Polynomial Rings

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw

Salahaddin University-Erbil
13th March, 2017

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Polynomial Rings

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1. The polynomial

ring R[x] in indeterminate x with coefficients from R is the set of
all formal sums an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 with n ≥ 0 and
ai ∈ R. That is,
R[x] = {an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ; n ≥ 0; ai ∈ R}.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Polynomial Rings

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1. The polynomial

ring R[x] in indeterminate x with coefficients from R is the set of
all formal sums an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 with n ≥ 0 and
ai ∈ R. That is,
R[x] = {an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ; n ≥ 0; ai ∈ R}.

In order to make a ring out of R[x] we must be able to recognize

when two elements in it are equal, we must be able to add and
multiply elements of R[x] so that the axioms defining a ring hold
true for R[x]. This will be our initial goal.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Operations on R[x]

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + am x m and

g (x) = b0 + b1 x + ... + bn x n are in R[x], then f (x) = g (x) if and
only if for every integer i ≥ 0, ai = bi .

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Operations on R[x]

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + am x m and

g (x) = b0 + b1 x + ... + bn x n are in R[x], then f (x) = g (x) if and
only if for every integer i ≥ 0, ai = bi .

Thus, two polynomials are said to be equal if and only if their

corresponding coefficients are equal.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Operations on R[x]

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + am x m and

g (x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn x n are both in R[x], then
f (x) + g (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ct x t where for each i, ci = ai + bi .

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Operations on R[x]

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + am x m and

g (x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn x n are both in R[x], then
f (x) + g (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ct x t where for each i, ci = ai + bi .

In other words, add two polynomials by adding their coefficients

and collecting terms. To add 1 + x and 3 − 2x + x 2 we consider
1 + x as 1 + x + 0x 2 and add, according to the recipe given in the
definition, to obtain as their sum 4 − x + x 2 .

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Operations on R[x]

The most complicated item to define for R[x] is the multiplication.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Operations on R[x]

The most complicated item to define for R[x] is the multiplication.

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + am x m and

g (x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn x n , then

f (x)g (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ck x k

where
ct = at b0 + at−1 b1 + at−2 b2 + · · · + a0 bt .

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Operations on R[x]

The most complicated item to define for R[x] is the multiplication.

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + am x m and

g (x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn x n , then

f (x)g (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ck x k

where
ct = at b0 + at−1 b1 + at−2 b2 + · · · + a0 bt .
This definition says nothing more than: multiply the two
polynomials by multiplying out the symbols formally, use the
relation x α x β = x α+β and collect terms.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n 6= 0 and an 6= 0, is in

R[x], then the degree of f (x), written as degf (x), is n.

That is, the degree of f (x) is the largest integer i for which the ith
coefficient of f (x) is not 0.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n 6= 0 and an 6= 0, is in

R[x], then the degree of f (x), written as degf (x), is n.

That is, the degree of f (x) is the largest integer i for which the ith
coefficient of f (x) is not 0.

We say a polynomial is constant if its degree is 0.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n 6= 0 and an 6= 0, is in

R[x], then the degree of f (x), written as degf (x), is n.

That is, the degree of f (x) is the largest integer i for which the ith
coefficient of f (x) is not 0.

We say a polynomial is constant if its degree is 0.

We say a polynomial is monic if an = 1.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n 6= 0 and an 6= 0, is in

R[x], then the degree of f (x), written as degf (x), is n.

That is, the degree of f (x) is the largest integer i for which the ith
coefficient of f (x) is not 0.

We say a polynomial is constant if its degree is 0.

We say a polynomial is monic if an = 1.

We say a polynomial is linear if n = 1.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Definition: If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n 6= 0 and an 6= 0, is in

R[x], then the degree of f (x), written as degf (x), is n.

That is, the degree of f (x) is the largest integer i for which the ith
coefficient of f (x) is not 0.

We say a polynomial is constant if its degree is 0.

We say a polynomial is monic if an = 1.

We say a polynomial is linear if n = 1.

We do not define the degree of the zero polynomial.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Remark: If f (x) and g (x) are two polynomials over a ring R, then
(1) deg (f (x) + g (x)) ≤ max{degf (x), degg (x)}.
(2) deg (f (x) · g (x)) ≤ degf (x) + degg (x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Remark: If f (x) and g (x) are two polynomials over a ring R, then
(1) deg (f (x) + g (x)) ≤ max{degf (x), degg (x)}.
(2) deg (f (x) · g (x)) ≤ degf (x) + degg (x).

Example: Let f (x) = 1 + 3x + 2x 5 and g (x) = x + 3x 2 be two

polynomials in Z6 [x] for which degf (x) = 5 and degg (x) = 2.

Then f (x) · g (x) = x + 3x 3 + 2x 6 has degree 6. Thus,

degf (x) + degg (x) = 7 6= deg (f (x) · g (x)) = 6.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Theorem: Let R be an integral domain and f (x), g (x) be two

nonzero elements of R[x]. Then
1. deg (f (x) · g (x)) = degf (x) + degg (x), and
2. either f (x) + g (x) = 0 or
deg (f (x) + g (x)) ≤ max{degf (x), degg (x)}.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Degree of Polynomials

Theorem: Let R be an integral domain and f (x), g (x) be two

nonzero elements of R[x]. Then
1. deg (f (x) · g (x)) = degf (x) + degg (x), and
2. either f (x) + g (x) = 0 or
deg (f (x) + g (x)) ≤ max{degf (x), degg (x)}.

Corollary: If the ring R is an integral domain, then so is R[x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Division Algorithm Theorem

Theorem(Division Algorithm): Let R be a commutative ring

with 1 and f (x), g (x) 6= 0 be polynomials in R[x], with the leading
coefficient of g (x) an invertible element. Then there exist unique
polynomials q(x), r (x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = q(x) · g (x) + r (x),
where either r (x) = 0 or degr (x)<degg (x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Division Algorithm Theorem

Theorem(Division Algorithm): Let R be a commutative ring

with 1 and f (x), g (x) 6= 0 be polynomials in R[x], with the leading
coefficient of g (x) an invertible element. Then there exist unique
polynomials q(x), r (x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = q(x) · g (x) + r (x),
where either r (x) = 0 or degr (x)<degg (x).

Example: Let f (x) = x 4 + 4x 3 + x 2 + 4x + 1, g (x) = x 2 + 2x + 1

be polynomials in Z7 [x]. Then
f (x) = x 4 +4x 3 +x 2 +4x +1 = (x 2 +2x +3)(x 2 +2x +1)+(3x +5).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Root of Polynomials

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and r be an

arbitrary element of R. For each polynomial
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n in R[x], we may define
f (r ) = a0 + a1 r + · · · + an r n .
If f (r ) = 0, we call the element r a root or zero of f(x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Root of Polynomials

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and r be an

arbitrary element of R. For each polynomial
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n in R[x], we may define
f (r ) = a0 + a1 r + · · · + an r n .
If f (r ) = 0, we call the element r a root or zero of f(x).

Example: In Z2 [x], each of 1 and 0 is root of the polynomial

f (x) = x 2 + x.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Factors

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1. If f (x) and

g (x) 6= 0 are in R[x] , we say that g (x) is a factor of f (x) [or
g (x) divides f (x)] if there exists some polynomial h(x) ∈ R[x] for
which f (x) = h(x) · g (x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Factors

Definition: Let R be a commutative ring with 1. If f (x) and

g (x) 6= 0 are in R[x] , we say that g (x) is a factor of f (x) [or
g (x) divides f (x)] if there exists some polynomial h(x) ∈ R[x] for
which f (x) = h(x) · g (x).

Example: If f (x) ∈ Z[x], where

f (x) = x 2 + 2x − 3 = (x − 1)(x + 3), then (x − 1) is a factor of
f (x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Remainder Theorem

Theorem(Remainder Theorem): Let R be a commutative ring

with 1. If f (x) ∈ R[x] and a ∈ R, then there is a unique
polynomial q(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + f (a).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Remainder Theorem

Theorem(Remainder Theorem): Let R be a commutative ring

with 1. If f (x) ∈ R[x] and a ∈ R, then there is a unique
polynomial q(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + f (a).

Corollary (Factorization Theorem): The polynomial f (x) ∈ R[x]

is divisible by x − a if and only if a is a root of f (x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More about roots

Theorem: Let R be an integral domain and f (x) ∈ R[x] be a

nonzero polynomial of degree n. Then f (x) has at most n distinct
roots in R.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More about roots

Theorem: Let R be an integral domain and f (x) ∈ R[x] be a

nonzero polynomial of degree n. Then f (x) has at most n distinct
roots in R.

Example: consider the polynomial x p − x ∈ Zp [x] , where p is a

prime.
Since the nonzero elements of Zp form a cyclic group under
multiplication of order p − 1, we must have ap−1 = 1 or ap = a for
every 0 6= a ∈ Zp .
But the last equation clearly holds when a = 0, so that every
element of Zp is a root of the polynomial x p − x.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Examples

Remark: The theorem is not true if R is not an integral domain.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Examples

Remark: The theorem is not true if R is not an integral domain.

For example, R = Z2 × Z2 = {(0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)}. Then R
has divisors of zero. Let f (x) = x 2 + x ∈ R[x]. Then every
element in R is a root of f (x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Examples

Remark: The theorem is not true if R is not an integral domain.

For example, R = Z2 × Z2 = {(0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)}. Then R
has divisors of zero. Let f (x) = x 2 + x ∈ R[x]. Then every
element in R is a root of f (x).

Example: Let the polynomial f (x) = x 2 + 1 be in H[R]. Then

i, j, k are roots for f (x) in H[R].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Examples

Remark: The theorem is not true if R is not an integral domain.

For example, R = Z2 × Z2 = {(0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)}. Then R
has divisors of zero. Let f (x) = x 2 + x ∈ R[x]. Then every
element in R is a root of f (x).

Example: Let the polynomial f (x) = x 2 + 1 be in H[R]. Then

i, j, k are roots for f (x) in H[R].

In fact it has infinite roots in H[R].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Theorems

Theorem: Let C be the field of complex numbers. If f (x) ∈ C[x]

is a polynomial of positive degree, then f (x) has at least one root
in C.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Theorems

Theorem: Let C be the field of complex numbers. If f (x) ∈ C[x]

is a polynomial of positive degree, then f (x) has at least one root
in C.

Corollary: If f (x) ∈ C[x] is a polynomial of degree n>0, then f (x)

can be expressed in C[x] as a product of n (not necessarily
distinct) linear factors.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Theorems

Theorem: Let C be the field of complex numbers. If f (x) ∈ C[x]

is a polynomial of positive degree, then f (x) has at least one root
in C.

Corollary: If f (x) ∈ C[x] is a polynomial of degree n>0, then f (x)

can be expressed in C[x] as a product of n (not necessarily
distinct) linear factors.

Remark: For any ring R, R[x] is not a field. That is, no element
of R[x] which has positive degree can have a multiplicative inverse.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More Theorems

Theorem: Let C be the field of complex numbers. If f (x) ∈ C[x]

is a polynomial of positive degree, then f (x) has at least one root
in C.

Corollary: If f (x) ∈ C[x] is a polynomial of degree n>0, then f (x)

can be expressed in C[x] as a product of n (not necessarily
distinct) linear factors.

Remark: For any ring R, R[x] is not a field. That is, no element
of R[x] which has positive degree can have a multiplicative inverse.

Suppose f (x) ∈ R[x] with degf (x)>0. If f (x) · g (x) = 1 for some
g (x) ∈ R[x], then
0 = deg 1 = deg (f (x) · g (x)) = degf (x) + degg (x) 6= 0, a
contradiction.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Principal Ideal Domain

Theorem: If F is a field, then F[x] is a principal ideal domain.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Principal Ideal Domain

Theorem: If F is a field, then F[x] is a principal ideal domain.

Corollary: A nontrivial ideal of F[x] is maximal if and only if it is

a prime ideal.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Principal Ideal Domain

Theorem: If F is a field, then F[x] is a principal ideal domain.

Corollary: A nontrivial ideal of F[x] is maximal if and only if it is

a prime ideal.

Definition: A nonconstant polynomial f (x) ∈ F[x] is said to be

irreducible in F[x] if and only if f (x) cannot be expressed as the
product of two polynomials of positive degree. Otherwise, f (x) is
reducible in F[x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Principal Ideal Domain

Theorem: If F is a field, then F[x] is a principal ideal domain.

Corollary: A nontrivial ideal of F[x] is maximal if and only if it is

a prime ideal.

Definition: A nonconstant polynomial f (x) ∈ F[x] is said to be

irreducible in F[x] if and only if f (x) cannot be expressed as the
product of two polynomials of positive degree. Otherwise, f (x) is
reducible in F[x].

Example: f (x) = x 2 + 1 is irreducible in R[x], but it is reducible

in both C[x] and Z2 [x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Irreducibility

Example: Any linear polynomial f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0, is

irreducible in F[x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Irreducibility

Example: Any linear polynomial f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0, is

irreducible in F[x].
Since the degree of a product of two nonzero polynomials is the
sum of the degrees of the factors, it follows that a representation
ax + b = g (x) · h(x) with 0<degg (x)<1, 0<degh(x)<1 is
impossible. Thus, every reducible polynomial has degree at least 2.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Irreducibility

Example: Any linear polynomial f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0, is

irreducible in F[x].
Since the degree of a product of two nonzero polynomials is the
sum of the degrees of the factors, it follows that a representation
ax + b = g (x) · h(x) with 0<degg (x)<1, 0<degh(x)<1 is
impossible. Thus, every reducible polynomial has degree at least 2.

Remark: If f (x) is a polynomial over F which has a root in F,

then f (x) is reducible in F[x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Irreducibility

Example: Any linear polynomial f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0, is

irreducible in F[x].
Since the degree of a product of two nonzero polynomials is the
sum of the degrees of the factors, it follows that a representation
ax + b = g (x) · h(x) with 0<degg (x)<1, 0<degh(x)<1 is
impossible. Thus, every reducible polynomial has degree at least 2.

Remark: If f (x) is a polynomial over F which has a root in F,

then f (x) is reducible in F[x].

Theorem: Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F[x] be of degree 2 or 3.

Then f (x) is reducible in F[x] if and only if f (x) has a root in F.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Unique Factorization Theorem

Theorem: If F is a field, the following statements are equivalent:

1. f (x) is an irreducible polynomial in F[x].
2. The principal ideal (f (x)) is a maximal(prime) ideal of F[x].
3. The quotient ring F[x]/(f (x)) is a field.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Unique Factorization Theorem

Theorem: If F is a field, the following statements are equivalent:

1. f (x) is an irreducible polynomial in F[x].
2. The principal ideal (f (x)) is a maximal(prime) ideal of F[x].
3. The quotient ring F[x]/(f (x)) is a field.

Unique Factorization Theorem: Each polynomial f (x) ∈ F[x] of

positive degree is the product of a nonzero element of F and
irreducible monic polynomials of F[x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Eisenstein Criterion

Theorem(Eisenstein Criterion): Let

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n be a polynomial in Z[x]. Suppose
that for some prime number p, p - an , p | a0 , p | a1 , · · · , p | an−1
and p 2 - a0 . Then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Eisenstein Criterion

Theorem(Eisenstein Criterion): Let

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n be a polynomial in Z[x]. Suppose
that for some prime number p, p - an , p | a0 , p | a1 , · · · , p | an−1
and p 2 - a0 . Then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

Example: The polynomial f (x) = 3 − 45x + 18x 2 + 2x 5 is

irreducible in Q[x].
If we take p = 3, then 3 | 3, 3 | −45, 3 | 18, 3 - 2 and 32 - 3. By
Eisenstein Criterion, f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Eisenstein Criterion

Theorem(Eisenstein Criterion): Let

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n be a polynomial in Z[x]. Suppose
that for some prime number p, p - an , p | a0 , p | a1 , · · · , p | an−1
and p 2 - a0 . Then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

Example: The polynomial f (x) = 3 − 45x + 18x 2 + 2x 5 is

irreducible in Q[x].
If we take p = 3, then 3 | 3, 3 | −45, 3 | 18, 3 - 2 and 32 - 3. By
Eisenstein Criterion, f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

Remark: If the condition of Eisenstein Criterion is not satisfied in

a polynomial, this does not mean that the polynomial is reducible.
For example: f (x) = x 2 + 1 in Q[x] is irreducible and the
condition of Eisenstein Criterion is not satisfied.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More about irreducibility

Theorem: If sr is a root of the polynomial

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n in Q[x] in which gcd(r , s) = 1, then
r | a0 and s | an .

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More about irreducibility

Theorem: If sr is a root of the polynomial

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n in Q[x] in which gcd(r , s) = 1, then
r | a0 and s | an .

Example: The polynomial f (x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 2 has no roots in Q.

Let sr is a root of f (x) with gcd(r , s) = 1, then by above theorem
r | −2 and s | 1. Then we have four values for sr , which are 1, -1,
2, -2. But none of them is a root of f (x).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

More about irreducibility

Theorem(Kronecker): If f (x) is an irreducible polynomial in

F[x], then there is an extension field of F in which f (x) has a
root.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

The Use of GAP
To create, for example, the polynomial ring P = Z7 [x]:
gap> R:= Integers mod 7;
GF (7)
gap>P:= PolynomialRing(R);
GF (7)([ x− 1 ])

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

The Use of GAP
To create, for example, the polynomial ring P = Z7 [x]:
gap> R:= Integers mod 7;
GF (7)
gap>P:= PolynomialRing(R);
GF (7)([ x− 1 ])

Suppose we want to factor the polynomial x 2 − 2 ∈ Z7 [x].

The command
gap> x:= X(R, ”x”);
x
creates the indeterminate x over the ring R.
gap> f:= x2 -2;
x2 +Z(7)5
gap> Factors(f);
[x + Z (7), x + Z (7)4 ]

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

The Use of GAP
To create, for example, the polynomial ring P = Z7 [x]:
gap> R:= Integers mod 7;
GF (7)
gap>P:= PolynomialRing(R);
GF (7)([ x− 1 ])

Suppose we want to factor the polynomial x 2 − 2 ∈ Z7 [x].

The command
gap> x:= X(R, ”x”);
x
creates the indeterminate x over the ring R.
gap> f:= x2 -2;
x2 +Z(7)5
gap> Factors(f);
[x + Z (7), x + Z (7)4 ]
gap> IsIrreducible(f);
false
Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings
The Use of GAP

gap> R:= Rationals;

Rationals

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

The Use of GAP

gap> R:= Rationals;

Rationals

Suppose we want to factor the polynomial z 2 − 2 ∈ Q[x].

gap> z:= X(R, ”z”);
z
gap> f:= z2 -1;
z2 -1
gap> Factors(f);
[z − 1, z + 1]
gap> IsIrreducible(f);
false

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Height and Length

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n ∈ C[x]. The

height H(f ) is defined to be the maximum of the magnitudes of
its coefficients: H(f ) = max{|ai |}, i = 0, 1, · · · , n.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Height and Length

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n ∈ C[x]. The

height H(f ) is defined to be the maximum of the magnitudes of
its coefficients: H(f ) = max{|ai |}, i = 0, 1, · · · , n.

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n ∈ C[x]. The

length L(f ) is similarly defined
Pn as the sum of the magnitudes of
the coefficients: L(f ) = i=0 |ai |.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Height and Length

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n ∈ C[x]. The

height H(f ) is defined to be the maximum of the magnitudes of
its coefficients: H(f ) = max{|ai |}, i = 0, 1, · · · , n.

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n ∈ C[x]. The

length L(f ) is similarly defined
Pn as the sum of the magnitudes of
the coefficients: L(f ) = i=0 |ai |.

Example: Let f (x) = 1 + 2x 2 ∈ C[x]. Then H(f ) = 2 and

L(f ) = 3.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Mahler Measure

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 +Pa1 x + a2 x 2 + · · ·Q

+ an x n ∈ C[x]. The
Mahler measure of f (x) = k=0 ak x = an nk=1 (x − αk )
n k

is
M(f ) = |an | nk=1 max{1, |αk |}.
Q

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Mahler Measure

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 +Pa1 x + a2 x 2 + · · ·Q

+ an x n ∈ C[x]. The
Mahler measure of f (x) = k=0 ak x = an nk=1 (x − αk )
n k

is
M(f ) = |an | nk=1 max{1, |αk |}.
Q

Example: Let f (x) = 1 + 2x 2 ∈ C[x]. Then

f (x) = 2(x − √i 2 )(x + √i 2 ). So, M(f ) = 2 × 1 × 1 = 2.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Mahler Measure

Definition: Let f (x) = a0 +Pa1 x + a2 x 2 + · · ·Q

+ an x n ∈ C[x]. The
Mahler measure of f (x) = k=0 ak x = an nk=1 (x − αk )
n k

is
M(f ) = |an | nk=1 max{1, |αk |}.
Q

Example: Let f (x) = 1 + 2x 2 ∈ C[x]. Then

f (x) = 2(x − √i 2 )(x + √i 2 ). So, M(f ) = 2 × 1 × 1 = 2.

Remark: √
n


b 2 c H(f ) ≤ M(f ) ≤ H(f ) n + 1;
n

L(f ) ≤ 2n M(f ) ≤ 2n L(f );

H(f ) ≤ L(f ) ≤ nH(f ).

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Polynomials in Graph Theory

Definition: The detour distance D(u, v ) between two distinct

vertices u and v in a connected graph Γ is the length of a longest
u − v path in Γ.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Polynomials in Graph Theory

Definition: The detour distance D(u, v ) between two distinct

vertices u and v in a connected graph Γ is the length of a longest
u − v path in Γ.

Definition:PThe detour polynomial of Γ is defined by

D(Γ; x) = {u,v } x D(u,v ) .

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Polynomials in Graph Theory

Definition: The detour distance D(u, v ) between two distinct

vertices u and v in a connected graph Γ is the length of a longest
u − v path in Γ.

Definition:PThe detour polynomial of Γ is defined by

D(Γ; x) = {u,v } x D(u,v ) .

Example: Ladder.

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Polynomials in Graph Theory

Definition: The detour distance D(u, v ) between two distinct

vertices u and v in a connected graph Γ is the length of a longest
u − v path in Γ.

Definition:PThe detour polynomial of Γ is defined by

D(Γ; x) = {u,v } x D(u,v ) .

Example: Ladder.

Example: Connect to group theory. Take S3 as an example and

associate a commuting graph with it

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings

Thanks

Thanks for your attention

Sanhan M. S. Khasraw Polynomial Rings