Question 1:

Define federalism.

Answer:

Modern Governments are classified into unitary and federal form of Government on the basis
of geographical allocation of powers. A federal Government is a dual government. The word
'federal' is derived from the Latin word Foedus' which means 'treaty or agreement'.

• Definition:

It has been defined as follows:

▪ According to A.V. Dicey, "A Federal State is a political contrivance intended to

reconcile national unity with the maintenance of State rights."
▪ Montesquieu says, "A Constitution by which several similar States agree to become
members of a large one is a Federal Government."
▪ Hamilton says that "federation is an association of States that form a new one."
▪ C.F. Strong writes, "A federal State is one in which a number of co-ordinate States
unite for common purpose."
▪ K.C. Wheare says, "In a federal Constitution the powers of government are divided
between government for the whole country and governments for parts of the country in
such a way that each government is largely independent within its own sphere."
▪ In the words of Garner, "Federal Government may be defined as a system of Central
and local government combined under a common sovereignty, both the Central and
local organisations being supreme within definite spheres, marked out for them by the
general constitution or by the act of Parliament, which creates the system. It is dual
government as distinguished from unitary government and implies local self-
government as opposed to centralised government."

In a federal form of Government both the Centre and State Governments are given
Constitutional status. In a federation, both the Centre and State governments having their own
powers are co-ordinate and independent authorities within their allotted spheres of jurisdiction.
Through division of powers the national interests and the interests of States are reconciled.
Different features of federalism.

Answer:

In a federal constitution just like the Federalism in India, the powers are divided between the
central and the states. There is a clear distribution of power, and both are independent in their
areas. This is to say that there is a dual polity that is set up. The federal constitution defines the
distribution of power between the states and the centre, this defines the distribution of
legislative, executive, and financial powers.

a. Supremacy of the Constitution:

In a federation there is the supremacy of the Constitution. The entire federal structure
comes into existence on the basis of the Constitution. Both the Central and State
Governments are under the authority of the Constitution. They act according to it.
b. Written and rigid Constitution:
All the Constitutions of federations are written and rigid. The written Constitutions are
rigid. It implies that the process of amending the Constitution is deliberately made
difficult so that the position of any government may not be adversely affected. The
provisions of the Constitution cannot be easily amended by the Central or the State
Governments single-handedly.
c. Two types of governments:
A federal government consists of two sets of governments-one at the Central and the
other in the States. Both the Centre and the State Governments exist within the same
geographical boundaries of a country.
d. Division of powers:
In a federal government, powers are divided and distributed between the Centre and the
States. Normally functions that concern the entire federation are given to the federal
government and functions of regional importance are distributed among the federating
units. In order to avoid disputes over the division of powers it becomes necessary to
incorporate the scheme of division of powers in the Constitution. Different methods
have been followed for the division of powers. In the first place the powers of the Centre
are specified and the rest are left to the States, for example, America. Secondly, the
powers of the States are mentioned, while the rest are left to the Centre, for example,
Canada. Thirdly, the powers of both governments are mentioned, for example, India.
e. Independent judiciary:
 Federal government implies the existence of an independent judiciary which resolves
the conflicts between the Centre and the units as well as the units themselves. The
judiciary acts as the guardian and final interpreter of the Constitution. It is the duty of
the judiciary to see that both the Centre and States operate within the limits set by the
Constitution. If the actions of either conflict with the provisions of the Constitution the
judiciary declares them as ultra vires.
f. Existence of bicameral legislature:
Federal government implies the existence of bicameral legislature. Generally, the
Lower House gives representation to the people whereas the Upper House gives
representation to the States.
g. Dual citizenship:
Some federal governments provide for dual citizenship. That means, people living in a
federation can exercise two citizenships. First, they will get the citizenship of the
provinces in which they are living and at the same time, they can also enjoy the
citizenship of the nation. For example, both in the U.S.A. and Switzerland citizens
enjoy double citizenship. However, in India, all citizens have only one national
citizenship.

Federalism in India is guaranteed by the Indian constitution which is seen as supreme. There
are several important features of federalism like the division of power, Constitutional
supremacy, written constitution, rigidity, independent judiciary and a bi-cameral legislature.
Factors responsible for the centralizing tendencies in federatious.

Answer:

Centralization in federalism refers to the concentration of power and authority at the national
or central government level. There are several reasons why centralization might occur in a
federal system:

a. Uniformity and Standardization:

Centralization can ensure uniformity in policies, laws, and regulations across the entire
country. This is particularly beneficial for issues that require consistency, such as
national defense, currency, or immigration policies.
b. Efficiency:
A centralized system can be more efficient in decision-making and implementation of
policies, as there is a single authority responsible for making and executing decisions.
This can lead to quicker responses to national emergencies or crises.
c. Economic Stability:
Centralized fiscal and monetary policies can promote economic stability by
coordinating tax policies, managing national debt, and regulating financial institutions
uniformly across the country.
d. National Unity:
Centralization can foster a sense of national unity and identity by promoting common
values, symbols, and objectives across diverse regions and populations.
e. Emergencies and Crises:
During emergencies such as natural disasters or pandemics, a centralized government
can mobilize resources more effectively and coordinate responses across different
regions.
f. Enhanced International Representation:
A centralized federal government can represent the country more cohesively on the
international stage, negotiating treaties, and engaging in diplomatic relations with other
nations.
g. Historical Context:
In some cases, historical factors or the evolution of the federal system may have led to
centralization as a way to address previous weaknesses or challenges in governance.
However, while centralization has its advantages, it can also lead to drawbacks such as reduced
local autonomy, less responsiveness to regional needs, and potential overreach of central
authority. The balance between centralization and decentralization often varies depending on
the specific political, economic, and social context of each country's federal system.
Question 2:

Theory of Separation of powers.

Answer:

• Introduction:

Montesquieu's theory of separation of power states that in every democracy there are 3 pillars

a. Judiciary
b. Executive
c. Legislature

Montesquieu proposed in his theory that the power should be equally divided between these 3
pillars. He also aimed in his theory that no pillar should be more powerful than other two pillars.

• Background of the concept:

This concept was first seen in the works of Aristotle, in the 4th century BCE, wherein he
described the three agencies of the government as General Assembly, Public Officials and
Judiciary.

In the Ancient Roman Republic too, a similar concept was followed.

In modern times, it was 18th-century French philosopher Montesquieu who made the doctrine
a highly systematic and scientific one, in his book De l’esprit des lois (The Spirit of Laws).

His work is based on an understanding of the English system which was showing a propensity
towards a greater distinction between the three organs of government.

The idea was developed further by John Locke.

• Purpose of the Separation:

The purpose of separation of powers is to prevent abuse of power by a single person or a group
of individuals. It will guard the society against the arbitrary, irrational and tyrannical powers
of the state, safeguard freedom for all and allocate each function to the suitable organs of the
state for effective discharge of their respective duties.

• Meaning of Separation of Powers:

Separation of powers divides the mechanism of governance into three branches i.e. Legislature,
Executive and the Judiciary. Although different authors give different definitions, in general,
we can frame three features of this doctrine.

a. Each organ should have different persons in capacity, i.e., a person with a function in
one organ should not be a part of another organ.
b. One organ should not interfere in the functioning of the other organs.
c. One organ should not exercise a function of another organ (they should stick to their
mandate only).

Thus, these broad spheres are determined, but in a complex country like India there often arises
conflict and transgression by one branch over the other.

• Checks & Balances:

o Legislature Control:
On Judiciary: Impeachment and the removal of the judges. Power to amend laws
declared ultra vires by the Court and revalidating it.
On Executive: Through a no-confidence vote it can dissolve the Government. Power to
assess works of the executive through the question hour and zero hour.
o Executive Control:
On Judiciary: Making appointments to the office of Chief Justice and other judges.
On Legislature: Powers under delegated legislation. Authority to make rules for
regulating their respective procedure and conduct of business subject to the provisions
of this Constitution.
o Judicial Control:
On Executive: Judicial review i.e., the power to review executive action to determine
if it violates the Constitution.
On Legislature: Unamendability of the constitution under the basic structure
doctrine pronounced by the Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati Case 1973.
• Advantages of Separation of Powers:

The main objective of the doctrine of separation of powers is to prevent the misuse of power
within different spheres of government.

a. Whenever there is a concentration of power in a singular authority there are chances of

maladministration, corruption, nepotism, and misuse of power.
 b. The doctrine of separation of power will ensure that autocracy does not exist in the
democratic framework.
c. The doctrine helps to create an efficient administration and safeguard individual
Liberty.
d. The independence of the judiciary is maintained.
e. It prevents the legislature from enacting unconstitutional laws and helps to maintain the
constitutional balance between the organs of the government.
• Criticism of Separation of Powers:
a. Complete separation is not possible: The government is one entity. Its three organs
can never be separated altogether. Legislative, executive, and judicial powers are all
interdependent and interrelated, and so cannot be separated completely.
b. Complete separation is not desirable: Separation of the three government entities is
not possible nor desired. The three organs' requirement for unity and cooperation may
be severely hampered by the complete separation of powers.
c. Impracticable in itself: We are unable to properly utilize the division of powers.
Legislative power cannot be vested only in the legislature. The needs of our day have
made it necessary to establish a system of delegated legislation that allows the executive
to make laws. No one can or should prevent judges from developing laws in the form
of case law.
d. Separation of powers can lead to deadlocks and inefficiency: Separation of powers
can result in gridlock and inefficiency in government operations. It can lead to a
situation in which each organ is in conflict with the other two organs, resulting in a
standstill.
• Conclusion:

Montesquieu's theory is overall an Excellent theory as compared to the fact that it was
originated in mid-18th Century. Although Certain amount of Modification and Adaptation is
needed to that theory. Although it is still normal. However, this theory is still relevant today as
the countries like The US still Follows this theory.
“Rigid Separation of powers is neither possible nor desirable”- Do you agree
with the view?

Answer:

• Introduction:

Separation of powers is the division of the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of
government. It minimises the possibility of arbitrary excesses by the government, since the
sanction of all three branches is required for the making, executing, and administering of laws.

The constitutional demarcation precludes the concentration of excessive power by any branch
of the Government.

• Constitutional Provisions Ensuring Separation of Power:

o Article 50: State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive.
o Article 121 and 211: Judicial conduct of a judge of the Supreme Court and the High
Courts cannot be discussed in the Parliament and the State Legislature.
o Article 122 and 212: Validity of proceedings in Parliament and the Legislatures cannot
be called into question in any Court.
o Article 361: the President or the Governor shall not be answerable to any court for the
exercise and performance of the powers and duties of his office.
• Functional Overlap Among Organs of the Government:
▪ Legislature Control:
On Judiciary: Impeachment and the removal of the judges. Power to amend laws
declared ultra vires by the Court and revalidating it.
On Executive: Through a no-confidence vote it can dissolve the Government. Power to
assess works of the executive through the question hour and zero hour.
▪ Executive Control:
On Judiciary: Making appointments to the office of Chief Justice and other judges.
On Legislature: Powers under delegated legislation. Authority to make rules for
regulating their respective procedure and conduct of business subject to the provisions
of this Constitution.
▪ Judicial Control:
On Executive: Judicial review i.e., the power to review executive action to determine
if it violates the Constitution.
 On Legislature: Unamendability of the constitution under the basic structure
doctrine pronounced by the Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati Case 1973.
• Issues with Functional Overlapping:
i. Unaccountability: One of the demerits of overlapping powers, is that a particular
organ cannot be held accountable for its decisions. Eg. Judicial verdicts in 2G and Coal
Block allocation case.
ii. Erosion of faith: Repeated interventions of one organ into another's functioning can
diminish the faith of the people in the integrity, quality, and efficiency of the other
organs.
iii. Accumulation of power: It undermines the spirit of democracy as too much
accumulation of powers in organs of government undermines the principle of check
and balance.
iv. Adverse effect on development: Excessive infringement on each other jurisdiction
may impede smooth functioning of government and hinder public service and overall
development.
• Utility of Functional Overlapping:
i. Check and balance: Organs of government are empowered to prevent arbitrary actions
by other two organs, e.g. Power of judicial review by the Supreme Court.
ii. Rule of law: Power sharing laws among the executive, legislative and judiciary
enhances accountability and equality in governance.
iii. Checks arbitrariness: Constitutional demarcation of overriding powers decreases the
scope of conflict among the government organs.
iv. Cooperation: Overlapping function induces power sharing and power decentralisation.
• Conclusion:

For a democratic polity and diverse society like India, a Constitutional system with strict
separation of powers is undesirable and impracticable. However judicious and calculated
constitutional functional overlapping makes way for democratic collaboration of the three
organs of the government. Such mutual cooperation bridges the executive, legislative and
judicial gap facilitating smooth functioning of government.
Question 3:

Define Public opinion.

Answer:

Public opinion is an important device of popular control. Public opinion is the opinion
consisting of views on matters that are open to discussion. It means what the people in general
think about the political events happening around them. It relates to the views people entertain
regarding the policies of the government and how they are implemented. An alert and
enlightened public opinion is absolutely necessary for the successful functioning of a
democracy. It acts as a watch-dog of government and scrutinises all its policies thoroughly.

• Definitions of Public Opinion:

Public opinion has been defined by some political philosophers as below:

According to Lord Bryce, "Public opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregate of the
views men hold regarding matters that affect or interests the community. Thus understood, it is
a mixture of all sorts of different notions, beliefs, fancies, prejudices, aspirations."

According to Lowel, "Public opinion involves a choice between differing views which may be
rationally held".

According to Carrol, "Public opinion refers to the composite reactions of the general public".

According to Sir Henrymaine, "Voice of the public opinion may be voice of God".

Willoughby says, "In any community of men that which has assured the character of the public
opinion is the result not of the opinion of all its members but only of those persons, few or
many who are led to think and to form judgments regarding matters of general interest."

Finer thinks that public opinion has three meanings:

a) as a record of fact;
b) as a belief;
c) as will.

So, the public opinion is different from propaganda.

Nowadays public opinion is recognized as a great social and political force. According to E.B.
Schultz, it 'enters into the calculation of active participants in the governmental process."
It is an accepted fact that political parties create, mould and direct public opinion in order to
capture power. Any ruling party that neglects or overlooks public opinion cannot continue for
long in power. In short, public opinion is the basis, if not the bastion of democracy.
Agencies of public opinion.

Answer:

If a government doesn’t work properly, a referendum against it can easily topple it by voting
against it in elections and bringing in a new government. Public confidence must be built by
the government while formulating new policies or plans to make decisions that affect society
in one or more ways. If the governing party fails to do so, it may lead to public protests and
other unpleasant incidents.

Public opinion can be expressed through various means, such as:

i. Family and School:

Family is considered to be the first important centre where public opinion is formed, it
is the family where people learn to develop their habits, likes and dislikes. These
individual with all this habits emerges in the society and learn to cooperate and non-
cooperate with others. When the individual being expresses his opinion in the society
that will ultimately become a part of public opinion.
ii. Political Parties:
It also equally plays an important role in the formation of public opinion. The leader of
the political parties have a very strong impact on the ‘people. The political parties
undertake many constructive programmes and delivers impressive speeches and
conducts different events in the society so as to propagate their ideology. In this way
political parties develop and strengthen public opinion.
iii. Press:
The most useful and effective instrument for the formation of public opinion is the
press. It is informative as well as formative of public opinion. It is a medium through
which individuals get the information and news on the matter relating to national
interest and public interest. A good newspaper, media, press are the mirrors of
democracy. The people believe instantly without giving a second thought on whatever
it is written on the newspaper or whatever they watch in the channels. Therefore, press
is nothing but a strong linkage between the common people and the Government. But,
if the press is in the hands of a selfish party, community or the capitalists, then the
country will suffer a great un-repairable loss.
iv. Radio, T.V. and Internet:
 In this age of information revolution Radio, T.V. and Internet contribute significantly to
the formulation of public opinion. Radio and T.V. talks and debates act as motivating
factors for the formulation of public opinion. These act as agencies of political
education. Use of these during elections acts a means for making and changing public
opinion.
v. Cinema:
Cinema is also a powerful agency which plays a role in the formulation of public
opinion. At the time of screening of films in cinema halls, news reels covering the news
of the different parts of the world are also shown. It affects public opinion beside; some
films are prepared keeping in view some main objectives, which have their impact on
the people. As a result of it all, cinema helps in the formulation and expression of public
opinion.
vi. Legislature:
Legislature is formed by the elected representatives of the people. It is an assembly of
political leaders. It acts both as a mirror of public opinion as well as the agency for the
formulation and expression of public opinion. Legislative debates, publication of
records of the debates of the legislature, and the views expressed by the legislators both
inside and out-side the legislature, play an important role in the making and mirroring
of public opinion.
vii. Public Meetings and Rebates:
In every democratic state people have the right and freedom on to form associations, to
hold meetings, processions and demonstrations and to discuss all issues of public
importance and concern. Public meetings as such are agencies for the formulation of
Public Opinion.
viii. Religious Institutions:
Man’s political views are also influenced by his religious views. In India, especially
many political parties are based on religion. Religious congregations in India always
have a political face. Under the cloak of religion, political views are expressed and
spread. The people ‘faithfully’ follow these views and in this way public opinion gets
formulated.
ix. Elections:
In democracy elections are regularly held. These are means of political education. The
political parties prepare their election manifestoes. Through public meetings, gatherings
and processions, pamphlets, advertisements dramas and plays. Political Parties spread
and propagate their programmes among the people. During an election, the political
parties do an intensive campaign, and even the most neutral person in politics does not
remain unaffected or uninfluenced.
Importance of public opinion in a modern democratic state.

Answer:

Public opinion is of great importance in a democracy as it is a government for the people, by

the people, and of the people. For a democratic government, it is necessary to pay attention to
the views of the people. To form a strong government, it is reasonably necessary to be receptive
to what the people say. People naturally trust a government that listens to its people and acts
accordingly.

• Importance of Public Opinion in a Democracy:

Public opinion is a set of collective views of the citizens about social, economic, and political
matters. The term ‘public opinion’ was coined by John Locke in the 17th century, although the
idea of ’public opinion’ is much older than that. The concept of ‘voice of the people’ or ‘vox
populi’ is an ancient Latin concept.

An opinion is not necessarily supported by a fact, as it is an expression of one’s feelings toward

something. Therefore, public opinion is a collective expression of people’s feelings toward the
government and its policies. Public opinion has so much power that it can topple the existing
government. This is because the public or citizens must feel that they are heard and respected
in a democracy.

a) Controls the government:

It is remarked that an alert and enlightened public opinion is the first essential of
democracy. It makes and breaks the government. No government whatever its nature
may be can dare to go against the public opinion as it can remove it. In brief it acts as
the watch-dog of administration.
b) Influences governmental policies:
Public opinion does not allow the government to pass those laws which are against the
interests of the people. The government has to frame its policies, programmes and laws
in accordance with the wishes of the people. Sometimes the government is forced to
alter or abolish its policies and laws in a manner which is popular with the people.
c) Makes laws successful:
The success or failure of laws of the government depends upon the opinion of the
people. If laws are based upon peoples' wishes, their implementation becomes very
 easy. Hence, for the successful implementation of the laws and developmental
activities, the government has to take into account the opinion of the people.
d) Protects liberty:
Public opinion is the only means to check against the despotic tendencies of the
government. It keeps the rulers on the right track and protects the liberty of the people.
Where there is strong and enlightened public opinion, there the liberty of the individual
is safeguarded.
e) Reflects the needs of the people:
Public opinion reflects the needs, problems and aspirations of the people living in the
different parts of the country. The government should be alive to the public opinion and
act accordingly.
f) Social force:
Public opinion is a strong social force in the modern democratic States. The legislators
cannot win in elections again if they ignore public opinion. Hume says that the
government depends on public opinion to continue in authority.
Question 4

Discuss in details the arguments in favor and against women’s suffrage.

Answer:

Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. At the beginning of the 18th
century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political
parties would go on to grant women the right to vote, increasing the number of those parties'
potential constituencies.

• Arguments in support of suffrage were grounded in women’s rights:

Arguments for and against women’s suffrage relied on beliefs about women’s nature and their
role in society. In newspapers, in meeting halls, and across kitchen tables, debates raged about
whether and how men and women were different. Arguments in support of suffrage were
grounded in women’s rights:

▪ Natural rights: those who are affected by laws should have a say in making them.
▪ No taxation without representation: women are wage workers and pay taxes.
▪ Legislation will be more moral, educational and humane: women will clean up politics
and government.

Some suffragists made racist and exclusionary arguments that giving women the vote would
increase the proportion of native-born voters or that white women would overcome the
numbers of African American men added to voting registers by the 13th and 14th amendments.

• Anti-suffrage arguments were strongly grounded in women’s domestic role:

▪ Some men claimed politics was an unsuitable activity for women. They said that
women had no interest in politics and that they wouldn't understand political issues.
▪ Many women (including Queen Victoria) were against the idea of giving women the
right to vote.
▪ There were many more important social issues which would affect larger numbers of
women, as opposed to the small number of middle-class women.
▪ Not all men had the vote, so why should women?
▪ Can't give vote to all women
▪ Violent tactics of campaigners proved women were irresponsible.
▪ Women shouldn't be allowed the vote because they wouldn't take part in protecting the
country during wartime.
Question 5:

Difference between the Parliamentary and Presidential forms of

government.

Answer:

The main distinction between the presidential and parliamentary systems of government is that
India uses the parliamentary system, which was adapted from the British system. In contrast,
the US has a presidential system in which the President of the nation has absolute power.
Studying the presidential and parliamentary systems of government is crucial to understanding
both Indian and global politics.
a) Relation between the three organs of the government:
In a parliamentary form of governance, there exists a harmonious relationship between
the legislature and the executive while the judiciary works independently without the
interference of the legislature and the executive.
In a presidential form of government, on the other hand, there exists a strict separation
of powers between the three organs of the government. Each of them operates
independently without the interference of the other organ.
a) Nature of executive:
In a Parliamentary form of government, there is a real head and a nominal head. For
instance, in India, the Prime Minister is the real head who is the head of the government
in power and the President is the nominal head of the state.
In a Presidential form of government, there is a single unified executive; there exists no
difference between a nominal head and a real head. In the United States of America,
the President is the single unified head who is responsible for the governance of the
country.
b) Separation of Powers:
In a Parliamentary form of government, there is no separation of powers as the power
in a parliamentary government lies with the Cabinet which serves as a link between the
legislature and the executive.
As against this, in a Presidential form of government, there is a strict separation of
powers between the executive and the legislature. They do not interfere in each others
sphere of activities.
c) Tenures:
 In a Parliamentary form of government the tenure of the legislature and the executive
are not fixed. As the Prime Minister’s tenure depends upon the majority support in the
House, whenever a government fails to prove its majority the Prime Minister is in no
other position but to resign and the entire Council of Ministers have to step down from
power along with him.
While, in a Presidential form of government, the tenures of both the Legislature and the
Executive are fixed. Neither of them can be removed before the end of their tenure.
d) Role of the Cabinet:
The Cabinet is a major organ in a Parliamentary form of government. It is responsible
for formulating policies and taking important decisions regarding the administration of
the country. The Cabinet also acts as a link between the executive and the legislature.
In a Presidential form of government, on the other hand, the Cabinet is merely an
advisory body who aid and assist the President in the formulation of important decisions
whenever required.
e) Division of Powers:
In a parliamentary form of government, the powers are divided between the nominal
head and the real head of the state.
In a presidential form of government, on the other hand, the powers are concentrated in
the hands of the single executive or the President of the country.
f) Appointment of Ministers:
In a Parliamentary form of government, only members of the Parliament can be
appointed as ministers.
While, in a Presidential form of government, members outside the Parliament can also
be appointed as ministers and secretaries.
g) Accountability:
In a Parliamentary government, the ministers are individually and collectively
responsible to the legislature. The executive here is accountable to the legislature and
the legislature can check the arbitrariness of the executive.
In a Presidential form of government, on the other hand, the ministers are responsible
only to the President who can remove them whenever he wishes to do so. The executive
here is not accountable to the legislature.
h) Dissolution of the lower House:
In a Parliamentary government, the President can dissolve the lower house on the
advice of the Prime Minister before the completion of its tenure.
 A President, on the other hand, cannot dissolve the lower house of the legislature before
the completion of its tenure.
i) Autocratic:
A parliamentary form of government is less autocratic owing to the division of powers.
While a Presidential form of governance is characterized as more autocratic as all the
powers are concentrated in the hands of the President.
Merits and Demerits of the parliamentary form of the government.

Answer:

• Merits of the Parliamentary forms of government:

The parliamentary form of government is a System of Government in which the executive
branch derives its power from the legislature, or parliament. The prime minister, who is the
head of government, is usually the leader of the party with the most seats in parliament. The
prime minister and other members of the cabinet are also members of parliament.
a) Harmony Between Legislature and Executive:

The greatest advantage of the parliamentary system is that it ensures harmonious

relationships and cooperation between the legislative and executive organs of the
government. The executive is a part of the legislature and both are interdependent at
work. As a result, there is less scope for disputes and conflicts between the two organs.

b) Ready Alternative Government:

In case the ruling party loses its majority, the Head of the State can invite the opposition
party to form the government. This means an alternative government can be formed
without fresh elections. Hence, Dr. Jennings says, ‘the leader of the opposition is the
alternative prime minister’.

c) People’s Government:
The Parliamentary executive has been acclaimed as the real government of people
because the members of the legislature, as representatives of people, draw the attention
of the House to the problems of people. Further, during elections, political parties
raise various issues of people. The government is significantly influenced by
public opinion.
d) Prevents Despotism:
In this system, a council of ministers, rather than a single individual, is given executive
power. This decentralization of authority checks the authoritarian tendencies of the
executive. Additionally, the administration is answerable to Parliament and subject to
no-confidence votes.
e) Wide Representation:
 In a parliamentary system, the executive consists of a group of individuals (i.e.,
ministers who are representatives of the people). Hence, it is possible to provide
representation to all sections and regions in the government. The prime minister, while
selecting his ministers, can take this factor into consideration.
f) Flexible:
There is a lot of flexibility in the Parliamentary system of government to cope with
changing situations and even emergencies. The system, being flexible, can easily adapt
itself to any new reality. One Cabinet may be replaced by a new one without much
controversy to tackle any serious situation.
• Demerit of Parliamentary forms of government:

Parliamentary Form of Government has certain demerits, a few of which have been explained
below:

i. No Separation of Powers:
It is impossible for the legislature to consistently hold the executive accountable when
there is a lack of a complete separation of powers. This is especially true if the
government has a strong majority in the House. Anti-defection rules also prevent
parliamentarians from exercising their free will and voting in accordance with their
convictions and understanding. They have to follow the party line.
ii. Unqualified Lawmakers:
The system only generates legislators who are interested in moving up to the executive
branch. They lack the qualifications needed to enact laws.
iii. Ministers:
The executive should include members of the ruling party. Therefore, engaging subject-
matter experts is not recommended.
iv. Failure to Make a Quick Decision:
Because it lacks a clear tenure, the Ministerial Council routinely postpones making
significant, long-term policy decisions.
v. Party Politics:
Party politics are more pronounced in the parliamentary system because partisan
interests rather than national concerns drive parliamentarians.
vi. Bureaucratic Control:
Civil officials are incredibly powerful. They offer guidance to the ministers on a range
of subjects, although they are not accountable to the legislature.
Question 6:

What is political party?

Answer:

A political party is a group of like-minded people who hold similar views on political issues of
the country. It is an organized group seeking to gain power through democratic means. In
pursuit of this objective, political parties field their candidates in the election held for the public
offices of the country.

• Definition:

Political parties form an essential part of the mechanism of democratic government. They are
the vital force which keeps the wheels of government moving. Bryce has said, "parties are
inevitable. No free, large country has been without them." Political parties provide the
dynamics of political process. Political parties have been defined as under:

o According to Burke, "A political party is a body of men, united for the purpose of
promoting by their joint endeavor, the public interest upon same principles on which
they are agreed."
o According to Herman Finer, "Political parties are organized bodies with voluntary
membership, their concerned energy being employed in pursuit of political power."
o MacIver defines political party as "an association organized in support of some
principle or policy which by constitutional means it endeavors to make the determinant
of government."

In short, a political party may be defined as an organized group of citizens who prefers to share
the same political views and who by acting as a political unit try to control the government.
Are political parties in dispensable in a democracy? - Discuss.

Answer:

In a country, several political parties stand for election. The presence of different political
parties helps to build healthy competition and proper management of the country. It gives a
choice for evolved as well as effective decision-making. A political party is made up of a
specific group of people who come together to compete with each other to run a government
that will be better able to take care of the needs of the country.

• political parties are dispensable in a democracy (Functions or Roles):

Every political party has certain functions which they should perform. Some of the important
functions of political parties are as follows:

a) Competitive Elections:
Political parties compete in elections to win a majority and form a government.
Members of the political parties choose their candidates who fight for them in elections.
Those candidates who either manage to raise a lot of money or are sure to win the
election are chosen. Famous personalities are also determined to represent a political
party. Candidates are selected by all party members or vital top-party officials.
b) Policies and Programs:
Political parties talk about policies in public. They are trying to convince the public that
their party’s policies are better. They hold demonstrations, public meetings, and
speeches to discuss the policies they would adopt. They discuss the issues facing the
country and the policies they would adopt once elected. With such measures, they are
trying to gain public support.
c) Lawmaking:
Political parties play a vital role in making laws for the country. Any proposed law is
first called a bill. A bill is debated in the legislature, and if it receives a majority, it is
considered passed. Such a bill then becomes the law of the land.
d) Create and run a government:
The government is formed by the political party that wins the majority in the elections.
That party is called the ruling party. He builds and then runs the government. He makes
all the important decisions. Trained and experienced members become ministers who
carry out the politicization of the government.
 e) Role of the Opposition:
A political party that loses an election forms the opposition party. He controls the ruling
party. Opposition parties criticize the ruling government if it implements policies that
are not in favor of the masses. They also ensure that the ruling party does not abuse its
power.
f) Formation of Public Opinion:
Political parties discuss various issues facing the country, discuss their policies and
form public opinion on them. Party-affiliated pressure groups inform the public about
various issues. They start movements for the country’s problems and mobilize mass
support for various issues.
g) Access to Government Welfare Systems:
Political parties form an important link between the public and the government. Leaders
are accountable to the people for the policies their party follows. It is easy for the public
to reach out to local leaders to voice their demands. Leaders cannot ignore their
concerns because the public may not vote for them in the next election.
• Importance of Political Parties:

The Democracy do not exist without the presence of a political party and this is clear by the
function which it performs. In case of no political parties, following will happen:

i. Every candidate standing in an election will be independent candidate and any

individual candidate do not fulfill the promise of a major policy change to the people
and hence no one will be actually responsible for running the country efficiently.
ii. In long run, only a representative democracy will be able to survive and political parties
will be the agencies for gathering different views on various issues and present it in
front of the government.
o Need for Political Parties:
i. For most ordinary citizens, democracy equates to political parties.
ii. If we travel and survey in rural areas, or remote areas, their knowledge of the
constitution may be negligible, but they would definitely have awareness of political
parties.
iii. One of the most visible institutions in a democracy is political parties.
iv. Political parties are most important to form a government. They are candidates
representing various political parties who contest elections at the central, state, and local
levels.
 v. Candidates running in elections choose political parties through their internal
mechanisms.
vi. Political parties create programs and policies and shape public opinion.
vii. Once the political parties win the elections, they form the government and its policies
are implemented based on the manifesto of the political party that won the elections.
viii. If political parties lose an election, they will sit in the parliament or state assembly in
opposition and monitor or criticize the government’s policies or actions.

In brief, a political party acts as a buffer between the government and the individual, chooses
candidates for election, educates and stimulates public opinion, assumes responsibility for the
government, offers criticism and provides alternative government.
Question 7:

Universal Adult Franchise.

Answer:

Universal Adult Franchise refers to the principle that grants all adult citizens the right to vote
in elections, regardless of their background, such as caste, education, religion, color, race, or
economic conditions.

• History and Background:

Barely 13% of Indian citizens were granted the right to vote during the pre-independence
period.

The demand for universal adult franchise started gaining importance only a few decades before
independence.

Motilal Nehru’s report became the pioneer to support the limitless adult franchise and equal
rights for women.

To incorporate universal adult suffrage in the Indian constitution, Dr BR Ambedkar appeared

before the Simon commission in 1928 and pressured them to grant suffrage.

At the Karachi session, The Indian National Congress called for political equality in the year
1931.

The INC was of the view that it was a crucial step to make the electoral process more inclusive
and collaborative.

In November 1947, India commenced the composition of the very first draft for the electoral
role on universal adult suffrage.

The universal adult franchise was finally adopted, when the present constitution was passed in
1949 and successfully implemented on January 26, 1950.

• Meaning:

Universal adult franchise (also known as universal suffrage, common suffrage, and general
suffrage of the common man) grants the right to vote to all adult citizens, irrespective of their
gender, race, social status, wealth, political stance, or any such criteria, with a few exceptions.
Now, coming to the definition part, franchise means the right of people to choose their
representative by vote. The term “franchise” derives from the French word “franc”, meaning
free. Adult franchise refers to the right to vote, which should be granted to all adult citizens
regardless of gender, caste, religion and color.

Universal Adult Franchise or Universal Suffrage means the extension of the right to vote for
every adult citizens who have reached majority, i.e., maturity without discrimination on the
basis of caste, colour, creed, sex or wealth. In the beginning the suffrage was granted to a
limited fraction of the citizens in the society. These few people belong to the class of nobility,
clergy, propertied, educated, etc. But, in course of time due to the impact of several revolutions
and peoples' movements, universal suffrage has been secured by people in various countries.
At present, those citizens who attained the age of maturity irrespective of their class, creed and
religion possess and exercise franchise in choosing their representatives to various civic bodies.
The minimum age limit differs from country to country. It is 18 years in the U.K., India, etc.,
23 years in Norway and 25 in Denmark, Spain, Holland, etc.

• Merits:

The merits of Universal Adult franchise are:

i. Fully in tune with Democracy:

Democracy is government of all the people. Thus, all people of the state should have
right to franchise guaranteed by Universal Adult Franchise.
ii. Justified on basis of right to equality:
Right to equality includes political equality of all. Universal Adult franchise is based
on the principal of equality of all the citizens of the state.
iii. Ensures greater participation of the people in Politics:
Universal Adult Franchise ensures equal and full participation of all the citizens, in the
organisation and working of their government. Politics relates to all so all must get right
to participate in it.
iv. Signifies the equal citizenship of all the people of the state:
Citizenship of the state is for all the members of state. Equal citizenship stands for equal
rights. Universal Adult Franchise signifies the equal political rights of citizens who
constitute the states.
v. Laws equally apply to citizens so all should get voting rights:
 Since laws of the state are binding on all the citizens, it is natural and essential that all
citizens must get voting rights.
vi. Universal Adult Franchise is a great means of Political Education:
Universal Adult Franchise creates awareness about the issues and problems of their
country and educate them about politics.

Based on these arguments the need of universal adult franchise in democracy can be felt and
that is why almost all democratic states are advocate of universal adult franchise.

• Demerits:

The following are the arguments that are against universal adult suffrage:

a) Unlearned about complex issues:

One of the illiterate persons might not be able to exercise their right to vote
properly. There are complex issues at stake during elections that must be properly
explained to the electorates. It is argued that the illiterate members of the society may
not be able to understand the complex national issues that are being peddled by the
political parties.
b) Expensive to conduct:
Another argument against universal adult suffrage is that it is too expensive. Elections
in themselves are expensive to conduct. Now where universal adult suffrage is adopted,
then every eligible voter is expected to vote. Large-scale arrangements have to be made
for elections.
c) Manipulations:
Poorer people are liable to sell their votes. In the poorer parts of the world where
democracy seems to be operating, it is easy for politicians and their agents to convince
the poor of the society to sell their votes.
d) Empowering incompetent people:
In some countries, people vote not because they understand any of the national issues
but because of the dominance of a particular party in the constituency. This could lead
to electing incompetent people into power.

In conclusion, Universal adult suffrage is considered one of the most critical decisions which
helped shape India better. It was a major accomplishment for the founding fathers of the Indian
constitution to give everyone the equal right to vote, without any restrictions.
The universal adult franchise gave birth to democratisation and free and fair elections played a
significant role in restoring an order dominated by the upper castes. It not only changed the
face of our government and parliamentary system but also gave the backward people a chance
to represent themselves in the parliament.
Pressure Group.

Answer:

A pressure group is a group of people who are organised actively for promoting and defending
their common interest. It is called so, as it attempts to bring a change in public policy by
exerting pressure on the government. It acts as a liaison between the government and its
members.

The pressure groups are also called interest groups or vested groups. They are different from
the political parties, as they neither contest elections nor try to capture political power. They
are concerned with specific programmes and issues and their activities are confined to the
protection and promotion of the interests of their members by influencing the government.

The pressure groups influence the policy-making and policy implementation in the
government through legal and legitimate methods like lobbying, correspondence, publicity,
propagandising, petitioning, public debating, maintaining contacts with their legislators and
so forth.

o Techniques Used by Pressure Groups:

Pressure groups resort to three different techniques in securing their purposes.

i. Electioneering:

Placing in public office persons who are favourably disposed towards the interests
the concerned pressure group seeks to promote.

ii. Lobbying:

Persuading public officers, whether they are initially favourably disposed toward
them or not, to adopt and enforce the policies that they think will prove most
beneficial to their interests.

iii. Propagandizing:

Influencing public opinion and thereby gaining an indirect influence over

government, since the government in a democracy is substantially affected by
public opinion.

o Characteristics of Pressure Groups:

 i. Based on Certain Interests: Each pressure group organises itself keeping in view
certain interests and thus tries to adopt the structure of power in the political
systems.

ii. Use of Modern as well as Traditional Means: They adopt techniques like
financing of political parties, sponsoring their close candidates at the time of
elections and keeping the bureaucracy also satisfied. Their traditional means
include exploitation of caste, creed and religious feelings to promote their
interests.

iii. Resulting Out of Increasing Pressure and Demands on Resources: Scarcity of

resources, claims and counterclaims on the resources from different and
competing sections of the society leads to the rise of pressure groups.

iv. Inadequacies of Political Parties: Pressure groups are primarily a consequence

of inadequacies of the political parties.

v. Represent Changing Consciousness: For instance, the increase in the food

production or industrial goods does bring a change in the way individuals and
groups look at the world. The stagnation in production leads to fatalism but
increase in production leads to demands, protests and formation of new pressure
groups.

• Types of Pressure Groups:

There are four types of Pressure groups:

i. Associational Groups: They are expert groups to present their self-interest claims.
These are formally organized in the form of registered bodies.
a. Examples: Trade Unions such as AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress),
Teachers Associations, etc.
ii. Non-Associational Groups: Kinship, lineage, ethnic, regional, status, and class groups
that articulate interests based on individuals, family, and religious heads. These groups
have an informal structure.
iii. Institutional Groups: This group comprises people from any profession. Such a group
may intend for the interests of its members or any other group.
 a. Examples: IAS Association, IPS Association, State civil services association,
etc.
iv. Anomic Groups: Such pressure groups usually originate from a particular event.
Pressure groups of this kind naturally express their dissatisfaction by creating pressure
on the country’s political system through protests, riots, assassinations, etc.
• Pressure Groups in India:
i. Business Groups:
Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), Associated
Chamber of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM), Federation of All India
Foodgrain Dealers Association (FAIFDA), etc
ii. Trade Unions:
All-India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), Indian National Trade Union Congress
(INTUC), Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS), Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS)
iii. Professional Groups:
Indian Medical Association (IMA), Bar Council of India (BCI), All India Federation
of University and College Teachers (AIFUCT)
iv. Agrarian Groups:
All India Kisan Sabha, Bharatiya Kisan Union, etc
v. Student’s Organisations:
Akhila Bhartiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP), All India Students Federation (AISF),
National Students Union of India (NSUI)
vi. Religious Groups:
Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS), Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), Jamaat-e-
Islami, etc.
vii. Caste Groups:
Harijan Sevak Sangh, Nadar Caste Association, etc
viii. Linguistic Groups:
Tamil Sangh, Andhra Maha Sabha, etc
ix. Tribal Groups:
National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), Tribal National Volunteers (TNU)
in Tripura, United Mizo federal org, Tribal League of Assam, etc.
x. Ideology based Groups:
Narmada Bachao Andolan, Chipko Movement, Women's Rights Organisation, India
Against Corruption etc.
 • Functions, Role & Importance of Pressure Groups:
i. Interest Articulation:
Pressure Groups bring the demands and needs of the people to the notice of the
decision-makers. The process by which the claims of the people get crystallized and
articulated is called interest articulation.
ii. Agents of Political Socialisation:
Pressure groups are agents of political socialisation in so far as they influence the
orientations of the people towards the political process. These groups play a vital role
as two-way communication links between the people and the government.
iii. role in the legislative process:
Pressure groups play a vital role in the legislative process, not only as important
structures of interest articulation, but also as active agencies engaged in lobbying with
the legislators for securing desired laws or amendments in laws and policies of the
government.
o Right from the time of preparation of election manifestos of various political parties
to the passing of laws by the legislators, the pressure groups remain associated with
the process of rule-making.
iv. Pressure Groups and Administration:
Pressure Groups are actively involved with the process of administration. Through
lobbying with the bureaucracy, the pressure groups are usually in a position to
influence the process of policy implementation.
v. Role in Judicial Administration:
Pressure Groups try to use the judicial system for securing and safeguarding their
interests. Interest groups often seek access to the court for redressal of their grievances
against the government as well as for getting declared a particular decision or policy
as unconstitutional.
vi. Pressure groups enable new concerns and issues to reach the political agenda,
thereby facilitating social progress and preventing social stagnation. For example,
the women’s and environmentalist movements.
vii. Pressure groups increase social cohesion and political stability by providing a
‘safety-valve’ outlet for individual and collective grievances and demands.
viii. Pressure groups complement the work of opposition political parties by exposing the
bad policies and wrongdoings of the government. Pressure groups thereby improve
the accountability of decision makers to electorates.
 • Positive outcomes of the pressure groups:

Pressure groups promote democracy in several ways, such as:

i. Mobilize public opinion: Pressure groups keep the government in touch with public
opinion in-between elections.
ii. Accountability of government: Pressure groups shore up the accountability of the
government and serve as a vital check on government actions and inaction.
o Example: Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan led the people’s movement, which got the
government to bring the law on ‘Right to Information’.
iii. Giving voice to Minorities: Pressure groups give a political voice to minority groups
and articulate concerns that political parties overlook.
iv. Raising diverse issues: Pressure groups are often more effective in articulating
concerns about issues such as the environment, civil liberties, global poverty, violence
against women, and the plight of the elderly.
o Example: Women’s organizations like SEWA have campaigned for women-friendly
laws.
v. Widen political participation: Pressure groups have become increasingly effective
agents of political participation. Not only have single-issue politics proved to be
popular, but the grassroots activism and decentralized organization of many
campaigning groups have proved to be attractive to many young people.
vi. Promotes political education: Pressure groups promote political debates, discussions,
and arguments. In doing so, they create a better-informed and more educated electorate.

Pressure groups are now considered as an indispensable and helpful element of the democratic
process. The society has become highly complex and individuals cannot pursue their interests
on their own. They need the support of other fellow beings in order to gain greater bargaining
power; this gives rise to pressure groups based on common interests.
Unitary form of Government.

Answer:

A unitary government is one in which the whole government is under the sole jurisdiction of
one power, known as the central government. The center is where all administrative divisions
and powers are located. Both democracy and a monarchy can be forms of unitary
administration. All the power and the authority is vested in one hand.

Example - Japan, England, France, Sri Lanka.

• Definition:
According to Prof. Finer, "A unitary government is one in which all the authority and
powers are lodged in a single centre, whose will and agents are legally omnipotent over
the whole area."
Willoughby says, "A unitary government is one in which all the powers of government
are conferred in the first instance upon a single central government and that government
is left in complete freedom to effect such a distribution of these powers territorially as
in its opinion is wise."
As per Garner, "Where the whole power of government is conferred by the
Constitution upon a single Central organ or organ from which the local government
derives whatever authority or autonomy, they may possess and indeed their very
existence, we have a system of unitary government."
Wheare says that "Constitution may be classified also in terms of the method by which
the powers of government are distributed between the government of the whole country
and any local governments which exercise authority over parts of the country. On this
principle, constitutions are classified as 'federal' or 'unitary'.

In a unitary form of government, the legislature of the whole country is the supreme law making
body in the country. It may permit other legislatures to exist and to exercise their powers, but
it has the right, in law, to overrule them, they are subordinate to it."

• Characteristic Features of Unitary Government:

i. Existence of single government:
The powers of the entire government are vested in a single government. It controls the
whole country. C.F. Strong says that a unitary State has two essential features:
o The supremacy of the Centre, and
 o The absence of subsidiary sovereign making bodies.
ii. Absence of provisional government with autonomy:
In unitary form of government provincial or local governments may or may not exist.
If they exist, they should depend on the Central Government for their survival. The
Provincial Governments do not enjoy any administrative autonomy. They can enjoy
only such powers which are delegated to them by the Central Government.
iii. Constitution may be written or unwritten:
The Constitution of a unitary State may be written or unwritten.
iv. Flexible Constitution:
A unitary government generally possesses a flexible Constitution. The Central
Government can alone effect changes in the Constitution through ordinary law-making
procedure.
v. Single citizenship:
Citizens in unitary government enjoy only one citizenship irrespective of the region,
where they live.
vi. Single Legislature:
Under unitary form government, there will be only one law making legislature.
vii. No need for an independent judiciary:
Under unitary system there may be or may not be an independent judiciary as there is
no possibility of conflict of judiciary between Centre and the units.
viii. Absence of division of powers:
There will be absence of division of powers under the unitary government because
unitary government possesses single government with all powers vested with it.
ix. Only national police force:
Most unitary States have a national police force and control over local militia units.

The unitary system is more useful for small countries like the U.K., Japan, Belgium, Sweden,
France, etc. Administration is centralised in France and decentralised in the U.K.

• Advantages of Unitary System:

The main advantages of the unitary structure of government are:

i. Suitable for small countries:

For countries that are smaller in size, a unitary structure is the most suitable.
ii. Less expensive:
 It is less expensive as there is no extensive authority to be funded.
iii. Quick decision making:
Unitary structure is quick in decision-making as all the decisions are made by a single
authority.
iv. Prevent conflicts:
There is no chance of conflicts as all the power is vested with the centre.
• Disadvantages of Unitary System:

A unitary system of government is a good system for small nations. Yet, it still has
disadvantages too. And, these are:

i. No opportunities for experiment:

The unitary system is not suitable for geographically large countries. Because in unitary
system full power is only in the hands of centre and they may probably not have access
to rural areas.
ii. Problems of rural area:
Central government may not have any knowledge about the problems and needs of the
people living in rural areas.
iii. Heavy burden on centre:
There is a lack of efficiency as the central government is usually burdened with lots of
responsibilities and functions.
iv. Uneven development:
Under the unitary form of government, the country may face unequal development and
growth. The central government can find it extremely tough to develop every part of
the nation at the same time without delegation of authority and powers.
Multiparty System.

Answer:

A multi-party system allows for the existence of multiple political parties, each with its own
set of beliefs and policies. This diversity fosters a more robust political landscape, giving
citizens a wider range of choices.

• Meaning:

A multi-party system is one where there are more than two parties operating in the State. In
fact, when a number of political parties, more or less equally powerful, exist but with no party
by itself in a position to win the majority of seats in the legislature, the system is referred to as
a multi-party system. The result of such a situation is coalition government. Most of the
countries in Europe and India have multi-party system. France is the most notable example of
multi-party system. If parties originate from the difference of opinion, then it is logical to accept
the fact that there shall be as many parties as there are opinions. But in practice this may have
dire consequences on the politics of a State. Sometime these parties do not even profess any
distinct ideologies and are little more than factions.

• Advantages of a Multi-Party System:

Followings are the advantages of multi-party system:

a) A multi-party system affords citizens the opportunity to have as many choices as

possible. As such, those in support of the system say it is democratic.
b) Multi-party systems tend to encourage peaceful change of governments. The existence
of many parties means that there are other parties waiting for their turn to be voted into
power can discourage crude means of gaining political power.
c) Since there are many parties that are formed in a multi-party system, this allows for
minority groups among the electorate to be represented. This also allows for increased
political participation by the masses.
d) Another advantage of the operation of a multi-party system is that it allows opposition
parties to exist. When there is opposition, it could encourage optimal results.
e) The operation of multi-party allows open and constructive criticism of the policies of
the ruling government. This prevents the leaders of the ruling party from becoming
despotic or tyrannical.
 • Disadvantages of a Multi-Party System:

Followings are the disavantages of multi-party system:

a) In many cases, no one party is able to gain power alone. Therefore, it leads to difficulty
in formation of government. Some parties might have to come together before a
government can be formed and these coalition governments can be weak and unstable.
b) It can be expensive to operate since all the parties vying for political power must
convince the people to vote for them. They organize rallies, advertise in the media and
so on in order to carry out their campaigns and reach voters.
c) Electorates can become bombarded with so many choices to the point where they get
confused.
d) Another disadvantage of multi-party system is that it can lead to divisions in the nation.
This is especially so in Africa where parties could be formed along tribal, religious or
ethnic lines.
e) When there are many parties vying for the ultimate goal of ruling the country, it can
degenerate into an unhealthy rivalry among the various parties. This could eventually
stifle development and progress.

In Dominant Parties vs. Competitive Multi-Party Systems case, a dominant party may
emerge in some multi-party systems, posing challenges to competition and political
diversity. However, competitive multi-party systems strive to prevent any single party from
holding a monopoly on power.
Bi-cameralism.

Answer:

Bicameralism is a type of legislature that is divided into two separate assemblies or houses,
known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameral legislatures are found in approximately 80
countries around the world. Unicameralism, in which all members discuss and vote as a single
body, is distinct from bicameralism. In a bicameral legislature, the two chambers share
responsibility for enacting and implementing legislation. The Indian Parliament is divided into
two houses at the national level:

o Rajya Sabha (Upper House)

o Lok Sabha (Lower House)
• What Is Bicameralism?
'Bi' means two, 'cameral' means Chamber or house. Bicameral legislature means two
Chambers or two houses. Lower House is called the First House and the Upper House
is called the Second House. The U.S.A., the U.K. and India are examples of Bicameral
Legislature.
A bicameral legislature, which is distinguished by having two distinct assemblies,
chambers, or houses, is one that practises bicameralism.
The Constitution of India establishes a bicameral legislature with an Upper House
(Rajya Sabha) and a Lower House (Lok Sabha).
The Rajya Sabha represents the states of the Indian Federation, whereas the Lok Sabha
represents the entire population of India.
The Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) is the state equivalent of the Lok Sabha, and
the Vidhan Parishad is the state equivalent of the Rajya Sabha (Legislative Council).
The Upper House is considered important in the parliamentary system because only
one-third of the seats are filled every two years, and it thus acts as a check on the Lower
House's potential impetuousness.
Six of the 28 state legislatures at the state level have two houses:
▪ Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad)
▪ Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)
The six states listed below have bicameral legislatures:
▪ Andhra Pradesh
▪ Bihar
 ▪ Karnataka
▪ Maharashtra
▪ Telangana
▪ Uttar Pradesh
• Merits of Bicameralism:
i. Check on Hasty Legislation:
In a state, laws are of utmost importance because they regulate the life and property of
the people. Hence, they are to be made without any bias and with proper care and
consideration. The second chamber revises the hasty, ill-considered legislation, as it is
free from haste, passion and excitement.
ii. Check against Tyranny of a Single Chamber:
The existence of a second chamber provides safeguard against the tyranny and
despotism of a single chamber legislature. Mill believed that a second chamber would
act as a check against “the corrupting influence of undivided power.” By checking the
despotism of a single chamber, it would safeguard the liberty of individuals.
iii. Representation of Different Interests:
It secures representation of various interests and classes. The first chamber is usually
based on direct election. The second chamber in some states provides for representation
of minorities and of the aristocratic and intellectual elements. For instance, the Rajya
Sabha in India has 12 nominated members with special achievement in the fields of art,
science, literature and social service.
iv. Relief of the Burden:
The second chamber reduces the workload of a single chamber considerably.
Noncontroversial bills may at first be introduced in the upper house to minimize the
burden of the first chamber.
v. Scope for the Competent and Talented Persons:
It provides opportunity to men of worth and talent to get seats in the upper house. Such
men usually fight shy of direct election.
vi. Indispensable for Federal Government:
In a federal state there are different units. The federating units or regional governments
have their separate identities. They are to be represented in the national legislature. In
bicameralism one house can represent the people. The other house can represent the
federating units.
vii. Makes the People Conscious:
 It crystallizes public opinion. By interposing delay in the passing of a legislative
measure, it allows the people enough time for reflection and expression of their opinion.
viii. Better Legislation:
The second chamber usually contains men of higher age, wisdom and experience. The
quality of the debates and discussion in the upper house is better than in the lower house.
The members are comparatively free from popular passion and rigid party discipline.
ix. Promotes Independence of the Executive:
The bicameral system promotes the independence of the executive. The competition
between the two houses prevents any of them from exercising undue influence over the
executive.
x. Reconciliation between Radical and Liberal Views:
In bicameralism one house is designed to accommodate young radical people and the
other house can accommodate experienced and liberal members. Laws should not be
too radical to bring about drastic changes nor should it be too liberal to be effective. In
bicameral legislature a balance can be maintained between the two extremes in law-
making.
• Demerits of Bicameralism:
i. An Unnecessary System:
Abbe Sieyes repudiates bicameralism by saying, “Of what use will a second chamber
be? If it agrees with the Representative House, it will be superfluous, if it disagrees,
mischievous.” The second chamber is an unnecessary and expensive addition to the
legislative machinery.
ii. Wastage of Time and Energy:
Law-making process is a long one of analysis and discussion. After it is completed in
one house, according to Laski, there is no need for repetition of the same thing again in
another house. The work in the second chamber is, therefore, only wastage of time and
energy.
iii. Very Expensive:
Considerable amount of money is spent to maintain a legislature, if the legislature is
bicameral more expenditure for the legislature becomes necessary and money comes
from the common people in the shape of taxes. So, second chamber is a burden on the
purse of the governed.
iv. Sacrifices Unity:
 A two-chambered legislature sacrifices the great principle of unity. Law is the
expression of the popular will. “There is no valid reason why popular will should seek
two channels of expression, why democracy should speak in two voices?”
v. Blocks Progressive Legislation:
The second chamber may block progressive and welfare legislation. It mostly consists
of conservative and aristocratic sections of society. Rivalry between the two houses
adversely affects public interest.
vi. Does not always safeguard the Interests of the Units of a Federation:
A federation, no doubt, envisages bicameralism for the representation of the units. The
representation of the units is necessary for the safeguard of the interests of the units.
But in actual practice the interests of the units are not always safeguarded by a second
chamber, because the members act according to the party whip.
The actual safeguard of the interests of the units is provided by the constitution and the
judicial review. Again, the era of ‘Cooperative federalism’ highlights the unity and
cooperation among various governments.
vii. No Satisfactory Method for the Composition of Second Chamber:
Further, no satisfactory method has yet been devised for constituting a second chamber.
A hereditary chamber like the British House of Lords is undemocratic. A nominated or
indirectly elected second chamber cannot effectively check the first chamber.
A directly elected second chamber like the American Senate virtually overshadows the
lower house. Sometimes a combination of different principles is followed and the result
is that the house fails to enjoy the pure representative character in most of the cases.
viii. Not Number of Chambers but Dedication to Work:
To make good laws for the state, high standard of morality and the sense of dedication
for the cause of the people above self-interest and party interest are necessary.
Dedicated representatives in a single chamber can make better laws than indifferent,
selfish and partisan members sitting in two chambers.

There are many unicameral states that function very well. In addition, the states with a
Bicameral Legislature in India face issues such as poverty, a lack of healthcare, and a lack of
quality education. It is the intention of the government, rather than the type or system of
government, that is important for the welfare of the public.
Dictatorship.

Answer:

It is derived from Latin word "dictator" means "a person who has absolute powers and authority
in a free society or state". it is form of government in which an individual has absolute power
and authority to make laws. He is not answerable before any forum. There is no limit of time
or specific period for his government. It is totally against democracy. Public opinion has no
values in this system. People are not allowed to criticize the government. They do not enjoy
the freedom of expression.

• Definitions:

Walter thermor

In this form of government, absolute power and total authority is held by an individual or a
small group.

Webster Dictionary

A form of government in which absolute power is concentrated around an individual.

• Characteristics:
i. Unlimited powers:
In this form of government, the dictator has absolute powers and unlimited authority.
He is not answerable before anybody. He exercises his powers in legislation,
administrative functions and in judicial matters.
ii. One party rule:
In dictatorship, only a single political party is allowing for political activities.
Oppositions parties are not allowing to do any kind of political activities. "1 state, 1
party and 1 leader" is the most famous slogan of dictatorship.
iii. To solve the problems:
The dictator presents a program to solve the different problems of people. The main
objective of this program is to gain fame for dictator. Economic and social problems
are given very importance in dictatorship and to resolve these matters. Different
solutions are suggested to satisfy the people.
iv. Sanctity of state:
 The state is declared very holy and sacred institution in dictatorship. The famous saying
of Mussolini was "Everything within the state, Nothing against the state, Nothing
outside the state."
People are asked to scarify their all for the survival of state.
v. End of liberty:
The freedom of expression and liberties come to an end in dictatorship. There is no
question of political rights. People have depended upon the dictator. Print and electronic
media is controlled by the government. People are not given the permission to criticize
government. The role of the forcement agencies is very cruel.
vi. Economic development:
Dictator establishes different programs for national development and economic
progress. These programs are advertised by print media and electronic media. The main
objective of these programs is to get popularity for dictator among the people.
vii. Propaganda of national unit:
The slogans of national integrity and unity are given much importance in dictatorship.
The state is declared the most important thing for citizens. They are asked to do more
work for national integrity. Patriotism and unity are the first and foremost demand from
citizens.
viii. Enemy of peace:
Dictators are considered are the enemy of peace. We can get very clear evidence from
history. For example; German dictator Hitler and Italian dictator Mussolini destroy the
whole world by 2nd world war. Therefore, democracy is much better system in the
award.
ix. Wrong decisions:
In dictatorship, an individual has absolute power for making decisions. His advisors are
not allowed to contradict with his opinion. Human mental approach is limited.
Therefore, the decision made by an individual may be wrong. It can prove very
dangerous and harmful for state and society.
• Advantages Of Dictatorship:

Like democracy, dictatorship has also some advantages and disadvantages. Below is the list
of benefits of dictatorship.

i. Crime Rates Are Low

 When there is a dictatorship, there are often highly harsh laws and penalties for breaking
them. People get threatened by such severe punishments. As a result, nations with
dictatorial governments see lower rates of crime.
ii. Rapid Progression
Dictators have access to and influence over all aspects of society, including the law, the
economy, and people. They do not need to worry about the pitch.
They set goals that require them to grow and develop. Their absence of other interests
makes achieving their goals simple.
iii. Strong International Relation
Since it intimately tied foreign policy to the president or the ruling party, it is easier for
both sides to build a bargaining position.
A dictator who knows there will always be checks and balances in international
relations offers his people exceptional opportunities.
iv. Swift And Express Shifts
Everything occurs considerably more quickly under a dictatorial form of government
than in other types of governments, whether it involves trade, administration, or
anything else.
The reason is that the decision-making process is under a single individual. The
hierarchy places much emphasis on upholding order and consistency.
The visible chain of direction strengthens this discipline by establishing a distinct line
of authority and responsibility.
People are aware of the effects of breaking the established framework and are mindful
that noncompliance will cause immediate and harsh punishment.
v. During Calamities There Is An Effective Response
With a natural catastrophe or other emergencies in society, it may give resources with
a single order rather than many consents, enabling aid to reach more rapidly.
Naturally, this is based on the notion that the dictator will decide to assist in an
emergency.
vi. Stability In Government
When all decisions are made by one person or group, society becomes more stable since
delegating authority is no longer required.
Supporters claim this results in less social unrest, fewer conflicts, and a better emphasis
on social and economic growth.
vii. Less Corruption
 Dictators are highly critical of rules, regulations, penalties, jail terms, and bounties.
Because of centralized power, the dictator ensures accountability and reduces
opportunities for corrupt practices.
viii. No Opposition
They rarely tolerate Opposition to the dictator or the governing party in most
dictatorships. Any kind of oppositional protest is greeted with violence, regardless of
whether it results in a death sentence for the participants.
Several dictators even put down opposition protests that take place in secret.
Because of the lack of accountability and oversight under this system of governance,
the dictator stays independent, the community deteriorates, and citizens die.
ix. Cultural Preservation
A dictator can enforce cultural preservation by controlling and regulating cultural
practices and traditions. These measures will protect national heritage and prevent the
spread of cultural values.

These advantages of dictatorship as a student, or a teacher help you differentiate it from

democracy.

• Disadvantages Of Dictatorship:

Lack of accountability, human rights violations like in Pakistan, inequality, and favoritism are
some cons of dictatorship. Let’s look at the drawbacks of dictatorship.

i. Human Rights Violations:

Dictatorships often violate fundamental human rights, freedom of speech, and the right
to privacy, which leads to repression and persecution.
ii. Favoritism And Inequity:
Dictatorships often widen income disparities and provide preferential treatment to
specific groups, which promotes corruption and unequal resource distribution.
iii. Lack Of Public Engagement:
It prevents citizens from having a voice in decisions directly touching their lives and
giving them little to no input in decision-making processes.
iv. Lack Of Check and Balance:
 It undercut independent institutions like the court and the media when a dictator
increases their hold on power, undermining the separation of powers and lowering
accountability.
v. Limited Social Development:
Dictatorships often obstruct social advancement by stifling civil society organizations,
limiting freedom of speech, and preventing the rise of underrepresented groups.
One example of an Internet ban recently is the total shutdown of the Internet by Hosni
Mubarak in January 2011.
vi. Mass Killings:
Several individuals are killed in the dictatorship because the people get outraged by the
government’s actions, which prompts the dictator to see them as enemies of the state.
vii. Laws Can Be Changed Anytime:
In a dictatorial form of governance, the ruler can impose his control at any moment.
Dictators manipulate the law to their benefit.