Module 3: The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue as a Habit

Lesson 1: How is a Moral Character Developed?

The Circular Relation of Acts that Build Character and Acts that Emanate from
Character.

1. The Nature of Virtue and Character

1.1. Definition and differences between virtues, values, and moral principles
(Peterson & Seligman, 2004)
• Virtues: These are deeply ingrained habits or dispositions that guide our behaviors
towards the good and away from the bad. They are qualities deemed to be morally good
and are the foundation of principles and character. For instance, courage, temperance,
and wisdom are traditionally considered virtues.
• Values: Values are beliefs or convictions that an individual or a society holds dear. They
serve as a compass guiding one's life, decisions, and actions. For example, some cultures
might value individualism while others might emphasize collectivism.
• Moral Principles: These are foundational truths or norms that dictate what is right or
wrong in various situations. They are the rules or guidelines that determine proper
behavior, based on the broader values and virtues of a culture or individual. An example
of a moral principle is "do unto others as you would have them do unto you."
• Practical Application/Example:
• Virtues: An individual who regularly and habitually tells the truth has cultivated the
virtue of honesty. Over time, this person becomes known as trustworthy.
• Values: A family may value education, placing emphasis on academic achievement and
constantly encouraging its members to pursue higher learning.
• Moral Principles: In a community that values non-violence, a moral principle might be
"it's wrong to physically harm another person unless in self-defense."

1.2. Virtue as a means between deficiency and excess (Aristotle, 2000)

Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, posits that virtues lie between extremes. For any given
situation or characteristic, there's a deficiency, an excess, and a virtuous mean in between. This
concept is famously known as the "Golden Mean." The virtuous person will find and act
according to this mean, not going to the extreme of deficiency nor the extreme of excess.

• Practical Application/Example:
• Courage: This virtue stands between the deficiency of cowardice and the excess of
recklessness. A courageous person will face a threat despite fear but will also know
when it's wise to retreat. For instance, speaking up against an unjust system may be
 seen as an act of courage, while rashly confronting a dangerous situation without
preparation may be seen as recklessness.
• Generosity: This virtue is found between the deficiency of stinginess and the excess of
wastefulness. A generous person will give to those in need, but not to the point where
they're left with nothing or giving beyond their means. For example, if someone earns a
bonus at work, they might decide to donate a portion to charity (generosity), rather than
keeping it all for themselves (stinginess) or spending it all immediately without thought
(wastefulness).

1.3. Relevance of Understanding the Nature of Virtue and Character

1.3.1 Understanding the Differences Between Virtues, Values, and Moral Principles
• Clarity in Moral Reasoning: Recognizing the distinctions among virtues, values, and moral
principles aids individuals in making more informed ethical choices. For instance, while a value
might indicate what is important to us (like valuing honesty), a virtue like integrity would involve
the habitual practice of this value, and a moral principle would offer a guideline on how to act on
it (such as not lying even when it's convenient).
• Foundation for Ethical Frameworks: These distinctions offer foundational elements for ethical
frameworks. Knowing what virtues to cultivate, which values to uphold, and which moral
principles to follow can structure personal and communal codes of ethics.
• Practical Application in Daily Life: By distinguishing these concepts, individuals can pinpoint
areas of moral strength and weakness. For example, someone might value kindness (value) but
struggle with patience (virtue). Recognizing this allows for targeted personal growth.

Practical Implication: Suppose a student, after understanding these differences, identifies that
while they value academic success, they lack the virtue of diligence. Recognizing this, they could
set specific study goals and routines to develop diligence and follow the moral principle of not
cheating to achieve success.

1.3.2 Aristotle's Notion of the Golden Mean:

• Balanced Approach to Behavior: The Golden Mean offers a guideline that avoids extremes,
promoting balanced and moderate behavior. It suggests that virtue is found not in excess or
deficiency but in moderation.
• Self-reflection and Personal Growth: By assessing one's behavior against the Golden Mean,
individuals can identify tendencies toward excess or deficiency and strive for a balanced
approach. This introspection aids in personal development.
• Decision-making in Ambiguous Situations: Life often presents situations where the right action
isn't immediately clear. Aristotle's framework offers a way to assess potential actions based on
balance and moderation.

Practical Implication: Consider an employee who's passionate about their work but often tends
to overwork to the point of exhaustion (an excess). The Golden Mean would suggest finding a
balance — working diligently but also recognizing the importance of rest and self-care.
 In Summary: Both these topics above offer lenses through which we can understand, evaluate,
and guide our behaviors. The clear demarcation between virtues, values, and moral principles
offers clarity in moral reasoning. Simultaneously, Aristotle's Golden Mean provides a balanced
framework for action, promoting personal growth and ethical decision-making.

2. Acts Building Character

2.1. How repeated actions shape moral disposition (Aristotle, 2000):
Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, posits that our character is shaped through habitual actions.
The repetition of actions, especially if they are done voluntarily and intentionally, gradually
forges our moral dispositions. These habits then become the markers of our virtue or vice. Just
as a musician becomes skilled through repeated practice, so does a person become virtuous
through repeated virtuous acts. Conversely, repeated vice leads to a vicious character.

• Practical Application/Example:

Imagine a student who tends to procrastinate. Initially, the act of postponing work might seem
harmless or insignificant. However, as this action is repeatedly taken, it becomes a habit. Over
time, the student may develop a disposition of laziness or lack of discipline. On the contrary, if
the student consistently chooses to manage their time effectively, resisting the urge to
procrastinate, they slowly cultivate a virtue of diligence and discipline.

2.2. The role of community and culture in forming virtues (MacIntyre, 1984):
Alasdair MacIntyre, in his book After Virtue, emphasizes the integral role of community and
culture in shaping individual virtues. Virtues, as per MacIntyre, are not just individual character
traits but are deeply intertwined with the practices and narratives of the community. The shared
stories, traditions, and values of a community serve as a backdrop against which individual
virtues are cultivated. The moral fabric of a society, its shared narratives, and communal
practices play a significant role in guiding and nurturing individual virtues.

• Practical Application/Example:

Let's take the virtue of 'respect for elders' that is prevalent in many Asian cultures. This virtue
isn't cultivated in isolation but is a product of shared stories, teachings, and communal practices.
From a young age, children might witness acts of reverence towards the elderly, hear stories
emphasizing the wisdom of the aged, or participate in ceremonies that honor elders. These
cultural practices and communal narratives continuously reinforce the virtue of respect for
elders, embedding it deeply in individual characters.

In essence, while our repeated actions play a foundational role in carving our moral disposition,
it's crucial to recognize that these actions are often influenced, supported, or sometimes even
challenged by the broader community and cultural framework we are embedded in. The
interplay between individual choices and communal narratives continuously shapes the moral
landscape of society.
3. Acts Emanating from Character
3.1. The influence of character on behavior and decision-making (Doris, 2002):
John M. Doris, in his work Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behavior, raises concerns
about the traditional understanding of stable character traits influencing consistent moral
behaviors. He suggests that human behavior, more often than not, is influenced by situational
factors rather than stable character traits. However, it's undeniable that our character, built over
time, does provide a foundational lens through which we interpret situations and make
decisions. While situational factors play a role, our character serves as a backdrop, guiding our
inclinations, reactions, and choices.

• Practical Application/Example:

Consider an individual who has consistently practiced honesty throughout their life. When
confronted with a situation at work where they could easily lie to gain a significant advantage,
they might feel a strong internal resistance. While the immediate situation presents an
opportunity and perhaps even a temptation, their ingrained character trait of honesty influences
their decision-making, making it difficult for them to act dishonestly. Conversely, someone
without that established trait might find it much easier to lie in the same situation.

3.2. The challenges in changing character once established (Cohen, 2018):

Taya R. Cohen, in her research on moral character in the workplace, emphasizes the stability of
character traits over time. While it's possible to change one's character, it is a challenging
endeavor. Established character traits become deeply ingrained habits and tendencies. Altering
them requires consistent effort, introspection, and often a change in environment or influences.
Moreover, since our character shapes how we interpret the world around us, changing it might
also require reshaping our worldview, which can be deeply unsettling.

• Practical Application/Example:

Imagine someone who has developed a character of cynicism over the years due to past
experiences and influences. This cynicism affects their interactions, relationships, and even work.
Deciding to change this trait would not be as simple as making a one-time decision. They would
need to challenge their existing beliefs, expose themselves to new experiences that counter
their cynical view, and continuously practice trust and optimism. This journey would be fraught
with internal resistance, moments of doubt, and external challenges. For instance, in situations
where their trust is broken, their old cynical disposition might resurge, making the path to
change even more arduous.

In summary, while our character deeply influences our actions and decisions, it's essential to
recognize that it's not an unchangeable entity. Changing established character traits is
challenging but not impossible. With consistent effort, reflection, and the right environment and
support, one can reshape their character over time. However, the journey is intricate, requiring
patience and perseverance.
Lesson 2. Moral Development

1. The Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1971).

• Pre-conventional level: Obedience and punishment, Individualism and exchange
• Conventional level: Good interpersonal relationships, Maintaining the social order
• Post-conventional level: Social contract and individual rights, Universal principles

1.1. Pre-conventional level:

• Obedience and Punishment: At this stage, moral decisions are based on avoiding
punishment. An action is deemed 'wrong' if it leads to punishment and 'right' if it
doesn't.
• Individualism and Exchange: Here, moral reasoning is driven by personal interests.
Actions are taken based on what's in it for the individual.
• Practical Application/Example:
• Obedience and Punishment: A child might refrain from stealing cookies because they
fear they will be grounded by their parents.
• Individualism and Exchange: The same child might share a toy with a peer, expecting
that in exchange, they'll get to play with the peer's toy.

1.2. Conventional level:

• Good Interpersonal Relationships: Moral reasoning at this stage is shaped by societal
expectations and the desire to be seen as 'good' by others.
• Maintaining the Social Order: Moral judgments are made based on understanding and
adhering to societal rules and laws.
• Practical Application/Example:
• Good Interpersonal Relationships: A teenager might participate in community service,
not only to help others but to be perceived positively by peers and adults.
• Maintaining the Social Order: An adult might pay taxes diligently, believing it's essential
for maintaining societal structures and benefiting the community at large.

1.3. Post-conventional level:

• Social Contract and Individual Rights: Moral reasoning here recognizes the value of
societal rules but also understands that some rules might need to change if they infringe
upon individual rights.
• Universal Principles: This stage is characterized by an internal moral compass that might
even challenge societal norms, focusing on abstract principles of justice, dignity, and
equality.
• Practical Application/Example:
• Social Contract and Individual Rights: An activist might push for changes in laws that
they feel infringe upon individual rights or the greater good.
• Universal Principles: A person might protest or engage in civil disobedience against
established norms or laws they believe are morally wrong, even if society at large
disagrees.
2. Critiques and Further Developments on Kohlberg's Stages (Gilligan, 1982):
2.1. Gilligan's Critique and its Implications
Carol Gilligan, in her work In a Different Voice, argued that Kohlberg's model was male-centric
and didn't adequately address the moral development of women. Gilligan believed that
women's moral reasoning is often centered around the ethic of care, emphasizing relationships
and care for others, rather than just abstract principles of justice.

It is essential to approach it with the understanding that moral development is complex and
might vary across cultures, genders, and individual experiences. Gilligan's critique introduces an
additional dimension, highlighting the need for more comprehensive models that account for
diverse moral perspectives.

Practical Application/Example:

Imagine a mother faced with the decision to steal medicine to save her sick child. While
Kohlberg's framework might focus on abstract principles like the rule of law (Conventional level)
or universal principles of life and health (Post-conventional level), Gilligan's critique would
emphasize the mother's relationship with her child and the ethic of care driving her decision.

2.2. Gilligan's Emphasis on the Ethic of Care:

• Carol Gilligan argued that Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, derived primarily
from studies of boys and men, didn't capture the distinct moral voices and reasoning of women.
While Kohlberg's model emphasized morality as a progression towards abstract justice, Gilligan
highlighted that many women approach moral dilemmas with an "ethic of care." This ethic
focuses on relationships, interconnectedness, and caring for others, as opposed to just principles
of justice.
• Implication: This brings forth the idea that moral development isn't a one-size-fits-all
progression. There are multiple pathways and modes of moral reasoning. Acknowledging the
ethic of care enriches our understanding of morality by introducing relational and contextual
considerations.

2.3. The Need for Gender-Inclusive Research:

• Explanation: Gilligan's critique underscores the limitations of drawing universal conclusions from
studies conducted on specific populations (in this case, mainly boys and men). It highlights the
need to include diverse groups in research to avoid potential biases and ensure that the models
developed are genuinely representative.
• Implication: Future research in moral development should aim to include diverse genders,
cultures, and backgrounds to capture the multifaceted nature of moral reasoning. This suggests
that our models and theories need to be revisited and refined continually based on broader and
more inclusive research.

2.4. Broader Implications for Moral Education and Policymaking:

• If moral perspectives are diverse, as Gilligan's critique suggests, then moral education and
policymaking need to be attuned to these differences. An education system or a policy that's
 built solely on principles of justice without considering the ethic of care might not resonate with
everyone and might miss crucial aspects of moral reasoning.
• Implication: For meaningful moral education and ethical policymaking, there's a need to
incorporate diverse moral perspectives. This could involve creating curricula that teach both the
principles of justice and the ethic of care, or policies that weigh both individual rights and
relational responsibilities.

In essence, Gilligan's critique introduces a dimension of moral reasoning that was previously
underrepresented in mainstream models. By highlighting the ethic of care and its significance,
she underscores the need for more comprehensive, inclusive, and nuanced models of moral
development. This has profound implications not just for theoretical understanding but also for
practical applications in education, policy-making, and societal norms.

3. How Do We Get to the Highest Level, Conscience-Based Moral Decisions?

3.1. The Role of Moral Education and Upbringing (Narvaez, 2008):
• Darcia Narvaez emphasizes that early experiences and moral education play a foundational role
in shaping our moral dispositions. Positive early experiences, coupled with intentional moral
education, can foster moral virtues, instill values, and guide individuals towards more advanced
levels of moral reasoning.
• Practical Application/Example: Consider schools implementing character education programs
that explicitly teach virtues like empathy, integrity, and respect. A student raised in such an
environment, reinforced by similar teachings at home, is more likely to develop strong moral
reasoning skills and engage in actions aligned with their conscience. For instance, they might
stand up against bullying not merely out of fear of punishment but because of a genuine
understanding of its harmful impact on others.

3.2. The Significance of Moral Exemplars and Role Models (Colby & Damon,
1992):
• Anne Colby and William Damon's research indicates that moral exemplars, individuals who lead
lives of consistent moral commitment, can profoundly influence others' moral development.
These role models provide tangible examples of moral virtues in action, offering a blueprint for
others to emulate.
• Practical Application/Example: Historical figures like Mahatma Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr.,
through their commitment to nonviolence and justice, serve as moral exemplars. Individuals
inspired by their life stories might be more inclined to adopt principles of peace, justice, and
equality in their own lives, even when faced with challenges.

3.3. Cultivating Moral Intuition and Reflection (Haidt, 2001):

• Jonathan Haidt posits that much of our moral reasoning is rooted in intuitions, immediate gut
feelings or judgments. However, upon these intuitions, reflective thinking can be layered to
further refine our moral decisions. Cultivating both intuition and reflection is crucial for
conscience-based moral decisions.
 • Practical Application/Example: Consider someone witnessing an act of discrimination. Their
immediate gut reaction (intuition) might be that it's wrong. Upon reflection, they might
recognize the broader societal implications of such acts, strengthening their commitment to
stand against discrimination in all forms.

3.4. The Importance of Supportive Moral Communities (Smith, 2011):

• Christian Smith emphasizes that supportive communities, which share and reinforce moral
beliefs and values, are crucial in nurturing and maintaining individual moral commitments. Such
communities offer guidance, encouragement, and a sense of belonging, all of which can bolster
conscience-based decisions.
• Practical Application/Example: Consider a community group dedicated to environmental
conservation. Members of this group, supported by shared values and collective actions, are
likely to make individual choices in line with these values, such as reducing waste or advocating
for sustainable policies, even if these choices are more demanding or less convenient.

In conclusion, reaching the highest levels of moral decision-making, grounded in one's

conscience, is a multifaceted journey influenced by education, role models, intuition, reflection,
and community support. Each of these elements plays a unique role, and in combination, they
can guide individuals towards more ethically sound and conscience-driven decisions.

References:

• Aristotle. (2000). Nicomachean Ethics (R. Crisp, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Cohen, T. R. (2018). Moral character in the workplace. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 115(3), 369.
• Colby, A., & Damon, W. (1992). Some do care: Contemporary lives of moral commitment. Free
Press.
• Doris, J. M. (2002). Lack of character: Personality and moral behavior. Cambridge University
Press.
• Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Harvard
University Press.
• Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral
judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4), 814.
• Kohlberg, L. (1971). From is to ought: How to commit the naturalistic fallacy and get away with it
in the study of moral development. New York: Academic Press.
• MacIntyre, A. (1984). After Virtue. University of Notre Dame Press.
• Narvaez, D. (2008). Human flourishing and moral development: Cognitive science and
neurobiological perspectives on virtue development. In L. P. Nucci & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Handbook
of moral and character education (pp. 310-327). Routledge.
• Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and
classification. Oxford University Press.
• Smith, C. (2011). Lost in transition: The dark side of emerging adulthood. Oxford University
Press.