the demand and supply equations as follows:

1
p q  12
180
1
p q8
300
Where p is price (RM)
q is quantity (unit)
1 1
q8  q  12
300 180
 1 1 
  q  4
 300 180 
 180  300 
 q  4
 300(180) 
 300(180) 
q  4 
 480 
 450
1
p (450)  8
300
 9.50
Equilibrium point (q, p) = (450, 9.50)

12 

Equilibrium 9.50  (450, 9.50) equilibrium point

price 8 
harga

4 

q
450 1000

Equilibrium quantity

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Example:
8
Let p  q  50 be the supply equation for a manufacturer’s product, and suppose the
100
7
demand equation is p   q  65 .
100
.
a. If a tax of $1.50 per unit is to be imposed on the manufacturer, how will the original
equilibrium price be affected if the demand remains the same?

Supply Demand
8 7
p q  50 p q  65
100 100
Supply equation after tax
8
p q  50  1.50
100
8
 q  51.50
100

Equilibrium before tax,

8 7
q  50   q  65
100 100
15
q  15
100
 100 
q  15 
 15 
q  100
p  58
(q, p )  (100, 58)

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Equilibrium after tax,
8 7
q  51.50   q  65
100 100
15
q  13.50
100
 100 
q  13.50 
 15 
q  90
p  58.70
(q, p )  (90, 58.70)

b. Determine the total revenue obtained by the manufacturer at the equilibrium point
both before and after the tax.

Total revenue given by yTR  pq  58100  5800

After tax, yTR  pq  58.7090  5283

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Break-Even Points

• Profit (or loss) = total revenue(TR) – total cost(TC)

• Total revenue = price x quantity
• Total cost = variable cost + fixed cost
• The break-even point is where TR = TC.

Example:
P = RM 8
FC = 5000
VC = 22/9q

TR = 8q
TC = 22/9q + 5000

Example:
A manufacturer sells a product at $8 per unit, selling all that is produced. Fixed cost is
$5000 and variable cost per unit is 22/9 (dollars).
a. Find the total output and revenue at the break-even point.
22
R = 8q C  5000  q
9
R=C
22
8q = 5000  q
9

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

 50
q  5000
9
 9 
q  5000 
 50 
q  900
R  8(900)
 7200
Find the profit when 1800 units are produced.
=R–C
 22 
 8q   5000  q
 9 
22
 8(1800)  5000  (1800)
9
 5000

b. Find the loss when 450 units are produced.

 = R–C
 22 
= 8q   5000  q 
 9 
22
= 8(450)  5000  (450)
9
= –2500

c. Find the output required to obtain a profit of $10,000.

  R C
 22 
10000  8q   5000  q 
 9 
22
15000  8q  q
9
50
15000  q
9
q  2700

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Example:
Determine the break-even quantity given total revenue and total cost as follows:
R  100 q
C  2q  1200
RC
100 q  2q  1200
50 q  q  600
2500q  q 2  1200q  (600) 2
0  q 2  1300q  360000

1300  250,000
Quadratic formula: q
2
1300  500
q
2
q = 400 or 900

R, C

yTC = 2q + 1200
3000  

2000   Break-even points

400 900 q

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The function f defined by y = f(x) = bx

where b > 0, b  1 (since 1x = 1), and the exponent x is any real number, is called and
exponential function wth base b.

Properties of the exponential function:

The exponential function with base e (= 2.71828…) is called the natural exponential
function. It occurs in economic and business analysis (e.g. population studies, compound
interest)

Graphing Exponential Functions

x
1
Graph f(x) = 2x, f(x) = 3x and f(x) =   f(x)=(1/3)x
2 f(x)=3x
f(x)=(½)x f(x)=2x
x 2x 3x 1
 
x

2

-2 1/4 1/9 4
-1 1/2 1/3 2
0 1 1 1
1
1 2 3 1/2
2 4 9 1/4
3 8 27 1/8

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Each exponential function has an inverse. These functions, inverse to the exponential
functions, are called the logarithmic functions.
y = logb x if and only if by = x
(0, ∞) is the domain of logarithmic function and (−∞, ∞)is the range.

Example:
Eksponential form Logarithmic form
52 = 25 log5 25 = 2
34 = 81 log3 81 = 4
100 = 1 log10 1 = 0
Example :
Logarithmic form Exponential form
log10 1000 = 3 103 = 1000
1
log 64 8  641/2 = 8
2
1 1
log 2  4 2 4 
16 16
Example: Solve for x.
a) log2x = 4 b) ln(x + 1) = 7 c) logx 49 = 2
24 =x e7 =x+1 x2 = 49
x = 16 x = e7 – 1 x = 7 or –7 (ignore)
x =7

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Graphing Logarithmic Functions
Graph y = log2 x and y = log1/2 x

y
x log2 x log1/2 x
¼ -2 2
½ -1 1 log2x
1 0 0 
3 -
2 1 -1 2 - 
1 - 
4 2 -2

8 3 -3 -1 - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-2 - 

Log1/2x x

Properties of Logarithms:

1. logb (mn) = logb m + logb n

2. logb (m/n) = logb m – logb n
3. logb mr = r logb m
1
4. log b   log b m
m
5. logb 1 = 0
6. logb b = 1
7. logb br = r

8. blogb m  m
log a m
9. log b m 
log a b
10. If logb m = logb n, then m = n
11. If bm = bn, then m = n

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

Example:
x
a) Write ln in terms of ln x, ln z and ln w
zw
x
ln  ln x  ln zw
zw
 ln x  (ln z  ln w)
 ln x  ln z  ln w

b) Write ln 3 + ln 7 – ln 2 – 2 ln 4 as a single logarithm.

ln 3 + ln 7 – ln 2 – 2 ln 4 = ln 3 + ln 7 – ln 2 – ln 42
= ln 3 + ln 7 – (ln 2 + ln 42)
= ln(3  7) – ln (2  42)
21
= ln 21 – ln 32= ln
32
c) Simplify ln e3x
ln e3x = 3x ln e
= 3x(1) = 3x

Solve for x if 10 log x  25

2
d)
log x2 = log 25
x2= 25
x=5

e) Solve for x if (25)x+2 = 53x–4

(52)x+2 = 53x–4
52x+4 = 53x – 4
2x + 4 = 3x – 4
8=x
x=8

f) Solve for x if 5 + (3)4x–1 = 12

(3)4x – 1 = 7
7
4x – 1 =
3

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014

 Take ln both sides
7
ln 4 x 1  ln
3
7
( x  1) ln 4  ln
3
ln 7 / 3
x 1 
ln 4
ln 7 / 3
x 1
ln 4
 1.6112

g) The demand equation for a product is p = 121–0.1q. Use common logarithms

(logarithm to the base of 10) to express q in terms of p.

p = 121–0.1q
Take log both sides
log p  log 1210.1q
log p  (1  0.1q ) log 12
log p
 1  0.1q
log 12
log p
0.1q  1 
log 12
 log p 
q  101  
 log 12 

Textbook: Haeussler, Paul & Wood, 2014