Algae

Introduction
• Phycology or algology is the study of algae
• Planktonic – suspended
• Benthic – in the bottom
• Neustonic - algae live at the water-atmosphere interface’
• Plankton – free floating, mostly microscopic
• Phytoplankton – algae and plants
• Zooplankton – animals and non-photosynthetic protists
• Algae are also endosymbiont
Classification of algae
• According to the five-kingdom system of Whittaker, the algae belong
to seven divisions distributed between two different kingdoms
• Classification is based on:
1) cell wall (if present) chemistry and morphology;
2) form in which food or assimilatory products of photosynthesis
are stored;
3) chlorophyll molecules and accessory pigments that contribute to
photosynthesis;
4) flagella number and the location of their insertion in motile cells;
5) Morphology of the cells and/or body (thallus);
6) habitat;
7) Reproductive structures; and
8) life history patterns.
Types of algae
• Blue Green Algae: They are also known as Cynabacteria. They appear
in blue green colour and contain chlorophyll 'a', 'b', and phycobilins.
• Green Algae: They belong to the family of phylum Chlorophyta and
contain chlorophyll 'a', 'b', carotenoids, and xanthophylls. They are
unicellular and multicellular.
• Red Algae: They belong to the family of Rhodophyta and contain
chlorophyll 'a',’d’, carotenoids, xanthophylls, and phycobilins. They are
used as a stabilizer in milk products.
• Brown Algae: They belong to the family of Paeophyceae, and contain
chlorophyll 'a', 'c', and fucoxanthin pigment. They are used in order to
stabilize, thicken, and modify various food products.
 Economic importance of algae
• Food: Algae are healthy source of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and vitamins A, B,
C, and E as well as the minerals like iron, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
manganese, and zinc.
• Fodder: Algae are also used as the fodder to feed livestock such as cattle and
chickens.
• Pisciculture: In fish farming, Algae plays very important role because it helps in the
production process. Fish used plankton and zooplankton as a food. It helps in
maintaining the health of the marine ecosystem because algae are naturally
absorbent of carbon dioxide and also provide oxygen to the water.
• Fertilizer: Algae are rich in minerals and vitamins. So they also used as liquid
fertilizer which helps in the repairing level of nitrogen present in the soil.
• Reclaiming Alkaline: Blue Green Algae helps in the reduction of high concentration
of alkalinity in the soil.
• Binding Agent: Algae act as the binding agents against natural processes such as
erosion.
• Biological indicator: Algae are very sensitive. If there is a slight change in the
environment their pigments changes or might get died. The water pollution is
checked with the help of Algae like Euglena and Chlorella.
Introduction to Fungi
 Introduction to Fungi
• A mold consists of long, branched, threadlike
filaments of cells called hyphae that form a
mycelium [pl., mycelia], a tangled mass or
tissue like aggregation.
• In some fungi, protoplasm streams through
hyphae, uninterrupted by cross walls.
• These hyphae are called coenocytic.
• The hyphae of other fungi have cross walls
called septa [s., septum] with either a single
pore or multiple pores that permit
cytoplasmic streaming. These hyphae are
termed septate.
•Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms. They can occur as yeasts,
molds, or as a combination of both forms.

•Some fungi are capable of causing superficial, cutaneous,

subcutaneous, systemic or allergic diseases.

•Yeasts are microscopic fungi consisting of solitary cells that

reproduce by budding. Molds, in contrast, occur in long filaments
known as hyphae, which grow by apical extension.

•Regardless of their shape or size, fungi are all heterotrophic and

digest their food externally by releasing hydrolytic enzymes into their
immediate surroundings (absorptive nutrition).
Yeast
Dimorphism
• The yeast (Y) form in the animal
• The mold or mycelial form (M) form in the environment
• Influencing factors
• Nutrients
• CO2 tension
• Oxidation-reduction potentials
• Temperature
• Many fungi, especially those that cause diseases in humans
• and animals, are dimorphic.
• This shift is called the YM shift
Nutrition and Metabolism
• Fungi grow best in dark, moist habitats.
• Tthey are found wherever organic material is available.
• Most fungi are saprophytes. Release hydrolytic exoenzymes to digest
external substrates.
• Chemoorganoheterotrophs and use organic compounds as a source
of carbon, electrons, and energy.
• Glycogen – storage form. Use carbohydrates (preferably glucose or
maltose) and nitrogenous compounds to synthesize their own amino
acids and proteins.
• Mostly aerobic, however some are facultative anaerobes.
• Obligatory anaerobes are found in rumen of cattles
Reproduction - Asexual
• Binary fission
• Budding
• Spore production
• Hypha fragments (by the separation of hyphae
through splitting of the cell wall or septum) to
form cells that behave as spores. (Arthroconidia or
arthrospores)
• If the cells are surrounded by a thick wall
before separation, they are called
chlamydospores
• If the spores develop within a sac
[sporangium] at a hyphal tip, they are
called sporangiospore
• If the spores are not enclosed in a sac but
produced at the tips or sides of the hypha,
they are termed conidiospores
• Spores produced from a vegetative mother
cell by budding are called blastospores.
Sexual Reproduction
• Some fungal species are self-fertilizing and produce sexually
compatible gametes on the same mycelium (homothallic).
• Other species require outcrossing between different but sexually
compatible mycelia (heterothallic).
• Sexual fusion may occur between haploid gametes, gamete-producing
bodies called gametangia, or hyphae.
• Sometimes both the cytoplasm and haploid nuclei fuse immediately
to produce the diploid zygote.
• There is a delay between cytoplasmic and nuclear fusion. This
produces a dikaryotic stage. This sexual reproduction yields spores.
In fungi, sexual reproduction frequently takes place under unfavourable environmental
conditions. Based on the mating types, they are classified into two types:
[Link] – When both mating types are present in the same mycelium. It is also called
self-fertile.
[Link] – When both mating types are present in two different mycelium.

There are many variations in fungal sexual reproduction, which includes the following three
stages.
[Link]: The fusion of protoplasm.
[Link]: The fusion of nucleus.
[Link]: Cell cycle involved with the nuclear division.
Classification of Fungi
Introduction
• The division of mycota, or fungi and moulds, includes the true slime
moulds (Myxomycetes), the lower fungi (Phycomycetes), and the
higher fungi (Eumycetes).
• Various classification systems
• Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy
• Classification based on spore Production
• Classification of medically important fungi
• Classification based on route of acquisition
• Classification based on virulence
Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy
• Devised byAlexopolous and Mims (1979)
• Super Kingdom: Eukaryota
• Kingdom: Mycota
• Divisions:
• Gymnomycota
• Mastigomycota
• Amastigomycota
• The division is subdivided into subdivision, classes, sub-classes,
and orders.
 Division I: Gymnomycota
• It includes phagotrophic organism devoid of cell walls. This division comprises
two subdivisions; Acrasiogymnomycotina and Plasmodiogynomycotina.
1. Subdivision: Acrasiogymnomycotina
Class: Acrasiomycetes (Lacks flagellated cells)
Subclass 1: Acrasiomycetidae
Subclass 2: Dictyosteliomycetidae
2. Subdivision: Plasmodiogymnomycotina:
Class 1: Protosteliomycetes
Sub class 1: Ceratiomyxomycomycetidae, 1 Order : Ceratiomyxales
Sub class 2: Mycogasteomycetidae, 4 Orders: Liceales, Echinosteleales,
Trichlales, Physarales
Sub class 3: Stemonitomycetidae, 1 Order: Stemonitales
 Division II: Mastigomycota
• Includes fungi with absorptive nutrition, unicellular or filamentous, mycelium
coenocytic. It comprises two sub divisions:.
1. Subdivision: Haplomastigomycotina: Includes fungi with uni-or, bi-flagellate
zoospores.
Class 1. Chytridiomycetes– Fungi producing zoospores furnished with a single
whiplash flagellum inserted at the posterior end.
Class 2. Hyphochytridiomycetes- Motile cells with a single tinsel flagellum
inserted at the anterior end.
Class 3. Plasmodiophoromycetes- Parasitic fungi producing biflagellate motile
cells with both the flagella of whiplash type inserted at the anterior end.
2. Subdivision: Diplomastigomycotima: Sexual reproduction ooagamous, zoospores
biflagellate
Class 1: Oomycetes, 4 Orders: Lagenidiales, Saprolegnailes, Leptomitales,
Peronosporales
 Division III: Amastigomycota
• Fungi with absorptive nutrition, motile cells lacking, mycelium aseptate or
septate.
1. Subdivision 1: Zygomycotina
2. Subdivision 2: Ascomycotina: ungi usually with a septate mycelium producing haploid
ascospores in sac like cells called asci.
3. Subdivision 3: Basidiomycotina Septate mycelium, produces basidiospores, exogenously
on various types of basidia
2. Subdivision 4: Deuteromycotina It includes imperfect fungi in which sexual stage is
unknown.
Classification based on spore Production
 Classification based on medically important fungi
• Superficial mycoses (or tineas): Occur in the tropics and are restricted to
the outer surface of the hair and skin, e.g., Piedraia hortae.
• Cutaneous mycoses: There are three genera of fungi (Microsporum,
Trichophyton and Epidermophyton) that commonly cause disease in the
non-living tissues of skin, hair, or nails/claws of people and animals, by
growing in a zone just above where the protein keratin is deposited.
• Subcutaneous mycoses: They are normally saprotrophic inhabitants of soil,
particularly in tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, India and South
America.
• Systemic mycoses are infections that affect the whole body. We divide these
into mycoses due to primary (usually dimorphic) virulent pathogens, and
those due to opportunistic pathogens.
 Classification based on route of acquisition
• When classified according to the route of acquisition, a fungal infection may
be designated as exogenous or endogenous in origin.
• If classified as exogenous, an infecting organism may be transmitted by
airborne, cutaneous, or percutaneous routes.
• An endogenously-acquired fungal infection may be acquired from
colonization or reactivation of a fungus from latent infection.
 Classification based on virulence
• Primary pathogens can establish infections in normal hosts.
• Opportunistic pathogens cause disease in individuals with compromised host defense
mechanisms.
• Deep mycoses are caused by primary pathogenic and opportunistic fungal pathogens.
• The primary pathogenic fungi are able to establish infection in a normal host; whereas,
opportunistic pathogens require a compromised host in order to establish infection (e.g.,
cancer, organ transplantation, surgery, and AIDS).
• The primary deep pathogens usually gain access to the host via the respiratory tract.
• Opportunistic fungi causing deep mycosis invade via the respiratory tract, alimentary
tract, or intravascular devices.
• The primary systemic fungal pathogens include Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma
capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, and Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.
• The opportunistic fungal pathogens include Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida,
Aspergillus spp., Penicillium marneffei, the Zygomycetes, Trichosporon beigelii, and
Fusarium spp.
Rhizopus
 Introduction
• Rhizopus belongs to Zygomycota.
• Rhizopus stolanifer (Black bread mold)
• Members of the Zygomycota are
characterised by the formation of a
dormant form, the zygospore, which is
resistant to unfavourable
environmental conditions.
• Hyphae are coenocytic, with
numerous haploid nuclei, but few
dividing walls or septa.
 Asexual reproduction of Rhizopus
• Hyphae spread rapidly over the surface of the substrate (bread, fruit etc.)
and penetrate it, absorbing soluble nutrients such as sugars.
• Upright hyphae develop, carrying at their tip sporangia, full of black haploid
spores.
• The spores give the characteristic colour to the mould; they are the asexual
reproductive structures, and are released when the thin wall of the
sporangium ruptures.
• When conditions are favourable, Rhizopus reproduces in this way; each
spore, upon finding a suitable substratum for growth, is capable of
germinating and initiating a new mycelium.
 Sexual reproduction of Rhizopus
• Occurs when environmental conditions are unfavourable.
• Most species of Rhizopus are heterothallic.
• Two distinct mating strains known as + and −.
• Sexual reproduction is only possible between a member of the + strain and
a member of the − strain.
• Although reproductively distinct, these two types are morphologically
identical; because of this it is not appropriate to refer to them as ‘male’ and
‘female’.
• When hyphae of opposite mating types come into contact, a cross-wall
develops a short distance behind each tip, and the regions thus isolated
swell to produce gametangia
 Sexual reproduction of Rhizopus (Cont…)
• These fuse to form a single large
multinucleate cell.
• At this stage, the nuclei from each
parent have paired up but not fused,
forming a dicaryon.
• Dicaryon formation is found in all
fungal phyla apart from the chytrids,
and may be regarded as an
intermediate stage between the
haploid and diploid conditions.
• The proportion of the life cycle it
occupies varies considerably.
• A thick protective covering develops around the dicaryon in Rhizopus,
forming the zygospore, which can survive extremes of draught and
temperature and may remain dormant for months.
• When conditions are favourable again, the nuclei from each strain
fuse in pairs, to give a fully diploid zygote.
• Just before germination, meiosis occurs, then an aerial
sporangiophore emerges, terminating in a sporangium.
• Production and dispersal of haploid spores then occur as in the
asexual life cycle and a new mycelium forms when a spore
germinates.
Mycorrhizal Fungi
Introduction
• The term “Mycorrhizae” coined by A.B. Frank
• Major types
• Ectomycorrhizal associations
• Endomycorrhizal association of Vesicular-Arbuscular (VA) type
• Both AM fungi and ectomycorrhizal fungi extend hyphae from the
root into the soil, and these external (or extraradical) hyphae are
responsible for translocating nutrients from the soil to the root.
Ectomycorrhizae
• the formation within the root of a hyphal network known as the
Hartig net around cortical cells
• A thick layer of hyphal mat on the root surface known as sheath or
mantle, which covers feeder roots.
• Leads to changes in feeder roots that are visible to the naked eye
• Feeder roots colonized by the fungi are thicker and more branched
than uncolonized roots
• Ectomycorrhizal feeder roots also tend to be colored differently.
Endomycorrhizae
• In endomycorrhizal associations of the VA type, the fungi penetrate
the cortical cells and form clusters of finely divided hyphae known as
arbuscules in the cortex
• They also form vesicles, which are membrane-bound organelles of
varying shapes, inside or outside the cortical cells
• Arbuscules are believed to be the sites where materials are
exchanged between the host plant and the fungi.
• Because vesicles are not always found in these types of mycorrhizal
associations, some researchers now prefer the designation arbuscular
mycorrhiza (AM) over the term vesicular-arbuscular (VA) mycorrhiza.
Endomycorrhizae
• In endomycorrhizal associations of the VA type, the fungi penetrate
the cortical cells and form clusters of finely divided hyphae known as
arbuscules in the cortex
• They also form vesicles, which are membrane-bound organelles of
varying shapes, inside or outside the cortical cells
• Arbuscules are believed to be the sites where materials are
exchanged between the host plant and the fungi.
• Because vesicles are not always found in these types of mycorrhizal
associations, some researchers now prefer the designation arbuscular
mycorrhiza (AM) over the term vesicular-arbuscular (VA) mycorrhiza.
Host Specificity
• AM associations occur in a wide spectrum of tropical and temperate
tree species.
• They are known not to occur only in a few plants, namely members of
the families Amaranthaceae, Pinaceae, Betulaceae, Cruciferae,
Chenopodiaceae, Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, Proteaceae, and
Polygonaceae.
• The ectomycorrhizas, on the other hand, occur primarily in temperate
forest species, although they have been reported to colonize a limited
number of tropical tree species.
 Functions of Mycorrhizal Fungi
• AM fungi absorb N, P, K, Ca, S, Cu, and Zn from the soil and translocate them to
associated plants
• AM fungi is in the improved uptake of immobile nutrients, particularly P, Cu,
and Zn.
• The fungi enhance immobile nutrient uptake by increasing the absorptive
surfaces of the root
• The supply of immobile nutrients to roots is largely determined by the rate of
diffusion.
• In soils not adequately supplied with nutrients, uptake of nutrients by plants
far exceeds the rate at which the nutrients diffuse into the root zone, resulting
in a zone around the roots depleted of the nutrients.
• Mycorrhizal fungi help overcome this problem by extending their external
hyphae to areas of soil beyond the depletion zone, thereby exploring a greater
volume of the soil than is accessible to the unaided root.
 Functions of Mycorrhizal Fungi (Cont…)
• AM Fungi increases in root phosphatase activity, excretion of chelating agents,
and rhizosphere acidification.
• hHyphal networks of AM fungi contribute significantly to the development of
soil aggregates, and hence to soil conservation