Homeostasis
By: Prati Shahanaz
1. Endocrine System
Definition
● The endocrine system is a collection of glands that release hormones directly
into the bloodstream, enabling communication and control over various
physiological processes.
Characteristics of the Endocrine System
● Hormones travel through the bloodstream to specific target organs or cells.
● Regulates long-term processes like growth, reproduction, and metabolism.
● Works alongside the nervous system to maintain homeostasis but acts slower
and with prolonged effects.
Major Endocrine Glands and Their Functions
1. Hypothalamus
○ Connects the nervous and endocrine systems.
○ Produces hormones that regulate the pituitary gland, e.g., releasing
hormones (RH) and inhibiting hormones (IH).
○ Controls functions like hunger, thirst, temperature, and circadian rhythms.
2. Pituitary Gland ("Master Gland")
○ Located below the hypothalamus.
○ Divided into:
■ Anterior Pituitary: Produces hormones like growth hormone (GH),
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH).
■ Posterior Pituitary: Stores and releases hypothalamic hormones
like oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
3. Thyroid Gland
○ Produces thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate
metabolism and energy use.
○ Produces calcitonin, which lowers blood calcium levels.
4. Parathyroid Glands
○ Four small glands on the thyroid.
○ Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood calcium
levels by promoting bone breakdown.
5. Adrenal Glands
○ Located above the kidneys.
○ Cortex: Produces cortisol (stress response), aldosterone (water and salt
balance), and androgens.
○ Medulla: Produces adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(norepinephrine) for "fight or flight" responses.
6. Pancreas
○ Both an endocrine and exocrine gland.
○ Endocrine Role: Produces insulin (lowers blood sugar) and glucagon
(raises blood sugar).
○ Exocrine Role: Secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine.
7. Gonads
○ Ovaries (females): Produce estrogen and progesterone for reproduction
and menstrual cycle regulation.
○ Testes (males): Produce testosterone for male secondary sexual
characteristics and sperm production.
8. Pineal Gland
○ Produces melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles.
2. Exocrine System
Definition
● Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts onto surfaces (skin or mucous
membranes) or into body cavities.
Key Features
● Mode of Secretion: Substances travel via ducts to specific sites.
● Secretions: Include enzymes, sweat, mucus, and saliva.
● Examples:
○ Salivary Glands: Produce saliva to aid in digestion.
○ Sweat Glands: Regulate temperature through perspiration.
○ Pancreas (Exocrine Part): Produces digestive enzymes (e.g., amylase,
lipase, trypsin).
3. Hormones
Definition
● Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands that regulate
various body processes.
Characteristics of Hormones
● Act on target cells with specific receptors.
● May be steroid-based (lipid-soluble, e.g., estrogen) or protein-based
(water-soluble, e.g., insulin).
● Regulate functions like growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response.
Examples of Hormones
● Insulin: Lowers blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake in cells.
● Glucagon: Raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown.
● Adrenaline: Increases heart rate and energy during stress.
● Thyroxine: Regulates metabolic rate and energy use.
● Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth of bones and tissues.
4. Insulin and Diabetes
Insulin
● Produced by: Beta cells in the pancreas (islets of Langerhans).
● Functions:
○ Lowers blood glucose by promoting uptake into cells.
○ Stimulates glucose storage as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
○ Inhibits the breakdown of fats and glycogen.
Diabetes
● Definition: A chronic disease where the body cannot effectively regulate blood
glucose levels.
● Types of Diabetes:
1. Type 1 Diabetes:
■ Autoimmune destruction of beta cells.
■ No insulin production.
■ Requires insulin injections.
2. Type 2 Diabetes:
■ Cells become resistant to insulin.
■ Often linked to obesity and poor lifestyle.
■ Managed with diet, exercise, oral medication, and sometimes
insulin.
3. Gestational Diabetes:
■ Occurs during pregnancy due to hormonal changes.
Symptoms of Diabetes
● Excessive thirst (polydipsia).
● Frequent urination (polyuria).
● Fatigue and blurred vision.
● Unexplained weight loss (Type 1).
5. Homeostasis
Definition
● The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.
● Examples:
○ Regulation of body temperature, blood glucose, and water balance.
○ Maintained by the endocrine and nervous systems.
Key Systems in Homeostasis
1. Blood Sugar Regulation:
○ Insulin decreases blood glucose after meals.
○ Glucagon increases blood glucose during fasting.
2. Water Balance (Osmoregulation):
○ Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) controls water reabsorption in the kidneys.
3. Temperature Regulation:
○ Controlled by the hypothalamus.
○ Sweating (cooling) and shivering (heating).
6. Negative Feedback Mechanism
Definition
● A process where a change in a condition triggers a response that counteracts the
initial change, restoring balance.
Examples in the Endocrine System:
Blood Glucose Regulation
Blood glucose regulation is essential to maintain the body's energy balance. The
hormones insulin and glucagon, secreted by the pancreas, work together to keep
blood sugar levels within the normal range (70-110 mg/dL).
1. Hormones Involved
Insulin
● Source: Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans (pancreas).
● Role: Lowers blood glucose levels.
● Actions:
1. Promotes glucose uptake by cells (especially muscle and fat cells).
2. Stimulates glycogenesis (conversion of glucose to glycogen) in the liver
and muscles.
3. Inhibits the breakdown of glycogen and the production of glucose in the
liver.
Glucagon
● Source: Alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans (pancreas).
● Role: Raises blood glucose levels.
● Actions:
1. Stimulates glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose) in the
liver.
2. Promotes gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate
sources) in the liver.
3. Inhibits glycogenesis to prevent further storage of glucose.
2. High Blood Glucose Levels (Hyperglycemia)
● Scenario: After eating a meal, blood glucose levels rise above normal.
● Response:
1. The pancreas detects high blood glucose.
2. Beta cells secrete insulin into the bloodstream.
3. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by cells and its storage as glycogen.
● Result: Blood glucose levels decrease back to normal.
3. Low Blood Glucose Levels (Hypoglycemia)
● Scenario: During fasting or exercise, blood glucose levels drop below normal.
● Response:
1. The pancreas detects low blood glucose.
2. Alpha cells secrete glucagon into the bloodstream.
3. Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and
release it into the bloodstream.
● Result: Blood glucose levels increase back to normal.
4. Negative Feedback Mechanism
The actions of insulin and glucagon are part of a negative feedback mechanism:
● High glucose levels trigger insulin release, reducing glucose levels.
● Low glucose levels trigger glucagon release, increasing glucose levels.
This feedback loop ensures blood glucose levels remain stable.
5. Summary Table
Condition Hormone Action Result
Released
High Blood Insulin Glucose uptake by cells, Blood glucose
Glucose glycogenesis decreases.
Low Blood Glucagon Glycogenolysis, Blood glucose
Glucose gluconeogenesis increases.
Thermoregulation:
○ High temperature:
■ Stimulus: Increased body temperature.
■ Response: Sweat glands activate, and blood vessels dilate
(vasodilation).
○ Low temperature:
■ Stimulus: Decreased body temperature.
■ Response: Shivering generates heat, and blood vessels constrict
(vasoconstriction).
7. Summary Table
Process Hormones Involved Outcome
Blood Sugar Insulin, Glucagon Maintains stable blood glucose levels.
Regulation
Stress Response Adrenaline, Cortisol Prepares body for emergencies
(fight/flight).
Water Balance ADH Regulates water reabsorption in
kidneys.
Temperature Nervous system Maintains core body temperature.
Regulation control