FINITE GROUPS: SUBGROUPS
Order of a group: number of elements in a group.
If the group is G, then its order is denoted by o(G) or |G|
Order of an element of a group: Let (G, *) be a group and g belong to G.
The order of g is defined as the smallest posi?ve integer s.t.
gn = e
i.e. (g*g*g*g*…*g (n ?mes)) = e
NOTE: If the group is addi?ve. Then we write ng = 0
i.e. (g+g+g+….+g (n ?mes)) = 0
Order of an element is denoted by 0(g) or |g|
1. (Z,+) = infinite order
Example: 2. (R*, . ) = infinite
1. 10 in (Z, +) is infinite order.
order
2. 0 in (Z, +) is of order 1.
3. (D4, o) = 8
INFACT e IS ALWAYS OF ORDER ONE. 4. (M2*2,+) = infinite
e IS THE ONLY ELEMENT OF ORDER ONE. order
5. GL(2,R) = infinite
3. -1 is of order 2 in (R*,.) order
4. In D4, R90 has order 4 6. ({1,-1}, .) = 2
R180 has order 2
7. ({1,-1,i,-1}, . ) = 4
R270 has order 4
H has order 2 => H2= R0
o(V) = o(D) = o(D’) = 2
5. U (15) = all those numbers less than 15 with gcd with 15 = 1
= {1,2,4,7,8,11,13,14}
O(U (15)) = 8
We take an opera?on .15 (mod (15))
Here,
2 = 4mod15 = 4
23 = 8mod15 = 8
24 = 16mod15 = 1
Therefore, |2| = o(2) = 4
o (4) = |4| = 2 (because, 42 mod15 = 1)
o (7) = |7| =
o (13) = 4
because, 13 = -2(mod15)
132 = 4(mod15)
134 = 16(mod15) = 1(mod15)
O(14)= 2
14 = -1(mod15)
142 = 1(mod15)
6. (Z10, +10)
= {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
O (Z10) = 10
O (2) = 2 +10 2 +10 2 +10 2 +10 2
=0
O (3) = 10
O (4) = 5
O (5) = 2
O (6) = 5
SUBGROUP:
A non-empty subset H of a group G is s.t.b. a subgroup of G is H itself is a group
under the same opera?on.
It is denoted by H <= G
If H is a proper subgroup of G we write H < G
The subgroup {e} is called the trivial subgroup of G.
Example:
• {1,-1} is a subgroup of (Z, +)
• {1,-1} is a subgroup[ of (R*,.)
• {1,-1} is a subgroup of {1,-1,i,-i} under .
• (Z,+) is a subgroup of (R,+)
• {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} under +10 is not a subgroup of (R,+) since the
composi?on are different
• (Zn, +n) is not a subgroup of (Z,+) because the opera?ons are different
THE ONE-STEP SUBGROUP TEST:
Let H be a non-empty subset of a group G. Then H is a subgroup of G ó ab-1
belongs to H for every a,b belonging to H
• Closure
• Associa?vity à inherited
• Iden?ty
• Inverse
For a,a belonging to H a.a-1 belongs to H i.e. e belongs to H (THIS PROVES
IDENTITY)
For e,a belonging to H
Then, ea-1 belongs to H => a-1 belongs to H (THIS PROVES INVERSE)
For, a,b belonging to H
b-1 also belongs to H
For a,b-1 belongs to H
ð a.(b-1) belongs to H
ð ab belongs to H
(THIS PROVES CLOSURE)