06.07.

2013

Kabul University
Engineering Faculty

Chapter 2
Fluid Statics

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Munson, Young and Okiishi Fifth-Edition

Mechanical Engineering department

Engineering Facully
Dr. E.M. Sharify

Fluid Statics– Chapter 2 Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Outline
I. Overview
II. Pressure at a Point
III. Basic Equations for the Pressure Field
IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
V. Standard Atmosphere
VI. Pressure Measurements
VII. Manometry
VIII. Mechanical and Electrical Pressure Measuring Devices
IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

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Chapter 2 1
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Fluid Statics– Chapter 2 Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Outline
X. Hydrostatic Force -Vertical Wall
XI. Pressure Prism
XII. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
XIII. Bouyancy, Flotation, and Stability
XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

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I. Overview Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Fluid Mechanics

Gas Liquids Statics Dynamics

F 0 i  F  0 , Flows
i

Air, He, Ar, Water, Oils, Stability

N2, etc. Alcohols, Pressure Buoyancy Compressible/
etc. Incompressible

Surface Laminar/
Tension Turbulent
Steady/Unsteady
Compressibility Density Viscosity Vapor Viscous/Inviscid
Pressure Fluid Dynamics:
Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Fluid Statics Rest of Course

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Chapter 2 2
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II. Pressure at a Point– Pascal’s law Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Pressure is the normal force per unit area at a given
point acting on a given plane within a fluid mass.
How does the pressure at a point vary with orientation
of the plane passing through the point?
Wedged Shaped Fluid
Pressure Forces Mass
Gravity Force Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

P is average pressure in the x, y, and z

direction.
Ps is the average pressure on the surface
θ is the plane inclination
V = (1/2dydz)*dx δ is the length is each coordinate
direction, x, y, z
δs is the length of the plane
γ is the specific weight

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II. Pressure at a Point– Pascal’s law Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
For simplicity, the x-pressure forces are not shown. Thus to arrive at
our solution we balance only the y and z forces:
Rigid body motion
Pressure Force in the y- Pressure Force on the in the y-direction
direction on the y-face plane in the y-direction

Pressure Force in the z- Pressure Force in the Weight of the Rigid body motion
direction on the z-face plane in the z-direction Wedge in the z-direction

Now, we can simplify each equation in each direction, and δy and δz can be
rewritten in terms of δs:

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Chapter 2 3
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II. Pressure at a Point– Pascal’s law Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Substituting and rewriting the equations of motion, we obtain:

Since we are interested in what is happening at a point, we take

the limit as δx , δy, and δz approach zero.

Pascal’s Law: the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in

motion, is independent of the direction as long as there are no
shearing stresses present.

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III. Basic Equations for the

Kabul University
Pressure Field Engineering Faculty
How does the pressure vary in a fluid or from point to point
when no shear stresses are present?
Consider a Small Fluid Element
p is pressure
Surface Forces
 is specific weight

Taylor Series

Body Weight

V = dydzdx

For simplicity the x-direction surface forces are not shown

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Chapter 2 4
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III. Basic Equations for the

Kabul University
Pressure Field Engineering Faculty
Looking at the resultant surface forces in the y-direction:

Similarly, looking at the resultant surface forces in the x and z-

direction, we obtain:

Expressing these results in vector form:

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III. Basic Equations for the

Kabul University
Pressure Field Engineering Faculty
Now, we note by definition, the “del” operator or gradient is the
following :

Then,
Rewriting the surface force equation, we obtain the
following:

Now, we return the body forces, and we will only consider

weight:

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Chapter 2 5
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Using Newton’s Second Law to sum the forces for a fluid
element:

 δm is the mass of the fluid element, and a is acceleration.

Then summing the surface forces and the body forces:
δm

“Most General
Form” for No Shear

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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: a = 0

0
Writing out the individual vector components:

This leads to the conclusion that for liquids or gases at rest, the
pressure gradient in the vertical direction at any point in fluid
depends only on the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
The pressure does not depend on x or y.

Hydrostatic Equation

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Chapter 2 6
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Physical Implications
 Pressure changes with elevation
 Pressure does not change in the horizontal x-y plane
 The pressure gradient in the vertical direction is negative
 The pressure decreases as we move upward in a fluid at rest
 Pressure in a liquid does not change due to the shape of the
container
 Specific weight does not have to be constant in a fluid at rest
 Air and other gases will likely have a varying specific weight
Incompressible
Thus, fluids in static could be
Compressible
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Incompressible Fluids
The specific weight changes either through density or gravity.
The change in g is negligible, and for liquids ρ does not vary
appreciable, thus most liquids will be considered
incompressible.
Starting with the Hydrostatic Equation:
We can integrate since γ is a constant:
Where the
subscripts 1
and 2 refer
two different
vertical levels

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Chapter 2 7
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Incompressible Fluids
As in the schematic, noting the
definition of h = z2 –z1:
Linear Variation
with Depth

 h is known as the pressure head. The pressure must increase with

depth to hold up the fluid above it, and h is the depth measured
from the location of p2.
 The equation for the pressure head is
the following:

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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Incompressible Fluids
 If we are working exclusively with a liquid, then there is a free
surface at the liquid-gas interface. For most applications, the
pressure exerted at the surface is atmospheric pressure, po.
Then the equation is written as follows:

 The Pressure in a homogenous and

incompressible fluid at rest depends
on the depth of the fluid relative to
some reference and is not influenced
by the shape of the container.
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Incompressible Fluids

p = po
h1
p = p1
p = p2

For p2 = p = γh + po
For p1 = p = γh1 + po

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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Example 2.1: Because of a leak in a buried gasoline storage
tank, water has seeped in to the depth shown in Figure. If the
specific gravity of the gasoline is SG=0.68. Determine the
pressure at the gasoline-water interface and at the bottom of
the tank. Express the pressure in units of lb/ft2, lb/in2, and as
pressure head in feet of water.

a. the pressure at the gasoline-

water interface.

b. the pressure at the bottom

of the tank.

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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Solution: The pressure at the interface is
p1  h  p0  SG H 2 O h  p0
p1  (0.68)(62.4lb / ft 3 )(17 ft )  p0 p1  721lb / ft 2  p0
p0 is the pressure at the free surface of the gasoline, so
p1  721lb / ft 2  p0 p1  721lb / ft 2
0

p1 

721 lb / ft 2

 5.01 lb / in 2  

2
144 in / ft 2

p1 721lb / ft 2 
  11.6 ft
 H 2O 62.4lb / ft 3 
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
b) The pressure at the tank bottom:

p2   H2OhH2O  p1

p2  (62.4lb / ft 3 )(3 ft )  721lb / ft 2


p 2  908 lb / ft 2
908lb / ft  2
p2   6.31lb / in  2

144in / ft 2 2

p 908lb / ft  1
2
 14.6 ft
 62.4lb / ft 
H 2O
3

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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Transmission of Fluid Pressure
 The transmission of pressure through out a stationary fluid is
the principle upon which many hydraulic devices are based

A2
F2  F1
A1

 Mechanical advantage can be gained with equality of pressure.

 A small force applied at small piston is used to develop a large
force at large piston.
 This principle is used in hydraulic jacks, lifts, presses, and
hydraulic controls.
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Transmission of Fluid Pressure

hydraulic jack or hydraulic press Hydraulic Lift

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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Compressible Fluids
Gases such as air, oxygen and nitrogen are thought of as
compressible, so we must consider the variation of density in
the hydrostatic equation:
dp
Note:γ= ρg and not a constant, then   g
dz

p R is the Gas
By the Ideal gas law: Thus,  
RT Constant
T is the
temperature
Then, ρ is the density

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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Compressible Fluids

For Isothermal Conditions, T is constant, To:

Example 2.2: The Empire State Building in New York City, one of
the tallest building in the world, rises to a height of
approximately 1250ft. Estimate the ratio of the pressure at the
top of the building to the pressure at its base, assuming the air
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Chapter 2 12
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Compressible Fluids
to be at a common temperature of 59°F. Compare this result
with that obtained by assuming the air to be incompressible
with γ=0.0765fb/ft3 at 14.7psi (abs).
P2  g ( z 2  z1 ) 
Solution: For isothermal conditions  exp  
P1  RT0 
P2 
 exp  
 
32.2 ft / s 2 1259 ft  
  0.956
P1  1716 ft .lb / slug . R 59  460  R 
For incompressible conditions P2  P1   ( z 2  z1 )
P2  ( z 2  z1 ) (0.0765lb / ft 3 )(1250 ft )
 1  1  0.955
P1 P1 (14.7lb / in 2 )(144in 2 / ft 2 )
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IV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Compressible Fluids
Note: there is little difference between the two results. Since
the pressure difference between the bottom and top of the
building is small, it follows that the variation in fluid density is
small and, therefore, the compressible fluid and incompressible
fluid analyses yield essentially
the same result.
 By repeating the
calculation, for various
values of height, h, the
results shown in figure are
obtained.
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Chapter 2 13
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V. Standard Atmosphere Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: U.S. Standard Atmosphere
Idealized Representation of
the Mid-Latitude Atmosphere

Standard Atmosphere is used

in the design of aircraft,
missiles and spacecraft.
Stratosphere:
Isothermal, T = To
Troposphere:
Linear Variation, T = Ta - βz

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V. Standard Atmosphere Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: U.S. Standard Atmosphere

Layers of the Atmosphere U.S. Standard Atmosphere

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Chapter 2 14
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V. Standard Atmosphere Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: U.S. Standard Atmosphere

Starting from,

Now, for the Troposphere, Temperature is not constant:

 β is known as the lapse rate, 0.00650 K/m, and Ta is the

temperature at sea level, 288.15 K.
pa is the pressure at
 Substitute for temperature sea level, 101.33 kPa,
and Integrate: R is the gas constant,
286.9 J/kg.K

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VI. Measurement of Pressure Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Absolute Pressure: Pressure measured relative to a perfect
vacuum
Gage Pressure: Pressure measured relative to local
atmospheric pressure

 A gage pressure of zero corresponds to a pressure that is at

local atmospheric pressure.
 Absolute pressure is always positive
 Gage pressure can be either negative or positive
 Negative gage pressure is known as a vacuum or suction
 Standard units of Pressure are psi, kPa (absolute)
 Pressure could also be measured in terms of the height of a
fluid in a column
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Chapter 2 15
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V. Standard Atmosphere Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
The actual pressure at a given position is called the “absolute
pressure”, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum.
pgage  pabs.  patm.
Pressure is designated
as either absolute
pressure or gage
pressure

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V. Standard Atmosphere Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Hydrostatic Condition: Compressible Fluids
Example 2.3: A mountain lake has an average temperature of
10 ℃and a maximum depth of 40 m. For a barometric pressure
of 598 mm Hg, determine the absolute pressure (in pascals)
at the deepest part of the lake .
Solution: The pressure in the lake at any depth p  h  p0
pbarometric
 0.598 m p0 : the local
 Hg
barometric
p0  (0.598 m)(133kN / m 3 )  79.5kN / m 2 pressure.
γHg=133 kN/m3
p  (9.804 kN / m 3 )( 40 m )  79.5kN / m 2 γH2O=9.804 kN/m3
 472kPa( abs)
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Chapter 2 16
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V. Standard Atmosphere Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Barometer is a scientific instrument used in
meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure.
The first mercury barometer was constructed in
1643-1644 by Torricelli.

Schematic: Evangelista Torricelli

Animation of Experiment:
(1608-1647)

Note: often pvapor is

very small, 0.0000231
psi at 68° F, and patm is
14.7 psi, thus:

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VII. Manometry Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Manometry is a standard technique for measuring pressure
using liquid columns in vertical or include tubes. The devices
used in this manner are known as manometers.
The operation of three types of manometers will be discussed:
i. The Piezometer Tube
ii. The U-Tube Manometer h is positive moving
downward, and negative
iii. Differential U-Tube Manometer moving upward, that is
iv. The Inclined Tube Manometer pressure in columns of
 The fundamental equation for fluid decrease with gains in
manometers since they involve height, and increase with
columns of fluid at rest is the gain in depth.
following:

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Chapter 2 17
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VII. Manometry – Piezometer Tube Kabul University

Engineering Faculty

po Disadvantages:
i. The pressure in the
container has to be
Move Up the greater than atmospheric
Tube pressure.
Closed End pA (abs) ii. Pressure must be
“Container” relatively small to
maintain a small column
Moving from left to right: pA(abs) - 1h1 = p of fluid.
o iii. The measurement of
Rearranging: p A  po   1h1 pressure must be of a
liquid.
Gage Pressure
Then in terms of gage pressure, the equation for a Piezometer Tube:

Note: pA = p1 because they are at the same level

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VII. Manometry – U-Tube Manometer Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Closed End Note: in the same fluid we can
“Container” “jump” across from 2 to 3 as they are
at the same level, and thus must have
pA the same pressure.
The fluid in the U-tube Is known as
the gage fluid. The gage fluid type
depends on the application, i.e.
pressures attained, and whether the
fluid measured is a gas or liquid.
Since, one end is open we can work entirely in gage pressure:
Moving from left to right: pA + g1h1 - g2h2 = 0 Note: pA = p1
 Then the equation for the pressure in the container because they are
is the following: at the same level

If the fluid in the container is a gas, then the fluid 1 terms can be ignored:
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Chapter 2 18
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VII. Manometry – U-Tube Manometer Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Example 2.4: A closed tank
contains compressed air
and oil (SGoil = 0.90) as is
shown in Figure. A U-tube
manometer using mercury
(SGHg= 13.6) is connected
to the tank as shown. For
column heights h1 = 36 in.,
h2 = 6 in., and h3 = 9 in.,
determine the pressure
reading (in psi) of the gage.

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VII. Manometry – U-Tube Manometer Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Solution: The pressure at level (1) is
p1  pair   oil ( h1  h2 )
As we move from level (2) to the open end, the pressure must
decrease by γHgh3, and at the open end the pressure is zero.
Thus, the manometer equation can be expressed as:
pair   oil ( h1  h2 )   Hg h3  0
Or pair  ( SGoil )( H 2O )(h1  h2 )  ( SG Hg )( H 2O ) h3  0

 36  6  9 
pair  (0.9)(62.4lb / ft 3 ) ft   (13.6)(62.4lb / ft 3 ) ft 
 12   12 
p air  440lb / ft 2 440lb / ft 2
pair   3.06 psi
144in 2 / ft 2
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Chapter 2 19
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VII. Manometry – Differential

Kabul University
U-Tube Manometer Engineering Faculty
Measuring a Pressure Differential Notes:
Closed End
“Container”
i. Common gage fluids are Hg and
pB Water, some oils, (must be
immiscible).
ii. Temp. must be considered in very
accurate measurements, as the
pA gage fluid properties can change.
iii. Capillarity can play a role, but in
Closed End many cases each meniscus will be
“Container” ignored.

Moving from left to right: pA + g1h1 - g2h2 - g3h3 = pB

Then the equation for the pressure difference in the container is the
following:

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VII. Manometry – Differential

Kabul University
U-Tube Manometer Engineering Faculty
Example2.5: As will be discussed in Chapter 3, the volume rate
of flow, Q, through a pipe can be determined by means of a
flow nozzle located in the pipes as illustrated in Figure. The
nozzle creates a pressure drop, pA-pB, along the pipe which is
related to the flow through the equation Q=k (pA-pB,)0.5 where K
is a constant depending on the pipe and nozzle size. The
pressure drop is frequently measured with a differential U-tube
manometer of the type illustrated.
(a) Determine an equation for pA-pB in terms of the specific
weight of the flowing fluid, γ1, the specific weight of the
gage fluid, γ2, and the various heights indicated.
(b) For γ1=9.80kN/m3 , γ2 = 15.6 kN/m3 , h1 = 1.0m, and
h2 = 0.5m, what is the value of the pressure drop, pA-pB?
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Chapter 2 20
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VII. Manometry – Differential

Kabul University
U-Tube Manometer Engineering Faculty
Solution: We start at point A and move vertically upward to
level (1), the pressure will decrease by γ1h1 and will be equal to
pressure at (2) and (3). We can now move from (3) to (4) where
the pressure has been further reduced by γ2h2. The pressure at
levels (4) and (5) are equal, and as we move from (5) to B the
pressure will increase by γ1(h1 + h2)
p A   1h1   2 h2
  ( h1  h2 )  p B
p A  p B  h2 ( 2   1 )
p A  p B  (0.5m )
* (15.6kN / m 3  9.80kN / m 3 )
p A  p B  2.90 kPa
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VII. Manometry –Inclined-

Kabul University
Tube Manometer Engineering Faculty
This type of manometer is used to measure small pressure changes.
pB
pA
h2

l2 h2 h2
q sin   h2  l2 sin 
l2
q

From left to right: pA + 1h1 - 2h2 - 3h3 = pB

Substituting for h2:
Rearranging to obtain the difference:
If the pressure difference is between gases:

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VIII. Mechanical an Electrical

Kabul University
Pressure Measuring Devices Engineering Faculty
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement
of pressure. Instruments used to measure pressure are called
pressure gauges.
 Bourdon tube pressure gage uses a hollow, elastic, and
curved tube to measure pressure.
Coiled spring

Connected to
the pressure
source

It can be used for the measurement of liquid and

gas pressures upto 1000 psi.
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VIII. Mechanical an Electrical

Kabul University
Pressure Measuring Devices Engineering Faculty

 Aneroid means “without fluid”.

Aneroid barometer measures
absolute (atmospheric )pressure.

 It has a vacuumed chamber

with an elastic surface.
 When pressure is imposed on atmospheric
this surface, it deflects inward. pressure
 Due to this deflection the Sealed
needle will rotate and show aneroid
the pressure. cell

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VIII. Mechanical an Electrical

Kabul University
Pressure Measuring Devices Engineering Faculty
 Bourdon Gage + LVDT: combining a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT) with a Bourdon pressure
gage, converts the pressure into an electric output
 The core of the LVDT is connected
to the free end of the Bourdon so
that as a pressure is applied, the
resulting motion of the end of the
tube moves the core through the
coil and an output voltage
develops.
This voltage is a linear function of the pressure and could be digitized
for storage or processing on a computer.
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VIII. Mechanical an Electrical

Kabul University
Pressure Measuring Devices Engineering Faculty
In medicine, a type of manometer called a sphygmomanometer
is used to obtain blood-pressure readings.

A sphygmomanometer or
blood pressure meter is a
device used to measure
blood pressure,
composed of an inflatable
cuff to restrict blood flow,
and a mercury or
mechanical manometer to
measure the pressure.

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Chapter 2 23
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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface -Tank Bottom Engineering Faculty
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the
surface due to the hydrostatic pressure distribution of the fluid.
The determination of these forces is important in the design of
storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic structures
 Simplest Case: Tank bottom with a uniform pressure
distribution
p - h = patm- patm
p  h
Now, the resultant Force:
Acts through the Centroid
FR = pA A = area of the
Tank Bottom

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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface -General Case Engineering Faculty
The origin O is at the Free Surface.
θ is the angle the plane makes
with the free surface.
y is directed along the plane
surface.
A is the area of the surface.
dA is a differential element
of the surface. General Shape:
Planar View, in
dF is the force acting on the the x-y plane
differential element.
C is the centroid.
CP is the center of Pressure
FR is the resultant force acting
through CP
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Chapter 2 24
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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface - General Case Engineering Faculty
Then the force acting on the differential element:

Then the resultant force acting on the entire surface:

We note h = ysinθ

With θ and γ taken

as constant:
We note, the integral part is the first moment of area about the x-axis

Where yc is the y
coordinate to the
hc centroid of the object.

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49

IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface - Location Engineering Faculty
The location of the center of Pressure where the Resultant Force
Acts: “The Moments of the Resultant Force must Equal the
Moment of the Distributed Pressure Force”

Moments about the x-axis:

And, h = ysinθ
We note, Second moment
of Inertia, Ixy

Then,

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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface - Location Engineering Faculty
Parallel Axis Theorem:
Ixc is the second moment
I x  I xc  Ay 2 c of inertia through the
centroid

Substituting the parallel Axis theorem, and rearranging:

We, note that for a submerged plane, the resultant force

always acts below the centroid of the plane.

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51

IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface - Location Engineering Faculty
Moments about the y-axis: FR xR  xdF  A
And, h = ysinθ
We note,
Product of intertia, Ixy Ixyc is the product of
inertia with respect to an
orthogonal
Then, coordinate system
passing through the
centroid of the area and
Parallel Axis Thereom: I xy  I xyc  Axc yc formed by a translation
of the x-y coordinate
system
Substituting the parallel Axis
thereom, and rearranging:

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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface -Geometric Properties Engineering Faculty
Geometric properties of some common shapes

The resultant fluid

force does not pass
through the
centroid of the area.

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53

IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
Example 2.6: The 4-m-diameter circular gate of Figure is
located in theinclined wall of a large reservoir containing water
(γ=9.80kN/m3). The gate is mounted on a shaft along its
horizontal diameter. For a water depth hc=10m above the shaft
determine :
a) The magnitude and
location of the resultant
force exerted on the gate
by the water.
b) The moment that would
have to be applied to the
shaft to open the gate.

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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
Solution: The magnitude of the force of the water
FR  hc A
The vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the
area is 10m.
FR  (9.80 *103 N / m 3 )(10 m)( 4m 2 )

FR  1230 *10 3 N  1.23MN

The point (center of pressure) through which FR acts

I I
X R  xyc  xc , y R  xc  yc
Yc A Yc A

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55

IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
The area is symmetrical and the center of pressure must lie
along the diameter A-A. =>> xR  0
R 4
I xc 
4
4
yR 
 / 42m 

10m
10m / sin 60(4m ) sin 60
2

y R  0.0866 m  11.5m  11.6 m

The distance below the shaft to the center of pressure is

y R  yc  0.866 m The force acts through a point along its diameter
A-A at a distance of 0.0866m below the shaft.
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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
(b) Sum moments about the shaft

M c 0

The moment required to open the gate

M  FR  y R  yc 


M  1230 *103 N 0.0866m  
 1.70 *10 5 N  m

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57

IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
Example 2.7: A large fish-holding tank contains seawater
(γ=64.0lb/ft3) to a depth of 10 ft as shown in Figure. To repair
some damage to one corner of the tank, a triangular section is
replaced with a new section as illustrated. Determine the
magnitude and location of the force of the seawater on this
triangular area.

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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
Solution: yc= hc= 9 ft, and the magnitude of the force

FR  hc A
FR  (64.0lb / ft 3 )(9 ft )(9 / 2 ft 2 )  2590lb
The y coordinate of the center of pressure (CP)
I 3
y R  xc  yc while , I  3 ft  3 ft  81 ft 4  
yc A xc
36 36
81 / 36 ft 4
yR   9 ft

9 ft  9 / 2 ft 2 
y R  9.06 ft

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IX. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
Similarly:

xR 
I xyc
 xc while , I xyc 
3 ft 3 ft 3


81 4
ft
yc A 72 72

81 / 36 ft 4
xR  0

9 ft  9 / 2 ft 2 
x R  0.0278 ft

The center of pressure is 0.0278 ft to the right of and

0.0556 ft below the centroid of the area

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X. Hydrostatic Force -Vertical Wall Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Pressure varies linearly with depth by the hydrostatic equation:
The magnitude of pressure at the bottom is p = γh
O
The depth of the fluid is “h” into the board
The width of the wall is “b” into the board yR = 2/3h

By inspection, the average

pressure occurs at h/2, pav = γh/2

1
I xc  bh 3 bh 3 h
The resultant force act through 12 yR  
h
the center of pressure, CP: h 12 bh  2
yc  2
y-coordinate: 2 h h 2
A  bh yR    h
6 2 3
Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
61

X. Hydrostatic Force–Vertical Wall Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
x-coordinate:
I xyc  0
b
yc 
2
A  bh

0 b
xR   Center of Pressure:
h
bh  2  b 2h 
2
 , 
b 2 3 
xR 
2
Now, we have both the resultant force and its location.
The pressure prism is a second way of analyzing the forces
on a vertical wall.
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XI. Pressure Prism–Vertical Wall Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Pressure Prism: A graphical interpretation of the forces due to
a fluid acting on a plane area. The “volume” of fluid acting on
the wall is the pressure prism and equals the resultant force
acting on the wall. Resultant Force:

Volume
1
FR  h bh 
2
1
FR  h  A
2
Center of Pressure:
 b 2h 
Location of the  , 
Resultant Force, CP: 2 3 

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63

XI. Pressure Prism – Submerged

Kabul University
Vertical Wall Engineering Faculty

Trapezoidal

The Resultant Force: break

Location of Resultant Force:
into two “volumes”
“use sum of moments”

Solve for yA
F1  h1 A 1
F2   h2  h1 A y1 and y2 are the centroid locations for the
2
two volumes where F1 and F2 are the
A  bh2  h1  resultant forces of the volumes.
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XI. Pressure Prism – Submerged

Kabul University
Inclined Wall Engineering Faculty

Now we have an incline

trapezoidal volume. The
methodology is the same as
the last problem, and we
affix the coordinate system
to the plane.

The pressure developed depend on the vertical distances.

The use of pressure prisms in only convenient if we have regular

geometry, otherwise integration is needed

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65

XI. Pressure Prism – Atmospheric

Kabul University
Pressure on a Vertical Wall Engineering Faculty
Gage Pressure Analysis Absolute Pressure Analysis But,

The resultant fluid force on the surface is that due only to the
gage pressure contribution of the liquid in contact with the
surface – the atmospheric pressure does not contribute to this
resultant.
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XI. Pressure Prism – Atmospheric

Kabul University
Pressure on a Vertical Wall Engineering Faculty
Example 2.8: A pressurized contains oil (SG = 0.90) and has a
square, 0.6-m by 0.6-m plate bolted to its side, as is illustrated in
Figure. When the pressure gage on the top of the tank reads
50kPa, what is the magnitude and location of the resultant force
on the attached plate? The outside of the tank is atmospheric
pressure.

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67

XI. Pressure Prism – Atmospheric

Kabul University
Pressure on a Vertical Wall Engineering Faculty
Solution: The resultant force on the plate (having an area A) is
due to the components, F1 and F2 , where F1 and F2 are due to
the rectangular and triangular portions of the pressure
distribution, respectively.
F1   p s  h1  A


 50  103 N / m 2  (0.90)(9.8110 3 N / m 2 )( 2m) 0.36m 2  
 24.4  103 N
h h   0 .6 m 
F2    2 1  A  (0.90)(9.8110 3 N / m 2 )  0.36m
2
 
 2   2 
3
 0.954 10 N
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XI. Pressure Prism – Atmospheric

Kabul University
Pressure on a Vertical Wall Engineering Faculty
The magnitude of the resultant force, FR, is therefore
FR  F1  F2  25.4 103 N  25.4kN
The vertical location of FR can be obtained by summing
moments around an axis through point O

FR yo  F1 (0.3m)  F2 (0.2m)

( 24.4  103 N )(0.3m)  (0.954 10 3 N )(0.2 m)

yo 
25.4 10 3 N
 0.296 m

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69

XII. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
 General theory of plane surfaces does not apply to curved surfaces
 Many surfaces in dams, pumps, pipes or tanks are curved
 No simple formulas by integration similar to those for plane
surfaces Then we mark a F.B.D.
 A new method must be used for the volume:

F1 and F2 is the hydrostatic

force on each planar face
FH and FV is the component
of the resultant force on
the curved surface.
W is the weight of the fluid
volume.
Isolated Volume
Bounded by AB an AC
and BC

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XII. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty

Horizontal Force:

Vertical Force:

Resultant Force:

The resultant force (FR) passes through the point O, which can
be located by summing moments about an appropriate axis.

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XII. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
Example 2.9: The 6-ft-diameter drainage conduit of figure a is
half full of water at rest. Determine the magnitude and line of
action of the resultant force that the water exerts on a 1-ft
length of the curved section BC of the conduit wall.

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XII. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved

Kabul University
Surface Engineering Faculty
Solution: The magnitude of F1 is found form the equation
3 
F1  h1 A  (62.4lb / ft 3 ) ft (3 ft 2 )  281lb
2 
The weight, W, is

W    vol  (62.4lb / ft 3 )(9 / 4 ft 2 )(1 ft )  441lb

FH  F1  281lb , FV  W  441lb

The magnitude of the resultant force

FR  FH 2  FV 2  523lb

Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

73

XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Buoyancy: Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ Principle states that the buoyant force
has a magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body and is directed vertically
upward.
Archimedes (287-212 BC)

 Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or

submerged body in a fluid.

 The force results from different pressures on the top and

bottom of the object

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XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty

V displaced water X ρwater=m water

Treating an arbitrary submerged object as a planar surface:

Forces on
the Fluid
Arbitrary Shape

Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

75

XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Balancing the Forces of the F.B.D. in the vertical Direction:

W   h2  h1  A  V 
Then, substituting:

W is the weight of the shaded area

F1 and F2 are the forces on the plane surfaces
FB is the bouyant force the body exerts on the fluid
 The force of the fluid on the body is opposite, or vertically upward
and is known as the Buoyant Force.
 The force is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
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XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Where the Buoyant Force Acts by Summing Moments:
Sum the Moments about the z-axis:

VT is the total volume of the parallelpiped

The buoyant forces acts through the centroid

of the displaced volume.

The location is known as the center of

buoyancy.
Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
77

XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
We can apply the same principles to floating objects:

 If the fluid acting on the upper surfaces has very small

specific weight (air), the centroid is simply that of the
displaced volume, and the buoyant force is as before.
 If the specific weight varies in the fluid the buoyant force does
not pass through the centroid of the displaced volume, but
through the center of gravity of the displaced volume.
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XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Example 2.10: A spherical buoy has a diameter of 1.5 m, weighs
8.50kN, and is anchored to the seafloor with a cable as is shown
in Figure. Although the buoy normally floats on the surface, at
certain times the water depth increases so that the buoy is
completely immersed
as illustrated. For this
condition what is the
tension of the cable?

Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

79

XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Solution: FB is the buoyant force acting on the buoy, W is the
weight of the buoy, and T is the tension in the cable. For
Equilibrium
T  FB  W
FB  V

With γ=10.1kN/m3 and V= 3/6

FB  (10.1 103 N / m 3 )[( / 6)(1.5) 3 ]  1.785 10 4 N

The tension in the cable

T  1.785 104 N  0.850  104 N  9.35kN

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XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
Stable Equilibrium: When displaced it returns to equilibrium
position.
Unstable Equilibrium: When displaced it returns to a new
equilibrium position.
C > CG, “Higher” C < CG, “Lower”

Stable Equilibrium: Unstable Equilibrium:

Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
81

XIII. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability Kabul University

Engineering Faculty
More complicated as the location of the center buoyancy can change:

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Chapter 2 41
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XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Linear Motion Engineering Faculty
Governing Equation with no Shear (Rigid Body Motion):

The equation in all three directions are the following:

Consider, the case of an open container of liquid with a constant

acceleration:

Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

83

XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Linear Motion Engineering Faculty
Estimating the pressure between two closely spaced points
apart some dy, dz:

Substituting the
partials

Along a line of constant pressure, dp = 0:

Inclined free
surface for ay≠ 0

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XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Linear Motion Engineering Faculty
Now consider the case where ay = 0, and az ≠ 0:

Recall, already: p  0 p
Then, 0
x y
p
   g  a z 
z
So, Non-Hydrostatic

 Pressure will vary linearly with depth, but variation is the combination
of gravity and externally developed acceleration.
 A tank of water moving upward in an elevator will have slightly
greater pressure at the bottom.
 If a liquid is in free-fall az = -g, and all pressure gradients are zero—
surface tension is all that keeps the blob together.
Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
85

XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Linear Motion Engineering Faculty
Example 2.11: The cross section for the fuel tank of an
experimental vehicle is shown in Figure. the rectangular tank is
vented to the atmosphere, and a pressure transducer is
located in its side as illustrated. During testing of the vehicle,
the tank is subjected to be a constant linear acceleration, ay.
(a) Determine an expression that relates ay and the pressure
(in lb/ft2) at the transducer
for a fuel with a SG = 0.65.
(b) What is the maximum
acceleration that can
occur before the fuel level
drops below the transducer?
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XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Linear Motion Engineering Faculty
dz ay
Solution: The slope of the surface 
dy g
Since az= 0. Thus for some arbitrary ay, the change in depth, z1
z ay a 
  Or z1  0.75 f  y 
0.75 ft g  g 
The pressure at the transducer is given by the relationship (p=γh)
Where h is the depth of fuel above the transducer.
ay
p  (0.65)(62.4lb / ft 3 )[0.5 ft  (0.75 ft )(a y / g )]  20.3  30.4
g
(b)-The limiting value for (ay)max
 a y max  2g
0.5 ft  0.75 ft   Or a y max  3 a  y max  21.5 ft / s 2
 g 
Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
87

XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Rigid-Body Rotation Engineering Faculty
Governing Equation with no Shear (Rigid Body Motion):

Motion in a
Rotating Tank:

Write terms in Pressure Gradient:

cylindrical
coordinates for Acceleration
convenience: Vector:

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XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Rigid-Body Rotation Engineering Faculty
The equation in all three directions are the following:

Estimating the pressure between two closely spaced points :

Substituting the partials

Along a line of constant pressure, dp = 0:

Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

89

XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Rigid-Body Rotation Engineering Faculty
Equation of constant pressure surfaces:

The surfaces of constant pressure

are parabolic

Now, integrate to obtain the Pressure Variation:

Pressure varies hydrostatically in the vertical, and increases radially

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90

Chapter 2 45
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XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Rigid-Body Rotation Engineering Faculty
Example 2.12: It has been suggested that the angular velocity
of a rotating body or shaft can be measured by attaching an
open cylinder of liquid, as shown in Figure, and measuring with
some type of depth gage the changes in the fluid level, H-ho,
caused by the rotation of the fluid. Determine relationship
between this change in fluid level and angular velocity.

Mechanical Engineering Department Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

91

XIV. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with

Kabul University
Rigid-Body Motion – Rigid-Body Rotation Engineering Faculty
Solution: The height, h, of the free surface above the tank
bottom  2r 2
h  h0
2g
The initial volume of fluid in the tank V  R 2 H
This cylindrical shell is taken at some arbitrary radius, r, and
its volume is dV  2rhdr
R
 2 r 2   2 R 4
The total volume V  2  r   h0 dr   R 2 h0
0  2g  4g
Since the volume of the fluid in the tank must remain constant
2  2 R 4  2R2
R H   R 2 h0 H  h0 
4g 4g
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Chapter 2 46