LABORATORY MANUAL

ESL 130 PART 2 - BASIC ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT MODEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

THRIKKAKARA
KOCHI 682021
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INDEX
Topic Page No.

Syllabus 3
Course Outcome 5
Instructions 6

EXPERIMENTS

PART 2: ELECTRONICS

1. Familiarization/Identification of electronic components with specification 45

2. Drawing of electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols and Interpret data sheets of
discrete components and IC‘s, Estimation and costing 58
3. Familiarization/Application of testing instruments and commonly used tools 68.
4. Testing of electronic components. 77
5. Introduction to general purpose PCB and soldering practice. 82
6. Familiarization to printed circuit boards and fabrication techniques . 86.
7. Assembling of electronic circuit/system on general purpose PCB, test and show the functioning 88.

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SYLLABUS

ESL130 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP

LIST OF EXERCISES / EXPERIMENTS

PART2:ELECTRONICS(Minimum of 7 mandatory)

1. Familiarization/Identification of electronic components with specification

(Functionality, type, size, colour coding, package, symbol, cost etc. [Active, Passive,
Electrical, Electronic, Electro-mechanical, Wires, Cables, Connectors, Fuses, Switches, Relays,
Crystals, Displays, Fasteners, Heat sink etc.)
2. Drawing of electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols and introduction to EDA tools
(such as Dia or XCircuit), Interpret data sheets of discrete components and IC‘s, Estimation
and costing.
3. Familiarization/Application of testing instruments and commonly used tools.
[Multimeter, Function generator, Power supply, DSO etc.] [Soldering iron, Desoldering pump,
Pliers, Cutters, Wire strippers, Screw drivers, Tweezers, Crimping tool, Hot air soldering and
de- soldering station etc.]
4. Testing of electronic components [Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor and JFET using
multimeter.]
5. Inter-connection methods and soldering practice. [Bread board, Wrapping, Crimping, Soldering
- types - selection of materials and safety precautions, soldering practice in connectors and
general purpose PCB, Crimping.]
6. Printed circuit boards (PCB) [Types, Single sided, Double sided, PTH, Processing
methods, Design and fabrication of a single sided PCB for a simple circuit with
etching (Ferric chloride) and drilling.]
7. Assembling of electronic circuits using SMT (Surface Mount Technology) stations.
8. Assembling of electronic circuit/system on general purpose PCB, test and show the
functioning (Any Two circuits).
1. Fixed voltage power supply with transformer, rectifier diode, capacitor filter,
zener/IC regulator.
2. Square wave generation using IC 555 timer in IC base.
3. Sine wave generation using IC 741 OP-AMP in IC base.
4. RC coupled amplifier with transistor BC107.

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Course Outcome

ESL 130 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP

Identify the tools used for electrical wiring, electrical accessories, wires, cables,
ESL130.1
batteries and standard symbols.
Develop the connection diagram, identify the suitable accessories and materials
ESL130.2
necessaries for wiring simple lighting circuits for domestic buildings.
ESL130.3 Identify and test various electronic components

ESL130.4 Draw circuit schematics with EDA tools

ESL130.5 Assemble and test electronic circuits on boards

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INSTRUCTIONS
General

 The students should come well prepared to attend viva and conduct the experiment.
 The instructional material should be read before coming to the class.
 Students should write the theory and procedure of the experiment with a neat connection
diagram.
 The estimation table and the entire calculation shall be completed in the workshop and the
readings taken/output should be shown to the staff-member in charge before leaving the
workshop.
Workshop Record
The workshop record submitted by the students should have the following format:
1. Experiment No. & Date
2. Title of the experiment
3. Aim of the experiment
4. Tools, equipment & instruments required, their range and type.
5. Complete connection diagram with the range and type of components/equipment and instruments
used and specify the supply voltages.
6. Theory & Procedure :- write a brief theory & actual procedure followed with precautions taken
7. Readings observed in appropriate tabular form.
8. Results & inference
Dress Code & Safety Standards
For the safety of all personnel the following dress code has to be strictly followed:
1. The students shall wear insulating foot wear which covers the whole foot and shall not have metal
nails in the sole (i.e. should wear shoes).
2. The students shall wear tight dress (pants & shirt / overcoat)
3. The students shall not wear long neck chains.
4. The students having long hair (going below the shoulders) should bundle up their hair.

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PART 2: ELECTRONICS

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EXPERIMENT No:1

FAMILIARIZATION/IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS WITH

SPECIFICATION

Aim

To familiarize various electronic components

Components Required

Resistor, Potentiometer, Rheostat, Electronic capacitor, Ceramic capacitor, Inductor, Silicon diode
(IN4007), Germanium diode (DA79), Zener diode, LED, BJT BC 107, Breadboard.

Theory:

ACTIVE and PASSIVE COMPONENTS

The basic components can be divided into two category

4. Passive components- Resistors, Capacitors, inductors etc,

5. Active components- Diode , Transistors.

Active Components

Devices which are capapble of amplifying or processing electrical signals are called active components.

Passive Components

Passive components are those components which are not capable of amplifying or processing an electric
signal by themselves.

1.1 RESISTOR
A Resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

= /

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There are different types of resistors

(a) Carbon filmed (b) Wire-Wound.

a) Carbon filmed resistors: The most common type for electronics use is the carbon resistor. They
are made in different physical sizes with power dissipation limits commonly from 1 watt down to 1/8
watt. The resistance value and tolerance can be determined from the standard resistor color code
.
b) Wire Wound Resistors: Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually
nichrome, around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to
two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. Because wire wound resistors are coils they have
more undesirable inductance than other types of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with
alternately reversed direction can minimize inductance. Applications of wire wound resistors are
similar to those of composition resistors with the exception of the high frequency.

1.1.1 Colour coding of Resistor

Colour Codes are used to identify the value of resistor. The numbers to the Colour are identified in the
following sequence which is remembered as BBROY GREAT BRITAN VERY GOOD WIFE
(BBROYGBVGW) and their assignment is listed in following table.

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Figure: Color Coding of Resistors

4-Band: Reading the resistor from left to right, the first two color bands represent significant digits ,
the third band represents the decimal multiplier, and the fourth band represents the tolerance.

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5- Band: The first three color bands represent significant digits, the fourth band represents the decimal
multiplier, and the fifth band represents the tolerance.
6-Band: The first three color bands represent significant digits, the fourth band represents the decimal
3 multiplier, the fifth band represents the tolerance, and the sixth band represents the temperature
coefficient.

1.1.2 Variable Resistors or Potentiometer

The resistor whose electrical resistance value can be adjusted as per requirement by adjustable
component attached to it is called variable resistor. It is applied in an electronic circuit for adjusting
circuit resistance to control voltage or current of that circuit or part of that circuit. The electrical
resistance is varied by sliding a wiper contact along a resistance track. Sometimes the resistance is
adjusted at preset value as required at the time of circuit building by adjusting screw attached to it and
sometimes resistance can be adjusted as when required by controlling knob connected to it. The active
resistance value of the variable resistor depends upon the position of the slider contact on the
resistance track. There are mainly three different types of resistance track used in this resistor they are
carbon track, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) track and wire wound track. Carbon track and cermet
track are used for high resistance application whereas wire wound track is used for low resistance
variable resistor. The resistance tracks generally are of circular shape but straight track is also used in
many cases.

1.1.3 Rheostat

A rheostat is a variable resistor which is used to control current. They are able to vary the resistance in
a circuit without interruption. The construction is very similar to the construction of a potentiometers.
It uses only two connections, even when 3 terminals (as in a potentiometer) are present. The first
connection is made

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to one end of the resistive element and the other connection to the wiper (sliding contact). In contrast
to potentiometers, rheostats have to carry a significant current. Therefore they are mostly constructed
as wire wound resistors. Resistive wire is wound around an insulating ceramic core and the wiper
slides over the windings. Rheostats were often used as power control devices, for example to control
light intensity (dimmer), speed of motors, heaters and ovens.

1.2 CAPACITORS

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to

store energy electro statically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via chemical
reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of
metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electricaldevices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the
conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on
one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal
capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge
on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad,
which is equal to one coulomb per volt.
The most common kinds of capacitors are:
5. Ceramic capacitors have a ceramic dielectric.
6. Film and paper capacitors are named for their dielectrics.
7. Aluminium, tantalum and niobium electrolytic capacitors are named after the material used
as the anode and the construction of the cathode (electrolyte)
8. Polymer capacitors are aluminium, tantalum or niobium electrolytic capacitors with
conductive polymer as electrolyte.

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Figure: Capacitor Symbols

1.3 INDUCTOR

Inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists
changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound
into a coil. Energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil as long as current flows. The property by
which the magnetic field opposes any change in current flowing through the inductor is called
Inductance. The unit of inductance in henry (H).
There are mainly three types of inductors. 1) Air core 2) Iron core 3) Ferrite core.
1. Air core inductors
They are usually called choke. They have low losses due to air core. The value of inductance is also
low.
2. Iron core inductors
Its made of thin lamination of iron core having low losses.
3. Ferrite core inductors
These are made of ferrite core.

1.4 DIODE

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one direction

(asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in one direction,
and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type
today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical
terminals. Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The most common
function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward
direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction).

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Figure: Diode Symbol

1.4.1 Zener diode

A Zener diode allows current to flow from its anode to its cathode like a normal semiconductor diode,
but it also permits current to flow in the reverse direction when its "Zener voltage" is reached. Zener
diodes have a highly doped, p-n junction. Normal diodes will also break down with a reverse voltage
but the voltage and sharpness of the knee are not as well defined as for a Zener diode. Also normal
diodes are not designed to operate in the breakdown region, but Zener diodes can reliably operate in
this region.
The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but
as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the
diodes breakdown voltage is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in
the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.

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Figure: Zener Diode Schematic symbol and I-V Characteristics Curves

1.4.2 Light Emitting Diode

The ―Light Emitting Diode‖ or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialised type
of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN junction diode. This means that an
LED will pass current in its forward direction but block the flow of current in the reverse
[Link] emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor
material and depending on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, when forward
biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength.

When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band recombine with
holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a
monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these
photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light output. Then we can say
that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices that
convert electrical energy into light energy.
Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – ) terminal identified by either a
notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead
is longer than the cathode (k).

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Figure: Light Emitting Diode (LED) Schematic symbol and I-V Characteristics Curves
Showing the different colours available.

1.5 TRANSISTOR

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act
as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor‘s ability
to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: ―switching‖ (digital
electronics) or ―amplification‖ (analogue electronics).
They are mainly classified as 1)Bipolar junction Transistor and 2) Field effect transistor.

1) Bipolar Junction Transistors.

It is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and hole charge carriers for their operations. These
bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:

(a) Active Region: the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

(b) Saturation – the transistor is ―Fully-ON‖ operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)

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(c) Cut-off – the transistor is ―Fully-OFF‖ operating as a switch and Ic = 0

There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes
the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.

Figure: Bipolar Transistor

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter (E), the Base (B) and the Collector (C) respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through
them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a current
-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the
same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.
2) Field Effect Transistors
It is a transistor that uses an electric field to control the electrical behaviour of the device .FETs are
also known as unipolar transistor since they involve single carrier operation They are classified into
two
1. Junction field effect transistor
2. Metal Oxide semiconductor Field effect transistor (MOSFET)

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Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor- Metal Oxide semiconductor Field effect transistor is
fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated gate whose voltage determine the
conductivity .With applied voltage it can be used for amplifying or switching electronics signals.
Special Devices
1. Unijunction Transistor
It is a three lead electronic semiconductor device with only one junction that acts exclusively as an
electrically controlled switch. The UJT is not used as a linear amplifier
2. Silicon controlled rectifier
It is a four layered PNPN device and is a prominent member of thyristor family. It consists of three
terminals Viz Anode, Cathode and Gate. It is widely used as switching device in power control
applications.

2. SWITCH & RELAYS

A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or
diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch may be operated directly by a
human operator to control a circuit, may be operated by a moving object such as a door-operated
switch, or may be operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A relay is a
switch that is operated by electricity .Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages and
currents; very large switches may be used to isolate high-voltage circuits in electrical substations.
In the simplest case, a switch has two conductive pieces, often metal, called contacts, connected to an
external circuit, that touch to complete (make) the circuit, and separate to open (break) the circuit.
The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion, because most metals form insulating
oxides that would prevent the switch from working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of
electrical conductivity, hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), and mechanical strength, low cost and

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low toxicity. Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may be designed to wipe
against each other to clean off any contamination. Non-metallic conductors, such as conductive
plastic, are sometimes used. To prevent the formation of insulating oxides, a minimum wetting
current may be specified for a given switch design.

Figure: Types of switches

a) SPST: Single pole, single throw (b) SPDT: Single pole, double throw
(c) DPST: Double pole, single throw (d) DPDT: Double pole, double throw.

A relay is an electrically operated. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch,
but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control
and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays
were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one
circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges
and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power
required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays
control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are
used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

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Figure: Types of relays

a) SPST: Single pole, single throw (b) SPDT: Single pole, double throw (c) DPST: Double
pole, single throw (d) DPDT: Double pole, double throw.

Result:

Familiarized with active and passive electronic components

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EXPERIMENT No:2

DRAWING OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS USING BIS/IEEE SYMBOLS AND I

TO INTERPRET DATA SHEETS OF DISCRETE COMPONENTS AND IC’S,
ESTIMATION AND COSTING

Aim
To familiarize with

(a) The electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols

(b) Interpret data sheet of discrete component and ICs, estimation

and Costing
Components Required

Theory:

In electronic circuits, there are many electronic symbols that are used to represent or identify a basic
electronic or electrical device. They are mostly used to draw a circuit diagram and are standardized
internationally by the IEEE standard (IEEE Std 315) and the British Standard (BS 3939). NO changes can be
brought by the user on any electronic symbol, but the user is free to bring any changes in the architectural
drawings like power source and lighting.

(a) THE ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS USING BIS/IEEE SYMBOLS

The symbols for different electronic devices are shown below. Click on each link given below to view the
symbols. Apart from the circuit symbols, each device are also designated a short name. Though these names
are not approved as standard notations, they are commonly used by most people. These designations are also
given in the list.

1.1 WIRES

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

Used to connect one component

Wire
to another.

One device may be connected to

another through wires. This is
Wires Joined represented by drawing ―blobs‖
on the point where they are
shorted.

When circuits are drawn some

wires may not touch others. This
can only be shown by bridging
Wires Unjoined them or by drawing them
without blobs. But bridging is
commonly practised as there will
not arise any confusion.

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1.2 POWER SUPPLIES

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

Used to provide a supply for a

Cell
circuit.

A battery has more than a cell

and is used for the same purpose.
Battery The smaller terminal is negative
and the larger one is positive.
Abbreviated as ‗B‘.

Used as a DC power supply, that

DC Supply is, the current will always flow
in one direction.

Used as AC power supply, that

AC Supply is, the current will keep
alternating directions.

Used in circuits where a

probability of excessive current
flows. The fuse will break the
Fuse
circuit if excessive current flows
and saves the other devices from
damage.

Used as an AC power supply.

Consists of two coils, the
primary and secondary that are
linked together through an iron
Transformer core. There is no physical
connection between the two
coils. The principle of mutual
inductance is used to obtain
power. Abbreviated as ‗T‘.

Used in electronic circuits to

represent the 0 volts of the
power supply. It can also be
Earth/Ground
defined as the real earth , when it
is applied in radio circuits and
power circuits.

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1.3 RESISTOR

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

Resistor A resistor is used to restrict the

amount of current flow through
a device. Abbreviated as ‗R‘.

A rheostat is used to control the

Rheostat current flow with two contacts.
Applicable in controlling lamp
brightness, capacitor charge rate,
etc.

A potentiometer is used to
control the voltage flow and has
Potentiometer three contacts. Have applications
in changing a mechanical angle
change to an electrical
parameter. Abbreviated as
‗POT‘.
Presets are low cost variable
resistors that are used to control
Preset the charge flow with the help of
a screw driver. Applications
where the resistance is
determined only at the end of the
circuit design.

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

Capacitor is a device that is
used to store electrical energy. It
consists of two metals plates that
are separated by a dielectric. It is
Capacitor
applicable as a filter, that is, to
block DC signals and allow AC
signals. Abbreviated with the
letter ‗C‘.

Capacitor can be used in a timer

Capacitor – Polarized
circuit by adding a resistor.

Used to vary the capacitance by

turning the knob. A type of
variable capacitor is the trimmer
Variable Capacitor
capacitor that is small in size.
The notations are all the same.

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1.5 DIODE

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

A diode is used to allow electric

current to flow in only one
Diode
direction. Abbreviated as ‗D‘.

LED is used to emit light when a

Light Emitting Diode (LED) current is passed through the
device. It is abbreviated as LED.

After a breakdown voltage, the

device allows current to flow in
Zener Diode the reverse direction as well. It is
abbreviated as ‗Z‘.

Photodiode works as a photo-

detector and converts light into
Photo Diode
its corresponding voltage or
current.

Tunnel Diode is known for its

high-speed operation due to its
Tunnel Diode
application in quantum
mechanical effects.

The Schottky Diode is known

for its large forward voltage drop
Schottky Diode
and hence has great applications
in switching circuits.

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1.6 TRANSISTOR

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

This is a transistor with a layer of P-doped

semiconductor fixed between two layers
NPN Transistor of N-doped semiconductors that act as the
emitter and collector. Abbreviated as ‗Q‘.

This is a transistor with a layer of N-

doped semiconductor fixed between two
layers of P-doped semiconductors that act
PNP Transistor
as the emitter and collector. Abbreviated
as ‗Q‘.

The working of a phototransistor is

similar to that of a bipolar transistor with
a difference that it converts light into its
Phototransistor corresponding current. The
phototransistor can also act as a
photodiode if the emitter is not connected.

Like a transistor, a FET has three

terminals, the Gate, Source and Drain.
The device has an electric field that
Field Effect Transistor
controls the conductivity of a channel of
one type charge carrier in a semiconductor
substance.

The Junction Field Effect Transistor

(JFET) is the simplest type of FET with
applications in Switching and voltage
variable resistor. In an N-channel JFET an
N-Channel Junction FET
N-type silicon bar has two smaller pieces
of P-type silicon material diffused on each
sides of its middle part, forming P-N
junctions.

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Electronic
Component Circuit Symbol Description

P-channel JFET is similar in

construction to N-channel JFET
P-Channel Junction except that P-type semiconductor
FET
base is sandwiched between two N-
type junctions. In this case majority
carriers are holes.

Abbreviated as
MOSFET. MOSFET is a three
Metal Oxide terminal device and is controlled by
Given Below
Semiconductor FET a gate bias. It is known for its low
capacitance and low input
impedance.

In the depletion-mode construction

a channel is physically constructed
and a current between drain and
Depletion MOSFET
source is due to voltage applied
across the drain-source terminals.
Abbreviated as d-MOSFET.

The enhancement MOSFET

structure has no channel formed
during its construction. Voltage is
applied to the gate, so as to develop
a channel of charge carriers so that a
Enhancement current results when a voltage is
MOSFET applied across the drain-source
terminals. Abbreviated as e-
MOSFET.

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1.7 SWITCHES and RELAYS

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

This is an ordinary switch that passes

Push Switch
current only upon pressing.

The push to break switch is usually

kept in the ON state (closed). It turns
Push to Break Switch to OFF state (open) only when the
switch is pressed.

Also known as the ON/OFF switch.

This switch allows the flow of current
Singe Pole Single Throw
Switch only when it is kept ON. Abbreviated
as SPST.

Also known as the 2-way switch. It

can be also called as an ON/OFF/ON
switch as it has an OFF position in the
Single Pole Double Throw center. The switch causes the flow of
Switch current in two directions, depending
on its position. It can be abbreviated
as SPDT.

Abbreviated as DPST. Can also be

Double Pole Single Throw
called as a dual ON-OFF switch.
Switch

Abbreviated as DPDT. The switch

uses a central OFF position and is
Double Pole Double Throw
applied as reversing switch for
Switch
motors.

Relay is abbreviated as ‗RY‘. This

device can easily switch a 230 Volt
Relay
AC mains circuit.

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1.8 METERS
Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

Voltmeter is used to measure the

Voltmeter voltage at a certain point in the
circuit.

An Ammeter is used to measure

the current that passes through
Ammeter
the circuit at a particular point.

A galvanometer is used to
measure very small currents in
Galvanometer
the order of 1 milli ampere or
less.

Resistance of the circuit is

Ohmmeter
measured using an Ohmmeter.

An oscilloscope is used to
measure the voltage and time
Oscilloscope period of signals along with their
shape display.

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1.9 OTHERS

Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description

Used to amplify a signal. It is
mainly used to represent a whole
Amplifier circuit rather than just one
component.

Inductor is used to produce a

magnetic field when a certain
current is passed through a coil
of
wire. The wire is coiled on a soft
Inductor
iron core. Have applications in
motors, and tank circuits.
Abbreviated as ‗L‘.

It is abbreviated as LDR. Light

Dependent Resistor is used to
convert light into its
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) corresponding resistance. Instead
of directly measuring the light, it
senses the heat content and
converts it onto resistance.
Instead of directly measuring the
light, a thermistor senses the heat
Thermistor content and converts it into
resistance. Abbreviated as ‗TH‘.

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DATASHEETS

A datasheet or spec sheet is a document that summarizes the performance and other technical
characteristics of a product, machine, component (e.g., an electronic component), material, a subsystem
(e.g., a power supply) or software in sufficient detail that allows design engineer to understand the role of
the component in the overall system. Typically, a datasheet is created by the manufacturer and begins with
an introductory page describing the rest of the document, followed by listings of specific characteristics,
with further information on the connectivity of the devices. In cases where there is relevant source code to
include, it is usually attached near the end of the document or separated into another file. Depending
on the specific purpose, a datasheet may offer an average value, a typical value, a typical range,
engineering tolerances, or a nominal value. The type and source of data are usually stated on the
datasheet. A datasheet is usually used for technical communication to describe technical characteristics of an
item or product. It can be published by the manufacturer to help people choose products or to help use the
products. By contrast, a technical specification is an explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by a material,
product, or service.

A typical datasheet for an electronic component contains most of the following information:

Manufacturer's name

Product number and name

List of available package formats (with images) and ordering codes

Notable device properties

Short functional description

Pin connection diagram

Absolute minimum and maximum ratings (supply voltage, power consumption, input currents,
temperatures for storage, operating, soldering, etc.)
Recommended operating conditions (as absolute minimum and maximum ratings)

DC specifications (various temperatures, supply voltages, input currents, etc.)

Maximum power consumption over the whole operating temperature range

AC specifications (various temperatures, supply voltages, frequencies, etc.)

Input/output wave shape diagram

timing diagram

Some characteristics are only given at a specific temperature, typically

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EXPERIMENT No:3

FAMILIARIZATION/APPLICATION OF TESTING INSTRUMENTS AND

COMMONLY USED TOOLS.

Aim To familiarize with testing instruments and commonly used tools

Components required Multimeter, Function generator, Power supply, CRO, Soldering iron,
De soldering pump, Pliers, Cutters, Wire strippers, Screw drivers, Tweezers, Crimping
tool, Hot air soldering and de-soldering station.

Theory:

Multimeters:
Multimeters are very popular electronic measuring device and are essential to repair and troubleshoot an
electronic device. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a
microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have a numeric
display, and may also show a graphical bar representing the measured value. Digital multimeters are now far
more common due to their cost and precision, but analog multimeters are still preferable.
Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability and extra features. In a digital
multimeter the signal under test is converted to a voltage and an amplifier with electronically controlled gain
preconditions the signal. A digital multimeter displays the quantity measured as a number, which eliminates
parallax errors.
A multimeter can utilize a variety of test probes to connect to the circuit or device under test. Crocodile clips,
retractable hook clips, and pointed probes are the three most common attachments. Tweezer probes are used
for closely spaced test points, as in surface-mount devices. The connectors are attached to flexible, thickly
insulated leads that are terminated with connectors appropriate for the meter. Red probe represents the
positive test lead and black probe represents negative test lead.
Measurements using Analog/ Digital Multimeters:
Zero Adjustment of multimeter: Before measuring make sure that the pointer of the meter is at zero position of
the scale. If the pointer is not zero position, bring the pointer to exact zero position turning the screw located
just below the scale window, using a small screw driver.
DC and AC measurements using multimeters:
1. Insert the positive and negative test leads in appropriate grooves.
2. To measure the DC voltage, the range selector must be set to prescribed DC voltage range and similar
with AC voltage measurement.

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In digital multimeters if the display is 1, it indicates over range. Range switch must be set to higher range
values
3. Take the reading in the screen.

Measuring Current
1. Insert positive lead and negative lead in proper places.
2. Selector switch should be set in prescribed range before connecting the multimeter in series with the path
of current under measurement.
3. Take the reading in the screen.
Measuring Resistance
1. Pick out a resistor and set the multimeter to the 20kΩ setting. Then hold the probes against the resistor
legs.
2. The meter will read one of three things, 0.00, 1, or the actual resistor value.
a. In this case, the meter reads 0.97, meaning this resistor has a value of 0.97kΩ, or about 1kΩ or
1000 Ω (remember you are in the 20kΩ or 20,000 Ohm mode so you need to move the decimal
three places to the right or 9,900 Ohms).
b. If the multimeter reads 1 or displays OL, it‘s overloaded. You will need to try a higher mode
such as 200kΩ mode or 2MΩ (megaohm) mode. There is no harm if this happen, it simply
means the range knob needs to be adjusted.
c. If the multimeter reads 0.00 or nearly zero, then you need to lower the mode to 2kΩ or 200Ω.

Digital Mutimeter Analog Mutimeter

Function Generator
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different
types of
electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by
the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and sawtooth shapes. Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example, they may be used as a signal source to test
amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into a control loop.

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Features and controls

 Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small number of
options.

o Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
o Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.
o Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.
 The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high and low
voltage of the output signal.

 The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies the average voltage of a signal
relative to the ground.

 The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal oscillates. On some
function generators, the frequency control is a combination of different controls.
 One set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of magnitude) and the other selects the
precise frequency. This allows the function generator to handle the enormous variation in frequency scale
needed for signals.


Function Generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and
amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease
of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument.
Power Controls of CRO:
a) OFF/ INTENS : Turns power ON. A LED indicates the status whether it is turn ON/ OFF. The intensity
of the displayed electron beam can be varied using this knob.
b) FOCUS: Using this, beam can be made sharply defined.

c) Y-POSITION: Controls vertical shifting of the trace.

d) AMP/DIV: Enlarges the signal in vertical direction. Knob can be set in ranges from 2mV/div to 10V/div
usually.
e) ON/OFF: Turn the channel On/ Off.

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f) AC/ DC: In AC position the DC component is blocked by blocking the capacitor. In DC position, signal i
s directly coupled.
g) X POSITION: Controls the horizontal shifting of the trace.

h) LEVEL: Helps the signal to remain still.

i) MAGN x n: Allows the magnification of the horizontal deflection by a factor of n.
j) TIME/ DIV: Enlarges the signal in X direction. In combination with µs/ms selects the coefficients.
k) CAL: knob should be turned to CAL position to take the readings.
l) A/B: Triggering signal can be derived either from signal in Channel A or Channel b.
m) INT/ EXT: An external triggering signal for time base can be given through EXT socket.
n) NORM/ TV: In NORM position, normal triggering is obtained. In TV position, TV line or TV
frame synchronization is obtained.

Measuring Amplitude of the Signal

A well-defined horizontal trace is to be obtained on the screen by adjusting the intensity (INTENS) and
focus (FOCUS) knobs. Adjust the Y Position knob to adjust to the reference line. Connect the function
generator to the CRO and switch ON. Connect the number of divisions occupied ny the signals. Multiply
the number of divisions with AMP/DIV value, giving the peak to peak amplitude
Measuring Frequency
Repeat the adjustment as above. Adjust TIME/DIV knob. Count the number og divisions in one cycle of
the waveform.
Multiply the number of divisions with time-base. Note the magnification factor MAGN switch.

Cathode Ray Tube

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CRO Front Panel

Power Supply

There are many types of power supply .Most are designed to convert high voltage AC to a
suitable low voltage power supply.

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer- steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

 Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.

 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Soldering Iron

A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so that it can flow into the joint
between two workpieces. A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating is

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often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current (supplied through an electrical cord or battery cables)
through a resistive heating element.
For electrical and electronics work, a low-power iron, a power rating between 15 and 35 watts, is used. Higher
ratings are available, but do not run at higher temperature; instead there is more heat available for making
soldered connections to things with large thermal capacity, for example, a metal chassis. Some irons are
temperature-controlled, running at a fixed temperature in the same way as a soldering station, with higher power
available for joints with large heat capacity. Simple irons run at an uncontrolled temperature determined by
thermal equilibrium; when heating something large their temperature drops a little, possibly too much to melt
solder.

Soldering Iron

Desoldering Pump

Desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit board for troubleshooting, repair,
replacement, and salvage. Desoldering tools and materials include the following: Solder wick, Heat guns, also
called hot air guns, Desoldering pump, Removal alloys, Removal fluxes, Heated soldering tweezers etc.
A desoldering pump, colloquially known as a solder sucker, is a manually-operated device which is used to
remove solder from a printed circuit board. There are two types: the plunger style and bulb style. (An
electrically-operated pump for this purpose would usually be called a vacuum pump.)
The plunger type has a cylinder with a spring-loaded piston which is pushed down and locks into place. When
triggered by pressing a button, the piston springs up, creating suction that sucks the solder off the soldered
connection. The bulb type creates suction by squeezing and releasing a rubber [Link] pump is applied to a
heated solder connection, then operated to suck the solder away.

Solder Pump
Pliers, Cutters, Wire strippers, Screw drivers, Tweezers, Crimping tool

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Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, possibly developed from tongs used to handle hot metal and
also useful for bending and compressing a wide range of materials. Generally, pliers consist of a pair of metal
first-class levers joined at a fulcrum positioned closer to one end of the levers, creating short jaws on one side of
the fulcrum, and longer handles on the other side. This arrangement creates a mechanical advantage, allowing the
force of the hand's grip to be amplified and focused on an object with precision. The jaws can also be used to
manipulate objects too small or unwieldy to be manipulated with the fingers.
Cutters are a similar tool with a different type of head used for cutting and pulling, rather than squeezing. Tools
designed for safely handling hot objects are usually called tongs. Special tools for making crimp connections in
electrical and electronic applications are often called crimping plier ; each type of connection uses its own
dedicated tool. A wire stripper is a small, hand-held device used to strip the electrical insulation from electric
wires.
A simple manual wire stripper is a pair of opposing blades much like scissors or wire cutters. The addition of a
center notch makes it easier to cut the insulation without cutting the wire. This type of wire stripper is used by
rotating it around the insulation while applying pressure in order to make a cut around the insulation. Since the
insulation is not bonded to the wire, it then pulls easily off the end. This is the most versatile type of wire
stripper.
A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, for turning (driving or removing) screws. A typical simple
screwdriver has a handle and a shaft, and a tip that the user inserts into the screw head to turn it. The shaft is
usually made of tough steel to resist bending or twisting. The tip may be hardened to resist wear, treated with a
dark tip coating for improved visual contrast between tip and screw—or ridged or treated for additional 'grip'.
Handle are typically wood, metal, or plastic and

usually hexagonal, square, or oval in cross-section to improve grip and prevent the tool from rolling when set
down. Some manual screwdrivers have interchangeable tips that fit into a socket on the end of the shaft and are
held in mechanically or
magnetically. These often have a hollow handle that contains various types and sizes of tips, and a reversible
ratchet action that allows multiple full turns without repositioning the tip or the user's hand..
Tweezers are small tools used for picking up objects too small to be easily handled with the human hands. They
are probably derived from tongs, pincers, or scissors-like pliers used to grab or hold hot objects

Combinational Plier

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Cutters

Wire Stripper

Screw Driver

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Result
Familiarized with testing tools and Components

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EXPERIMENT No:4

TESTING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Aim:
Testing of electronic components

Components required: Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor, UJT and JFET using multimeter

Theory:

Resistor:

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.
Resistors may be used to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, may act to lower voltage levels within circuits.
In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical
power as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic
equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits.
Capacitor:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store electrical
energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two
electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking
direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they
stabilize voltage and power flow.
Diodes

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one direction (asymmetric
conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate
(anode) and a heated cathode.

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Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is
composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A
voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.
UJT

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-lead electronic semiconductor device with only one junction that acts
exclusively as an electrically controlled [Link] UJT is not used as a linear amplifier. It is used in free-running
oscillators, synchronized or triggered oscillators, and pulse generation circuits at low to moderate frequencies
(hundreds of kilohertz). It is widely used in the triggering circuits for silicon controlled rectifiers. The low cost per
unit, combined with its unique characteristic, have warranted its use in a wide variety of applications like oscillators,
pulse generators, saw-tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, and voltage- or current-
regulated supplies.

MOSFET

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a semiconductor device which is
widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic devices. The MOSFET is a four
terminal device with source(S), gate (G), drain (D) and body (B) terminals. The body of the MOSFET is frequently
connected to the source terminal so making it a three terminal device like field effect transistor. The MOSFET is
very far the most common transistor and can be used in both analog and digital circuits.

SCR

An SCR is an acronym for silicon-controlled rectifier and is commonly referred to as a thyristor. It is a unidirectional
semiconductor similar to a diode, which allows for current to flow in only one direction. The silicon control rectifier
(SCR) consists of four layers of semiconductors, which form NPNP or PNPN structures, having three P-N junctions
labeled J1, J2 and J3, and three terminals. The anode terminal of an SCR is connected to the p-type material of a
PNPN structure, and the cathode terminal is connected to the n-type layer, while the gate of the SCR is connected to
the p-type material nearest to the cathode.

Procedure:

Measuring various electronic components using multimeters

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1. Resistance

 Take a resistor and note the value of the resistor (eg 1KΩ)
 Set the multimeter to resistance mode and measure the value of the resisitor
 If the meter reads 1kΩ or nearest value ,the resistance is in good condition
 If it reads zero/beep sound then the resistance is short or faulty
 If it reads Infinite then the resistance is in open condition

2. Variable Resistor / Potentiometer

 Set the multimeter to resistor mode
 Hold the probes against the I and III terminals of potentiometer
 If the multimeter shows value its in good condition
 Hold the probes against the I and II terminals of potentiometer and vary the circular knob
 Measure the value. ,If value varies then good otherwise faulty
3. Inductor
 The most common fault in inductor is open circuit
 Hold the terminals of multimeter against the legs of inductor
 If it shows value inductor is good, if its shows infinite inductor is open

4. Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

 Short circuit the capacitor terminals to discharge the capacitor before measurement
 Keep the multimeter in diode / continuity mode
 Hold the probes against capacitor terminals
 If Multimeter reads low resistance initially and then suddenly shows a high value, capacitor is in
good condition
 If meter reads infinite resistance or zero or beep sound the capacitor is faulty

Ceramic / Polyester Capacitor

 Hold the probes against the capacitor terminals
 If Meter shows high resistance (1/ OL), then good
 If capacitor reads infinite resistance / beep sound then the capacitor is faulty

5. Diode / Zener diode

 Keep the multimeter in diode / continuity mode

 Hold the black probe to negative terminal(cathode) and red probe to positive terminal(anode)
 In the above case it should show zero or low resistance
 Now reverse the terminals and observe. If the multimeter reads high, the diode is good. Otherwise
faulty
6. LED

 Keep the multimeter in diode / continuity mode

 Hold the positive terminal of LED against red probe and negative terminal against black probe of
multimeter.
 If good, LED will be glowing bright otherwise zero or beep sound will be the output

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7. Transistor

 Transistor is equivalent to two diodes connected back to back. Emitter and base terminals are
considered as two terminals of a diode and collector and base terminals are considered as two
terminals of other diode. These two diodes must be tested separately
 Keep the multimeter in diode / continuity mode
 Repeat the same procedure for testing of diodes

8. MOSFET

 Set the DMM to the diode range.

 Keep the mosfet on a dry wooden table on its metal tab, with the printed side facing you and leads
pointed towards you.
 With a screwdriver or meter probe, short the gate and drain pins of the mosfet. This will initially
keep the internal capacitance of the device completely discharged.
 Now Touch the meter black probe to source and the red probe to drain of the device.
 You should see an "open" circuit indication on the meter.

For N channel MOSFET

 Now keeping the black probe touched to the source, lift the red probe from drain and touch it to
the gate of the mosfet momentarily, and bring it back to the drain of the mosfet.
 This time the meter will show a short circuit (sorry, not short-circuit rather "continuity).
 The results from the point 5 and 7 confirms that the mosfet is OK.

For P channel MOSFET

 Follow the procedure exactly as given in the steps 1,2,3,4 and 5.

 Next remove the red and the black probes from its positions and touch the red to the gate and the
black to the source of the mosfet.
 After this, put the red probe on source and the black probe back to drain of the mosfet.
 This time the meter should show a short circuit, proving that the mosfet is in a good condition.

9. SCR

 To test the SCR, keep the Multimeter into Ohmmeter mode.

 Connect the positive output lead of the multimeter to the anode and the negative lead to the cathode.
 The multimeter should indicate no continuity.

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 Touch the gate of the SCR to the anode.
 The multimeter should indicate continuity through the SCR.
 When the gate lead is removed from the anode, conduction may stop or continue depending on
whether the multimeter is supplying enough current to keep the device above its holding current
level.
 If the multimeter indicates continuity through the SCR before the gate is touched to the anode, it
indicates that the SCR is shorted.
 If the multimeter will not indicate continuity through the SCR after the gate has been touched to the
anode, it indicates that the SCR is open.

Result

Tested the electronic components.

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EXPERIMENT No: 5

INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL PURPOSE PCB AND SOLDERING PRACTICE.

Aim : An introduction to general purpose PCB and Soldering practice.

Components required : General purpose PCB, Soldering iron, Solder, flux

Theory

Soldering Practices

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a
filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point (below 450 °C (800 °F)
than the work piece. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the work
pieces. In brazing, the filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but the work piece metal does not melt.
Formerly nearly all solders contained lead, but environmental concerns have increasingly dictated use of
lead-free alloys for electronics and plumbing purposes.

Components used for Soldering:

1. Solder
2. Soldering Iron
3. Flux

Solder

Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to join together metal work pieces and having a melting point below
that of the work piece Soft solder is typically thought of when solder or soldering is mentioned, with a
typical melting range of 90 to 450 °C (190 to 840 °F It is commonly used in electronics and plumbing, and
when manually applied is often done so using a soldering iron or soldering gun. Alloys that melt between

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180 and 190 °C (360 and 370 °F) are the most commonly used. Soldering performed using alloys with
melting point above 450 °C (840 °F)is called 'hard soldering', 'silver soldering', or brazing.
For electrical and electronics work solder wire is available in a range of thicknesses for hand-soldering, and
with cores containing flux. It is also available as a paste or as a preformed foil shaped to match the
workpiece, more suitable for mechanized mass-production. Alloys of lead and tin were universally used in
the past, and are still available; they are particularly convenient for hand-soldering. Lead-free solder,
somewhat less convenient for hand-soldering, is often used to avoid the environmental effect of lead.
Soldering iron

A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt the solder so that it can flow into
the joint between two work pieces. A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated
handle. Heating is often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current (supplied through an electrical
cord or battery cables) through a resistive heating element. Portable irons can be heated by combustion of
gas stored in a small tank, often using a catalytic heater rather than a flame. Simple irons less commonly
used than in the past were simply a large copper bit on a handle, heated in a flame.
Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and limited production work in electronics
assembly. High-volume production lines use other soldering methods. Large irons may be used for
soldering joints in sheet metal objects. Less common uses include pyrography (burning designs into wood)
and plastic welding.

Flux:

The purpose of flux is to facilitate the soldering process. One of the obstacles to a successful solder joint is
an impurity at the site of the joint, for example, dirt, oil or oxidation. The impurities can be removed by
mechanical cleaning or by chemical means, but the elevated temperatures required to melt the filler metal
(the solder) encourages the work piece (and the solder) to re-oxidize. This effect is accelerated as the
soldering temperatures increase and can completely prevent the solder from joining to the workpiece. One
of the earliest forms of flux was charcoal, which acts as a reducing agent and helps prevent oxidation
during the soldering process. Some fluxes go beyond the simple prevention of oxidation and also provide
some form of chemical cleaning (corrosion).

Items to be soldered should normally be tinned before making a mechanical connection. Tinning is the
coating of the material to be soldered with a light coat of [Link] the surface has been properly

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cleaned a thin even coating of flux should be placed over the surface to be tinned. This will prevent
oxidation while the part is being heated to soldering temperature. The solder we use is 33% and 67% of tin.

When the hot solder comes in contact with the copper sulphate a metal solvent action takes [Link]
solder dissolves and penetrates the copper [Link] molecules of solder and copper blend to form a new
alloy, one that part copper and part [Link] solvent action is called wetting and forms the intermetallic
bond between the paths.

General Purpose PCB :

As its name suggests, general purpose PCB's are widely used to embbed circuits randomly for running of
hardware. Its layer is coated with copper and allows proper soldering without any short circuit. General
purpose board, connections are not built so connections are to be created.

Procedure
1. Turn on soldering iron and let it get to temperature
2. Clean soldering tip with a damp cloth or sponge
3. Install the component and hold in place with a physical connection
4. Apply flux for facilitating soldering process
5. Heat the soldering iron and heat all parts of joint with iron for under a second or so.
6. Touch solder to the component lead and melt the right amount of solder with the help of soldering iron
7. Remove excess solder from the board if any
8. Hold steady until cool
9. Inspect the connection

Precautions
1 Never touch the element of the soldering iron...(.400°C)

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2 Hold wires to be heated with tweezers or clamps.
3 Keep the cleaning sponge wet during use.
4 Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use. Never put it down on the workbench.
5 Turn unit off and unplug when not in use.

Result
Familiarized with General Purpose PCB and Soldering Practice.

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EXPERIMENT No: 6

FAMILIARIZATION TO PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS AND FABRICATION TECHNIQUES

Aim : To familiarize with printed circuit boards and their fabrication Techniques

Components Required: Printed Circuit board

Theory

Printed circuit board (PCB)

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic components using conductive
tracks, pads etc. Components – capacitors, resistors or active devices – are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced
PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided
(two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Conductors on different layers are connected with vias.
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. PCBs require the additional design effort to
lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and
faster than with other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore, operator
wiring errors are eliminated.

Design Steps
Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated layout software, generally in the following steps:
1. Schematic capture through an electronic design automation (EDA) tool.
2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB.
3. The positions of the components and heat sinks are determined.

4. Layer stack of the PCB is decided, with one to tens of layers depending on complexity. Ground and power
planes are decided. A power plane is the counterpart to a ground plane and behaves as an AC signal ground while
providing DC power to the circuits mounted on the PCB. Signal interconnections are traced on signal planes. Signal
planes can be on the outer as well as inner layers.
5. Components are placed. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into account. Vias and lands are
marked.
6. Signal traces are routed. Electronic design automation tools usually create clearances and connections in power
and ground planes automatically.
7. Gerber files are generated for manufacturing.

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MANUFACTURING

Chemical etching
Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium persulfate or ferric chloride .The simplest method, used for small-
scale production. , is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride.
Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath
to speed the etching rate. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill
tape or drill file.

Drilling

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated
tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high
feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-
steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the
location and size of each drilled hole. Holes may be made conductive, by electroplating or inserting metal eyelets
(hollow), to electrically and thermally connect board layers. Some conductive holes are intended for the insertion of
through-hole-component leads. Others, typically smaller and used to connect board layers, are called vias.

Plating and coating

PCBs are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel as a resist for etching away the unneeded underlying copper.
After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the solder mask is applied, and then any exposed copper is coated
with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion coating. It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB
and the parts used. An example is ball grid array (BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for connections losing their balls on
bare copper traces or using lead-free solder paste.

Result

Familiarised with PCB Design and techniques.

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EXPERIMENTNo:7

ASSEMBLING OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT/SYSTEM USING GENERAL PURPOSE PCB

AIM : Assembling of electronic circuit/systems

a) Square wave generation using IC 555 timer

b) Astable Multivibrator
c) RC coupled amplifier with transistor BC 107
d ) Bridge Rectifier Circuit

Components Required Breadboard, Function Generator, CRO, IC 555, BC 107,IN4007, 1kΩ ,470µF

Theory
IC 555: The 555 Oscillator is used for generating stabilized square wave output waveforms of either a fixed
frequency of up to 500 kHz or of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%. The 555 Oscillator has no stable states as
it continuously switches from one state to the other. It consists of two separate resistors, R1 and R2 with their
junction connected to the discharge input (pin 7).

555 Oscillator Circuit

R1= 10 K ,R2 =10 K ,C1 = 100 nF

RC Coupled Amplifier

This is most popular type of coupling as it provides excellent audio fidelity. A coupling capacitor is used to connect
output of first stage to input of second stage. Resistances R 1, R2, Re form biasing and stabilization network. Emitter

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bypass capacitor offers low reactance paths to signal coupling Capacitor transmits ac signal, blocks DC. Cascade stages
amplify signal and overall gain is increased total gain is less than product of gains of

individual stages. Thus for more gain coupling is done and overall gain of two stages equals to A = A1*A2 A1 = voltage
gain of first stage
A2 = voltage gain of second stage.
When ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor, its amplified output appears across the collector resistor [Link] is
given to the second stage for further amplification and signal appears with more strength.

R1 = 47k , Rc = 2.7k, Q1= BC107/548 ,R2 =10 k , Re = 680Ω,Cin = 10µF,Ce = 22 µF

Astable Multivibrator

Astable Multi vibrators are free running oscillators which oscillate between two states continually producing two square
wave output .The Astable circuit consist of two switching transistors , a cross coupled feedback network and two time
delay capacitors which allows oscillation between the two states with no external triggering to produce the change in
states. Astable multivibrator circuit can also be done 555 timer IC .

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Bridge Rectifier
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input
ac voltage. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the
bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D1 and
D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the
load current flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D4 conduct
whereas, D2 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D1 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance
RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-
directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

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Result

Assembled various circuits in general purpose PCB.

a) Square wave generation using IC 555 timer

b) Astable Multivibrator
c) RC coupled amplifier with transistor BC 107
d) Bridge Rectifier circuits.

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