Chapter 4 :

Mill Operations
(Plantation Crop)
NOER HARTINI

AGR 626
POSTHARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING
Palm crude extraction
 FFB Evacuation/ Delivery To The Mill

O All FFB(fresh fruit bunches) & LF(Loose fruit) should be

delivered to the mill on the day of harvesting (within 24 hrs)

O Harvesting of over-ripe FFB and the delay in sending the FFB

to the mill will increase the level of Free Fatty Acid (FFA)

O Higher content of FFA will decrease the quality of processed

palm oil

O FFB delivered should be free from contamination e.g. stalks,

dirt, stones etc.

Elaeis guineensis
 FRUIT GRADING (MPOB Standard)

Ripe Bunch Fresh fruit bunches

➢ red and orange mesocarp orange ➢ is reddish orange or reddish purple and
outer coating mesocarp yellowish orange outer coating
➢ has at 10 fresh LF and more than ➢ Bunch has less than 10 fresh LF
50% were still attached ➢ must be sent to the factory within 24 hours
➢ must be sent to the factory within 24 after harvesting.
hours after harvesting.
Young Bunch Over ripe bunch
➢ black or purple-black and ➢ dark red fruit and more than 50%
mesocarp yellowish outer layer LF, at least 10% of fresh fruit still
➢ no LF attached
➢ must be sent to the factory within
24 hours after harvesting.
Empty fruit bunches Stinky bunch
➢ more than 90% of the bunches loose ➢ changed color to black, rotten and
moldy.
Over length of stalk bunch Unfresh bunch
➢ over 5 cm, measured from the ➢ bunches harvested left in the field
lowest level of the bunch stalk. for more than 48 hours before
being shipped to the factory
➢ bunches is usually dry and
blackish.
Old Bunch Debris bunch
➢ has been harvested and left long ➢ over half of the fruit surface muddy,
on the farm before being sent to sandy and mixed with the material
the mill of stone or other foreign
➢ Fruit still attached to the bunch
was wrinkled and dark brown in
color.
Small Bunch Poor bunch
➢ weighs less than 2.3 kg ➢ more than 30% of the fruit was
damaged by the pest animals,
especially rats.
 Dura Bunch of fresh fruit bunches is
characterized as follows:

➢ Shell thickness 2-8 mm

➢ The ratio of shell with fruit 25-50%
Abnormal bunch ➢ The ratio of the fruit mesocarp 20-60%
➢ abnormalities in size or density ➢ The ratio of kernel to fruit 4-20%
➢ No fiber loop around the seed
 African oil palm

[Link] - thick-shelled (shell is 2-8 mm thick, and 35-55% of the fruit's

weight)
[Link] - shell-less (mostly sterile)

[Link] - thin shelled (shell is 0.5-3 mm thick, and 1-32% of the fruits
weight), a cross between Dura and Pisifera
Loose fruit Wet bunch
➢ reddish orange fruits that fall ➢ has excessive water
from bunches content.
➢ should be sent to the factory
within 24 hours after the
bunches harvested.
O There are 2 major products in the FFB processing:

1)Crude Palm Oil (CPO) is extracted from the mesocarp of

fruits
- Palm olein which is liquid in hot climates and can be mixed
with any type of vegetable oil
- Palm stearin which is most solid fraction and can be used to
make fats, mainly margarines and soaps

2)Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) is extracted from the pericarp of

fruits
− Minor products: From kernel = palm kernel cake which
serves as animal feed (moderate % protein)

Elaeis guineensis
 CPO & PKO
FRUIT OF THE OIL PALM

MESOCARP CONTAINING
CRUDE PALM OIL (CPO)

ENDOCARP/
HARD SHELL
PERICARP CONTAINING PALM
KERNEL OIL (PKO)
Oil Mill Process Flow
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

1) Reception
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

1) Reception
- FFB is delivered to a raised ramp in the mill
- FFB may be stored for several hours on the ramp, until the
mill is ready process them

- Hydraulics doors is used to control the loading of the FFB

into steriliser cages
- Each cage can contain about 1.5 – 2.5 mt FFB
- When ready, the cages are pushed on the rails into the
steriliser

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

2) Sterilization
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

2) Sterilization
- Achieved by steam injection into the FFB: 1 – 1.5 hrs @
120 – 150˚C
- To remove external impurities
- To loosen the fruits from the bunches
- To prevent FFA build up by inactivating the lypolytic
enzymes

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

2) Sterilization
- To soften the pericarp, ready for digestion & easier for oil to
release
- To dehydrate the fruit to achieve favourable ratio of water
to oil in pericarp
- To kill any fungi and bacteria if any

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

3) Stripping/ Threshing
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

3) Stripping/ Threshing
- To strip and separate the fruits from the empty bunch,
consisting of the stalk and spikelets
- Drum stripper/ threshing drum = Fruits can fall through but
the bunches remain inside the drum
- Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) are either conveyed to an EFB
hopper to transport back to the field as mulch @ burn in the
incinerator to become Bunch ash

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

4) Digestion
- Fruits from the stripper is carried by conveyor belt to the
digester
- Fruit is cooked with steam and broken with rotating beaters
in digesters
- To pulverise the fruits, loosening the pulp from the nut
- Thorough digestion is critical for efficient pressing

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

5) Pressing
- To extract the oil under high pressure but do not crack the
nuts
- The press capacity determine the throughput of the mill e.g.
20 mt/hr
- The digested mixture of fibre, oil and nuts is forced through
press cylinder by the rotation movement
- Residues from pressing contains the nuts, fibre & other debris
= “press cake”

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

6) Screening
- The crude oil from the press consists of a mixture of oil, water
and other non-oily solids such as dirt & fibre
- To separate all these components
- In settling tanks, the oil/water mixture is fed into the middle
of the tank while separated oil is steadily removed from the
top and waste (sludge) from the bottom

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

7) Clarifying & 8) Purifying

- The purpose of oil clarification/purification is to minimize

levels of moisture, dirt and other impurities

- To prevent the deterioration in quality during storage and

transportation of palm oil

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

9) Drying
- Finally the oil must be dried by the use of vapour extraction
units or vacuum dryer
- To reduce the moisture content and to prevent the FFA
formation

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

10) Storing
- Finally the purified oil is pumped to storage tank (welded
steel tank)
- The tanks contain heating coils to prevent crystallization
- Filled with CO2 above the oil to prevent oxidation
- Controlled temperature = 32 – 40˚C

Elaeis guineensis
 CPO STANDARD SPECIFICATION

1) FFA: 5% Maximum
2) Moisture & Impurities: 0.25% Maximum
3) Iodine Value: 56 Minimum
4) Melting Point: 36 - 50 deg. Maximum
5) DOBI: 2.31 Minimum
6) Cloud point: 3.5R 3.5Y
 QUALITY

O Reasons for low quality production of palm oil:

1) Poor quality of planting materials

2) Fruit damage/ long FFB stalks
3) Harvesting of unripe & overripe FFB
4) Delay in the evacuation & processing of FFB
5) Improper FFB processing techniques in the mill –
duration, pressure, temperature etc.

Elaeis guineensis
 Kernel oil extraction Palm Kernel Oil
(PKO) 2
Nut screening Fibre
Kernel & shell & separation
Kernel drying separation cracking
1
FFB Reception Kernel Shell Cake (nuts & moist fibre)
EFB

Sterilization Stripping/ Digestion Pressing

Threshing

Drying Purifying Clarifying Screening

Recovered Oil
Oil Storage Tank = Crude Palm Oil Oil Recovering
(CPO)
Sludge

Effluent Treatment Plant POME

 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING: PKO

- The cake coming from the presses consists of nuts & moist
fibre, with some residual oil
- The extract the Palm Kernel Oil (PKO), it is necessary to:
1) Separate the nuts from the fibre (Fibre separation)
2) Crack the nuts (Nut screening & cracking)
3) Separate the kernels from the cracked shells (Kernel &
shell separation)
4) Dry the kernel (Kernel drying)

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

1) Fibre separation
- Press cake is separated
- A conveyor is used into a vertical airstream to carry the fibre
upwards while the nuts fall into a smaller, lower rotating
drum

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

2) Nut screening & cracking

- Then, the separated nuts are conveyed to screens for grading
by size
- They are stored in heated silo for short time before they are
cracked
- The clean nuts must be dry enough to get a proper cracking

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

3) Kernel & shell separation

- Shell and kernel are separated through specific gravity such
the shell sank while the kernels floated

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

4) Kernel drying
- Fresh kernels have a moisture content about 20% and cannot
be stored without deterioration
- Drying is usually done in a silo
- Fresh kernels are fed in at the top, warm air is blown upwards
from below and dry kernel (7% moisture) are removed at the
base

Elaeis guineensis
 PALM OIL MILL PROCESSING

5) Kernel oil extraction

- Palm kernels oil are extracted in only a few mills
- This is not usually worthwhile because of the limited local
market for the residue, palm kernel cake

Elaeis guineensis
 Beneficial by Products

O During oil extraction, some beneficial by products are also

produced such as Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB), Bunch ash,
Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) and palm kernel shell

O EFB, Bunch ash, POME & compost contain nutrients and can
be applied back to the field as fertilizers

O Palm kernel shell can be used as mulch and burning medium

Elaeis guineensis
 Beneficial by Products

PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENT (POME)

 Beneficial by Products
EMPTY FRUIT BUNCHES (EFB)
Beneficial by Products

COMPOST
Beneficial by Products
BUNCH ASH
Beneficial by Products

PALM KERNEL SHELL

Rubber processing
O Latex is a mixture of compounds borne in special structures
called laticifers.

O The composition differs in different species, but typically

contains water, terpenes, sugars, enzymes, etc.

O Latex in the latex vessels of tapped trees contains 30 %

rubber in the form of particles known as Dry Rubber Content
(DRC)

O DRC is the quantity in g of rubber present in 100 g latex

 Why need DRC?
O Natural latex not only contains the polymer rubber but
many other (NRS) Non Rubber Solids, most of which are
proteins as tabulated.
O Table 1. Composition of latex Constituents % Composition
Rubber particles (cis-1, poly isoprene) 30.0-40.0 Protein
2.0-3.0 Water 55.0-65.0 Steril glycosides 0.1-0.5 Resins 1.5-
3.5 Ash 0.5-1.0
O Most of the proteins seen in natural rubber are found to be
allergy causing to the human body if held in contact for a
long period.
O Therefore industries demand for rubber with a high dry
rubber content (DRC) and with the least percentage of
NRS.
A laticifer is a type of elongated secretory cell
found in the leaves and/or stems of plants that
produce latex and rubber as secondary
metabolites.
O All payment regarding the sale and purchase of rubber
latex are based on the late DRC

O The ‘Chee' method is used to calculate the DRC

O Cleanliness is important in rubber processing

O Grading of Ribbed Smoke Sheet (RSS) is very important to

determine the quality of RSS

Hevea brasiliensis
 Step in Chee Methods

1. Filter the latex and measure in kg unit.

2. Take 50g of latex and pour in the clean cup as sample.
3. Coagulate the latex with 25g formic acid 2%.
4. Clean the coagulated latex properly and thinning to 2
mm (known as biscuit).
5. Dry the biscuit in oven with 70°c for 16 hours.
6. Scale the biscuit in gram unit.
 Calculate how much DRC is present in 45 kg of latex.
[Given: Initial reading of the sample = 50 gm; the final
reading = 15 gm]

% of DRC = Final reading X 100%

Initial reading

= 15 X 100% = 30%
50
Total weight of DRC in the sample = 45 kg X 30%
= 13.5 kg
 COAGULATION

O In ordinary circumstances, the latex will normally coagulate

into a lump in the bottom of the cup, called 'cup lump'

O If the plantation manager wants to make latex, then the

tapper must add a stabilizing agent to the cup

O Usually this is AMMONIA, which prevents the latex from

coagulating
O Formic acid is a chemical use to coagulate latex

O In the factory, nitrium sulfate and ammonia or formalin

are being added to the latex, which will then form hardened
coagulum

Hevea brasiliensis
 RUBBER PRODUCTS

O Latex concentrate
O Rubber sheets
O Processed dry rubber
O Block rubber under Standard Malaysian Rubber
(SMR) technical specifications
O Valuable tropical timber (Rubber wood)

Hevea brasiliensis
 IMPORTANCE OF RUBBER

O 2 important commodities of commercial value - rubber

(as latex or sheets) and wood
O Major raw material for world’s important industries

O Automobile industry
O Transportation industry
O Pharmaceutical & health industry
O Furniture industry
O Engineering – roads, bridges
O Specialized applications

Hevea brasiliensis
 Latex from
Hevea brasiliensis
Collecting latex

Coagulating latex

Rolling coagulated latex

into sheet
Pressing water from
coagulated sheet of latex

Drying latex sheets

Collecting and grading
latex
Transporting latex to factory
Coagulating latex
Forming sheets from
coagulated latex
Rolling and pressing sheets of coagulated latex
Cutting and hanging
latex sheets
Smoking latex sheets
DRYING RUBBER SHEETS
Organizing and pressing
crude rubber sheets for
shipment
 Major defects in RSS

Defects Causes

Small sand dirt, or Improper bulking and

foreign particles in the sieving
sheet
Small bubbles along the (1) insufficient mixing
edges of rubber sheets of the acid with latex
(2) insufficient acid for
coagulation
 Major defects in RSS
Defects Causes

Pinhead bubbles in Caused by bacterial

clusters all over the sheets growth

Small white specks and Mainly due to

irregular bubbles pre-coagulated latex

Blisters and large Bubbles Rapid drying in the

smoke house
 Major defects in RSS

Defects Causes

Burnt and High temperature drying and

oxidized Sheets flame directly reaching the
sheet
Weak sheets High dilution of field latex
and sheeting before
maturation.
 Major defects in RSS

Defects Causes
Mould Improper drying and storage under
moist conditions.
Rust Improper washing of the
coagulum during and
after sheeting.
 Major defects in RSS

Defects Causes
Stickiness High dosage of coagulant and high
temperature drying and drying in
sunlight alone.

Discolouration Atmospheric oxidation

during coagulation.
Cocoa processing
O Harvesting cocoa is done by cutting the stalk with a machete,
a pruning pole, pruning shears or a sickle. Avoid damaging
the flower cushions which will produce the flowers and fruits
of the subsequent harvests.

O Next, remove the pods from the plantation and transport

them to the pod-breaking site.
POD BREAKING/SPLITTING
Avoid Accidental cutting of Beans During Pod
Breaking
Mechanization In Cocoa Splitting
 Wet Bean Collection

O Cocoa bean must be scooped out of the split pod and the
placenta by using hands

O Good and damage or defective beans must be separated to

ensure uniformity in fermentation

O The good beans are placed in gunny sacks and transported

to the factory to undergo fermentation process

Theobroma cacao
 Wet Bean Collection

O The empty husks are scattered within the fields

to return nutrients to the soil and serve as
breeding places for the midges that pollinate
the cocoa flowers

O However, precautions have to be made because

it is important to avoid any pest and disease
buildup

Theobroma cacao
 Cocoa beans

O Cocoa is one of the many foods whose characteristic flavour

is developed through a curing process

O The process, also referred to as fermenting

O Involves microbial activities on the cocoa bean mucilage,
producing alcohol, acetic & lactic acid

Theobroma cacao
O The process produces heat which causes the death
of the cocoa beans & triggers biochemical reactions
which result in the formation of flavour precursors

O These flavour precursors produce chocolate flavour

upon roasting

Theobroma cacao
 Primary
(Fresh pod to dry
cocoa beans)
Cocoa Beans
Processing
Secondary
(Dry cocoa beans
to other products)
FRESH COCOA BEANS

FERMENTATION

FRESH COCOA BEANS PROCESSING (Primary) DRYING

DRY COCOA BEANS

 DRY COCOA BEANS PROCESSING (Secondary)

Dry Cocoa Beans cleaning pre-heating

roasted Cocoa Nibs crushing & grinding

pressing
blending Cocoa Liquor

Cocoa Powder Cocoa Cake Cocoa Fat

Freshly harvested cocoa beans are transported to the factory for processing
 Definition Of Fermentation

Fermentation =
➢ Exothermic process that involves microbial
activities in the mucilaginous pulp producing
alcohol, acids, liberate heat & simultaneously
triggers biochemical reactions in the bean. The
process can be divided into external & internal
fermentations

Theobroma cacao
 External Fermentation

Reactions in the external fermentation:

1) Sugars are converted to ethanol by yeast

2) Bacteria oxidizes the ethanol into acetic acid
3) Acetic acid is oxidized to carbon dioxide and
water
4) The pulps start to break down and drain
away

Theobroma cacao
 Internal Fermentation

Reactions in the internal fermentation:

1) Complex chemical changes such as enzyme

activity
2) Oxidation process
3) Break down of protein into amino acids
4) Developing of chocolate flavor (flavonoid) and
color

Theobroma cacao
 Objectives Of Fermentation

1. To produce good chocolate flavor pre-cursors

2. To remove pulp (mucilage) surrounding the
beans
3. To “kill” the cocoa beans – prevent from
germinating
4. Chocolate beans dry more easily
5. To prevent the breakdown of cocoa fat

Theobroma cacao
 Guidelines During Fermentation

O Ensure sufficient quantity of cocoa beans is collected before

commencement of the fermentation process. A minimum of
100 kg is considered adequate

O Avoid small quantities of cocoa beans as they have large

surface area to volume ratio & will prevent heat formation

O In smallholdings with low production (less than 100 kg)

capacities, fermentation can be conducted in gunny bags,
rattan baskets or perforated plastic containers

Theobroma cacao
 Methods of Fermentation

O There are 2 basic fermentation methods;

1) Heap fermentation
2) Shallow box fermentation

O Both of the methods involve heaping fresh beans so as

to allow proliferation of microorganisms

Theobroma cacao
 HEAP FERMENTATION

Beans heaped on banana leaves Beans covered with banana leaves

 HEAP FERMENTATION

Beans heaped on the box Beans covered with gunny sack

 HEAP FERMENTATION

O Most common method of fermentation and widely

practiced in the West African countries

O Wet beans are placed on banana leaves to form a

heap of 60 - 90 cm height

O The heap is covered with banana leaves & left to

ferment from 5 - 7 days

Theobroma cacao
 HEAP FERMENTATION

O Placement of the heap on a raised wooden

platform to facilitate drainage of the sweating is
strongly recommended

O The leaf covers are opened on the 2nd and 4th day

O Manual mixing is performed on the fermenting

mass

Theobroma cacao
 SHALLOW BOX FERMENTATION

O This method of fermentation is recommended

O Shallow boxes are made from hardwood such as

‘cengal’

O Different sizes can be used, but they should be at

least about 30 cm deep to generate sufficient
heat during fermentation

Theobroma cacao
 SHALLOW BOX FERMENTATION

O Dimension of box normally used is 3 m x 2 m x 1

m deep

O As a guide, 0.9 meter2 can fill up about 24 kg of

wet cocoa beans

O Adequate drainage holes provided in the boxes to

allow the liquid from the mucilage to drain away

Theobroma cacao
 SHALLOW BOX FERMENTATION

O One box is placed on the ground while three other

boxes are placed consecutively on higher levels to
facilitate turning

O In order to overcome the excessive acidity and

weak cocoa flavour problem, the boxes are fully
covered with a padding of banana leaves

Theobroma cacao
 SHALLOW BOX FERMENTATION

O Fermentation commences by placing fresh beans

into the shallow box at the highest level first which
is considered as day 1

O On day 3 and 5, the beans are moved to the boxes at

the subsequent lower levels

O At day 7, the beans are dried

Theobroma cacao
Different sizes of shallow boxes for varying quantities
of fresh beans
 DAY 1

DAY 3

DAY 5

DAY 7 - Drying

Box dimension = 3 m x 2 m x 1 m
 A Typical Schedule of Box Fermentation

O DAY 1 – Wet beans are filled into the highest box

by early afternoon

O DAY 2 – Beans are turned in the morning and the

expose surface is covered with a plastic sheet or
gunny sack

O DAY 3 – Beans are transferred to the middle box.

Temperature should be rising to 45 °C

Theobroma cacao
 A Typical Schedule of Box Fermentation

O DAY 4 – Beans are turned in the morning. Temperature

should above 45 - 50 °C
O DAY 5 – Beans are transferred to the lowest box.
Temperature will DECREASE rapidly

O DAY 6 – Fermentation ends. Beans are turned five times

a day at every 2 hours interval to remove excess acidity.
Beans are left uncovered when they turn dark brown
and the acid smell decreases

O DAY 7 – Beans are unloaded out of the box to undergo

DRYING process

Theobroma cacao
Wet Beans in a Fermentation Box
 Changes As Cocoa Beans Are Fermented

DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4

DAY 6 DAY 5

Changes as cocoa beans are

fermented from Day 2 – Day 6
 TERMINATION OF FERMENTATION PROCESS

1) The white mucilage on the outside of the beans should

have turned a milk chocolate brown color

2) The beans produce a brown and not purple liquid when

individually squeezed

3) Cocoa beans are dry, separated from each other, blotted

and reddish in colour

Theobroma cacao
 TERMINATION OF FERMENTATION PROCESS

4) The temperature of fermenting mass decreases

rapidly

5) There is a decrease in the odor of acetic acid

6) Cut test shows that the beans are light purple

surrounded by chocolate colour

Theobroma cacao
 Considerations During Fermentation

O Extracted fresh beans should be fermented ON

THE SAME DAY as pod breaking to ensure that
the dried beans have high flavour precursors

O Good fermentation is achieved when the

temperature of the fermenting mass increases
from room temperature to about 50 ͦC and
decreases at the end of the process

Theobroma cacao
 Considerations During Fermentation

O The fermenting mass should be mixed and turned

periodically every 2 days to obtain a hot
fermentation, adequate aeration and uniformity of
fermentation

O The fermenting mass should be kept covered with

gunny sack or banana leaves at all times to reduce
heat and moisture loss

Theobroma cacao
 Considerations During Fermentation

O When fermentation is completed, the beans should

be removed immediately from the boxes & dried to
avoid over-fermentation

O Over-fermentation result in the loss of flavour

precursors

O The average length of fermentation process is 7 days

Theobroma cacao
 Factors That Affect Fermentation Process

O Turning & Aeration

O Duration
O Quantities of fermentation medium
O Ripeness level of pods
O Pod diseases
O Cocoa Varieties - Forastero 5 days & Criollo 2-3
days
O Climatic and seasonal differences
O Storage of pods
 CUT TEST

O Cut Test in cocoa refers to Fermentation Test

O Principle – To determine the percentage of

defective beans from whole cocoa beans and the
level of fermentation on cocoa beans

O Involves in the method of assessing the quality

grade standard

Theobroma cacao
 CUT TEST - PROCEDURES

1) The sample of whole cocoa beans from the bean

count is used for the cut test

2) Bean size @ bean count is measured by the

number of beans required to make a weight of 100
g

3) Cut all beans lengthwise through the middle, so as

to expose the maximum cut surface of the
cotyledons

Theobroma cacao
 CUT TEST - PROCEDURES

4) Examine visually both halves of each bean in full

light for its level of fermentation and defects

5) Count separately the number of defective beans.

I.e. mouldy beans, slaty beans, insect damaged
beans and germinated beans. Where a bean has
multiple defects, count only one defect which
occurs according to the order (germinated bean,
insect damage, slaty bean, mouldy bean)

Theobroma cacao
 CUT TEST - PROCEDURES

6) The results for each kind of defect shall be

expressed as percentage by the number of beans
examined

Defective beans (%) = Number of DEFECTIVE beans X 100

Number of whole beans

Theobroma cacao
 CUT TEST - PROCEDURES

7) The degree of fermentation shall be expressed as

percentage by the number of beans examined

Fermented beans (%) = Number of FULLY BROWN beans X

100
Number of whole beans

Theobroma cacao
 Assessments of Quality Level of Fermentation

Fully/Well fermented - Brownish colour

Under fermented - Partly brown, partly purple (Slaty)
Over fermented - Fully purple

CATEGORY FERMENTATION LEVEL

Good > 60 % of the cut bean is fully brown

Moderately Good 45 – 60 % of the cut bean is fully brown

Fairly Good < 45 % of the cut bean is fully brown

FRESH COCOA BEANS

FERMENTATION

FRESH COCOA BEANS PROCESSING DRYING

(Primary)

DRY COCOA BEANS

 DRYING

O To stop the fermentation process

O 100 kg of wet seed reduces to 45 kg of dry seed because loss
of moisture and changes that occur during the process
O The beans undergo complex chemical reactions during
drying
O Proper drying methods must be employed to maintain &
preserve bean worthiness

Theobroma cacao
 Objective Of Drying Process

✓ To stop the excess of fermentation (over

fermentation)

✓ To change the colour of the beans

✓ To decreased the bitter taste

✓ To prevent the development of fungus in long

duration storage

Theobroma cacao
 DRYING

O Drying will arrest bean fermentation and also

reduces the moisture content from 55 - 60% to
about 6 - 7%

O Drying process is carried out either naturally or

artificially

O Naturally = Sun or natural drying is inexpensive

because it uses the sun as the source of heat

Theobroma cacao
 DRYING PROCESS
OF COCOA BEANS

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

Sun Samoan
Drying Dryer

Circular
Dryer
 SUN DRYING

O Sun drying is a simple, effective & an economic

method in drying fermented beans

O Highly recommended method due to its slow

drying rate and also produces better quality
beans

O Sun drying is not favorable in regions where peak

harvesting periods coincide with rainy season

Theobroma cacao
 SUN DRYING

O To spread the fermented beans on the ground,

layered with a mat

O The thickness of the spread must be limited to ‘one

bean thickness’ to ensure optimum sunray
penetration

O Beans must be periodically mixed every 2 to 3 hours

to avoid overheating while maintaining drying
uniformity

Theobroma cacao
 SUN DRYING

O Mixing the beans using a wooden rake is

recommended as metal rakes may cause
discoloration of the beans

O During mixing, the husk fragment or placenta is

separated from the mass to obtain a clean and high
quality of dry beans

Theobroma cacao
 SUN DRYING
O Alternatively, fermented beans can be sun dried on slated
raised bamboo or wooden platforms to prevent
contamination

O Raised platforms give the advantage of ambient air draft

to further increase the drying rate

O In a big cocoa farms, moveable roofs are built over the

platform to facilitate covering of the beans during rain

O Depending on weather conditions, sun drying is usually

completed in 7 days

Theobroma cacao
Sun drying - Drying of fermented cocoa beans on a
drying yard
 DRYING PROCESS
OF COCOA BEANS

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

Sun Samoan
Drying Dryer

Circular
Dryer
 ARTIFICIAL DRYING – SAMOAN DRYER

O Is useful when the harvesting season frequently

coincides with the rainy season

O Samoan dryer consists of a drying platform and a

heating flue

O Drying platform is constructed from concrete,

rectangular in shape. Recommended measurement
is 2.5 m width, 5.0 m length and 2.5 m depth

Theobroma cacao
 ARTIFICIAL DRYING – SAMOAN DRYER

O Flue is located at bottom of platform and is made

from used or discarded oil drums joint together

O Temperatures of 60 – 80 ͦC are easily attainable

and solid fuels (firewood) can be used

O The duration of drying is normally 2 to 3 days

Theobroma cacao
SAMOAN DRYER – Using fire wood as fuel
 ARTIFICIAL DRYING – CIRCULAR DRYER

O Sometimes referred as Uni-dryer

O The dryer is circular with the platform diameter
reaching to 4.5 m
O A single batch can accommodate about 5 mt of
beans
O The dryer is equipped with rotating agitator arm
that spanning across the dryer platform for mixing
the beans

Theobroma cacao
 ARTIFICIAL DRYING – CIRCULAR DRYER

O Forced convection is used to supply hot air to the

drying platform
O The hot air can reach 80 - 90 ͦC but it is
recommended to keep the temperature at 60 -
70 ͦC so as to prevent rapid drying
O Advantages : All weathers condition, Absence of
manual mixing and a large beans load for drying

Theobroma cacao
A Circular dryer in the foreground with fermentary
boxes in the background
CIRCULAR DRYER – Beans are mechanically stirred
for slow and even drying
 DRYING PROCESS GUIDELINES

O As general rule, physical inspection by grasping a

handful of the beans and pressing them together
can be used to determine sufficient drying.

O If the beans crackle when pressed, they are

sufficiently dried

O The moisture content in the dried cocoa beans

should be 6 - 7%. The moisture content can be
measured by using protimeter

Theobroma cacao
Protimeter is used for measuring cocoa bean
moisture content
 DRYING PROCESS GUIDELINES

O Overly rapid drying of beans can lead to a build

up of high acetic acid content in the beans with a
bitter flavour

O Too slow drying can lead to off-flavors and

mouldy beans

O At the bean surface, temperatures should be low

to avoid hardening of the beans

Theobroma cacao
 GRADING & QUALITY CONTROL

O After fermenting and drying, cocoa beans have to

be graded according to selected criteria before
they are bagged

O Enforced in 1984, the primary criterion of the

Standard Malaysian Cocoa (SMC) Scheme are:
1) Bean size
2) Beans with defect

Theobroma cacao
 CRITERIA OF COCOA GRADING

O Bean size @ bean count = Measured by the number of

beans required to make a weight of 100 g

O Perform a preliminary inspection; insect, unwanted

materials, moisture content

O 20% will be randomly selected for cut test

O Inspection of not well drying, fungus, smoky
O Inspection of defect during fermentation

Theobroma cacao
 Defective Beans

➢ Defective beans = Cocoa beans which are internally

mouldy, slaty, insect damaged and germinated

DEFECTIVE BEANS

INSECT
MOULDY SLATY GERMINATED
DAMAGED
DEFECTIVE BEANS

Mouldy Bean
Cocoa bean on the internal parts
of which mould is visible to the
naked eye

Slaty Bean
Cocoa bean which shows a slaty
colour on half or more of the
surface (brown purplish)
DEFECTIVE BEANS

Insect Damaged Beans

Cocoa bean of which the internal
parts are found to have been
infested by insects which have
infected damage visible to the
naked eye

Germinated Bean
Cocoa bean of which the shell has
been pierced, slit or broken by the
growth of the seed germ
 Poor cocoa beans that could lower bean quality and
grade

Double Bean Clumped Bean Broken Bean

Two beans fused More than 2 beans are Cocoa bean of which a
together which cannot fused together which fragment is missing, the
be separated by hand cannot be separated by missing part being
hand equivalent to less than
half of the bean
 Poor cocoa beans that could lower bean quality and
grade

Flat Bean Purple Bean

Cocoa bean of which the Cocoa bean of which is purple
cotyledons are too thin to be in colour when being cut. This
cut to give a full length of the is due to the incomplete
cotyledon surface fermentation process
 Mix of waste materials that lower cocoa bean
quality and grade

Cocoa Shells Placenta

Mix of waste materials that lower cocoa bean
quality and grade

Foreign Matter Content

 Specifications for Standard Malaysian Cocoa (SMC)
Grades
1) Beans Size 2) Beans with Defect

Germinated
/ Insect
Bean Count Mouldy
Slaty Beans Damaged
Grades (Per 100 g) Beans
(% max) Beans
(% max)
(% max)
SMC 1 < 100 < 3.0 < 3.0 < 2.5
SMC 2 100 - 110 < 3.0 < 3.0 < 2.5
SMC 3 110 - 120 < 3.0 < 3.0 < 2.5
Sub-Standard > 120 > 3.0 > 3.0 > 2.5

* Slaty = Brown purplish beans

Specifications for Standard Malaysian Cocoa (SMC)
Grades
SMC 2 SMC 3 SMC 1

MALAYSIAN COCOA BEANS

 Basic Requirements of Standard Malaysian
Cocoa In Packaging

Parameter Standard
Fermentation Well-fermented
Presence of Live Insects Free
Debris & Waste Content < 2.0%
Foreign Matter Free
Humidity Content < 7.5%
Smoky Smell Free
Beans Uniformity Uniform
Weight 62.5 kg net/bag
Packaging New and clean gunny sack
Marking on Bag Clear and visible
 STORAGE

O Dry cocoa beans should be packed in a new and

clean gunny sack

O The gunnies are then arranged on the wooden

pallets to get a better ventilation and aeration

Theobroma cacao
 Stages Involved in
Processing Cocoa From
Fresh Ripe Pods to Dry
Cocoa Beans (Primary
Processing)
 Primary
(Fresh pod to dry
cocoa beans)
Cocoa Beans
Processing
Secondary
(Dry cocoa beans
to other products)
 DRY COCOA BEANS PROCESSING (Secondary)

Dry Cocoa Beans Cleaning Pre-heating

Roasting Cocoa Nibs Crushing & Grinding

Pressing
Blending Cocoa Liquor

Cocoa Powder Cocoa Cake Cocoa Fat

 DRY COCOA BEAN PROCESSING : SECONDARY

O After cocoa beans inspection, they will be loaded to

CLEANING process for eliminating unwanted
materials such as stone, metal, rope, etc.

O PRE-HEATED will take place. This will make the

crushing and grinding process become easily

O CRUSHING & GRINDING process will separate

the nib and seed cover to produce COCOA NIB

Theobroma cacao
 DRY COCOA BEAN PROCESSING : SECONDARY

O Cocoa nib is then been ROASTED for 35 - 45

minutes at 135 - 145 ͦC

O The purpose is to get the taste (aroma) of

chocolate, to eliminate the acidic taste, to reduce
the bitter taste, to get more darker colour of
chocolate and to reduce the water content. This
process also can ‘kill’ the Salmonella sp. which
can cause food poisoning

Theobroma cacao
 DRY COCOA BEAN PROCESSING : SECONDARY

O After that, the nib will be BLENDED and this will develop
the COCOA LIQUOR (55% of cocoa fat)

O Finally, the PRESSING is done to pull out/ to press out the

COCOA FAT from the cocoa liquor

O The end product is COCOA FAT and others such COCOA

CAKE which can be blended to get the COCOA POWDER

Theobroma cacao
Clean cocoa beans are passed through an infrared micronizer to
pre-dry the beans and prepare them for breaking and winnowing

BEFORE

AFTER
The breaking and winnowing machines break the beans into
small pieces called nibs, and separate the shells from the
medium and fine nibs
The nibs are then fed into a roaster, which roast the nibs for 45
minutes at a temperature 110-125 ͦC to bring out the chocolate
flavour and aroma
 The pre-grinder (background) and fine-grinder (foreground)
reduces the roasted nibs into a thick fluid known as cocoa liquor
The cocoa press squeezes the liquid (cocoa fat or butter) fraction out of
the cocoa liquor, leaving the solid (cocoa cake) fraction. The cocoa cake
is removed from the press and milled to obtain cocoa powder
Paddy milling
O Harvesting rice consists of the basic operations cutting,
threshing, and cleaning.

O These activities can be done in individual steps or in

combination using a combine harvester.

O Cutting is the first operation in harvesting. Depending on the

crop's condition, and availability of labor or machinery,
cutting can be done either manually or mechanically.
O Threshing is the process of separating the grain from the straw. It can
be either done by hand, by using a treadle thresher or mechanized.

O Clean grain has a higher value than grain that is contaminated with
straw, weed seeds, soil, rubbish, and other non-grain materials.

O Grain cleaning will improve the drying, the storability of grain, reduce
dockage at time of milling, and improve milling output and quality.
O Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice.

O The basic objective of a rice milling system is to remove

the husk and the bran layers, and produce an
edible, white rice kernel that is sufficiently milled and
free of impurities.

IRRI
O Milling is a term that describes the processes of converting
paddy into rice. It includes:

O Cleaning: Removing foreign material such as particles of sand,

stones, straw, seeds, etc. from the paddy.

O Dehusking and husk separation: Removing the husk from the

paddy with a minimum of damage to the grain, and separating
the husk from the paddy.
O Paddy separation: Separating dehusked paddy from any
remaining paddy grains. Most dehuskers remove about 90% of
the husk.

O Bran removal: Removing all or part of the bran layer from the
grain to produce polished rice.

O Grading: Separating (or grading) broken from unbroken rice.

The brokens are often separated into different sizes.
 Milling System

O A rice milling system can be a simple one or two step

process, or a multistage process.

O In a one step milling process, husk and bran removal are

done in one pass and milled or white rice is produced
directly out of paddy.

O In a two step process, removing husk and removing bran are

done separately, and brown rice is produced as an
intermediate product.

O In multistage milling, rice will undergo a number of different

processing steps.
O A commercial rice miller will have following objectives:

O produce edible rice that appeals to the customer- i.e. rice

that is sufficiently milled and free of husks, stones, and
other non-grain materials

O maximize the total milled rice recovery out of paddy

minimize grain breakage
 Physical Characteristics of rice

Physical characteristic Percentage

Paddy 100

Husk 20

Brown rice 80

Meal 8-10
Pericarp and testa (5-6%)
Aluerone (1%)
Embryo (3%)

White rice 70-72

IRRI
 Chemical Characteristics
Brown rice White rice Bran

Moisture 13-14 13-14 13-14

content (%)
Starch (%) 68-70 80 9

Amylose 28-30 33 6

Protein (%) 6-8 6-7 14

Fat 3 1 20
Fiber 2-3 0.5 25
Crude ash 1-1.5 0.5 9-10
 Milling Options

1. Hand Milling
2. One step milling process
3. Two-step process
4. Multistage process
 RICE MILLING SYSTEMS AT THE VILLAGE LEVEL

O Village-type rice mills can be found in rural communities

and are used for service milling paddy of farmers for home
consumption.

O Their capacities range from 45 to 500 kg of paddy/ hour.

Single-machine mills are powered by electric motors, diesel
engines, or tractors.
Pestle and mortar
O Hand pounding of
paddy in a mortar with
a pestle is the
traditional milling
process in remote
villages.
 Single pass steel mill

O Steel friction mill

O Very high pressure
O Originated from coffee
grinder
O Low white rice recovery (
50-55%)
O Head rice less than 30%
O Often used for par boiled
rice
 Two Stage Mill

O Super seeded Engleberg

(steel) mill
O Separate hulling and
whitening
O Rubber roller huller
O Steel friction polisher
O Capacity 0.5-1t/hr
O Milling recovery - 60%
 COMMERCIAL RICE MILLING SYSTEMS

O Commercial milling systems mill the paddy in stages, and

hence are called multi-stage or multi-pass rice mills.

O The objective of commercial rice milling is to

O reduce mechanical stresses and heat buildup in the grain,
thereby minimizing grain breakage and producing uniformly
polished grain. Compared to village-level systems, the
commercial milling system is a more sophisticated system
configured to maximize the process of producing well-milled,
whole grains.
O Modern rice milling processes consist of:

O Pre-cleaning - removing all impurities and unfilled grains from the

paddy
O Husking - removing the husk from the paddy
O Husk aspiration - separating the husk from the brown
rice/unhusked paddy
O Paddy separation - separating the unhusked paddy from the brown
rice
O De-stoning - separating small stones from the brown rice
O Whitening - removing all or part of the bran layer and germ from the
brownrice
O Polishing - improving the appearance of milled rice by removing
remaining ran particles and by polishing the exterior of the milled
kernel
O Sifting - separating small impurities or chips from the milled rice
O Length grading - separating small and large brokens from the head
rice
O Blending - mix head rice with predetermined amount of brokens, as
required by the customer
O Weighing and bagging - preparing milled rice for transport to the
customer
1 - paddy is dumped in the intake pit feeding the pre-cleaner
2 - pre-cleaned paddy moves to the rubber roll husker:
3 - mixture of brown rice and unhusked paddy moves to the separator
4 - unhusked paddy is separated and returned to the rubber roll husker
5 - brown rice moves to the destoner
6 - de-stoned, brown rice moves to the 1st stage (abrasive) whitener
7 - partially milled rice moves to the 2nd stage (friction) whitener
8 - milled rice moves to the sifter
9a - (for simple rice mill) ungraded, milled rice moves to bagging station
9b - (for more sophisticated mill) milled rice moves to the polisher
10 - Polished rice, will move to length grader
11 - Head rice moves to head rice bin
12 - Brokens moves to brokens bin
13 - Pre-selected amount of head rice and brokens move to blending station
14 - Custom-made blend of head rice and brokens moves to bagging station
15 - Bagged Rice moves to the market
A - straw, chaff and empty grains are removed
B - husk removed by the aspirator
C - small stones, mud balls etc. removed by de-stoner
D - Coarse (from 1st whitener) and fine (from 2nd whitener) bran removed
from the rice grain during the whitening process
E - Small brokens/brewer’s rice removed by the sifter
 Multistage Mill
1. Pre-cleaning the paddy prior to
milling
2. Removing the husk or outer
layer from the paddy

3. Polishing or whiting the brown

rice to remove the bran layer
4. Separating the broken grains
from the whole kernels

5. Bagging the milled rice

6. Managing the by-products
 Pre-cleaning
Equipment
O Oscillating Sieve type
O Aspiration cum Oscillation
Type
O Rotary Cleaner
 Process of separation

Process

1. Scalp larger objects

2. Retain desired size/weight
3. Removes small size or
lighter weight material
 Separating bins

O Separates into head rice,

large brokens and small
broken

O Mix any combination on belt

by variable speed delivery
motors in each outlet
 Bagging Station
O Rice normally sold in 50kg
bags

O Accurately weighed
Storage
O The purpose of any grain storage facility is to provide safe
storage conditions for the grain in order to prevent grain
loss caused by adverse weather, moisture, rodents, birds,
insects and micro-organisms like fungi.
 Mill by products
Rice husk
O Rice hulls/ husk are generated during the first stage of rice
milling, when rough rice or paddy rice is husked.
O Common use of rice husks are as bedding materials, and as
source of energy.
 Rice bran
O Rice bran is generated when
brown rice moves through
the whiteners and polishers.

O When paddy is hand-

pounded or milled in a one-
pass Engleberg steel huller,
rice bran is not produced
separately but mixed with
rice hulls.
 Brewer’s rice

O Brewer’s rice is separated

produced when milled rice
is sifted.

O In rural areas, brewer’s rice

has a variety of uses
including ingredient for rice
flour and rice noodles.
 Quality characteristics of paddy:
O A number of interrelated features determine the quality of
O paddy. These are:
O Moisture content of paddy,
O Purity degree,
O Varietal purity,
O Cracked grains,
O Immature grains,
O Discolored/fermented grains and damaged grains.
O These characteristics are determined by the environmental
weather conditions during production, crop production
practices, soil conditions, harvesting, and post harvest
practices.
 Postharvest operation of paddy guidelines

O The harvested seeds/ grains must be filled into gunny sack

O Must be transported to the rice mill within 24 hours, or it

can reduce paddy quality

O The water content in the ripen grain is about 20 - 24%

O It must be decreased to about 14% before they are suitable to

be processed in mill (used temporary dryer)

Oryza sativa