DR MARYAM ABD ELKAREEM

PART 1

BIOLOGY
 Table of content:

1- L.O1

Cell Theory Disease

Infectious or noninfectious and factors
Relation between diseases and economic
development
case study: Malaria (from SEPUP only)
sickle cell anemia
microscopes

2- L.O2
Compare and contrast eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Eukaryotic cell structure and function
TB as a case study from SEPUP

3- L.O3
Cell membrane
Cell membrane and diffusion
Diabetes as a case study (from SEPUP)

DR. Maryam Abd ELKAREEM

 L.O1

01558043331
Cell Theory was first developed in the 1800s, based on
the observations of many scientists. The theory states that
all living organisms are made of cells, which are the basic
unit of life. In fact, the actions of organisms are all based
on the functioning of cells. For instance, the movement of
your eyes as you read this sentence results from the
activities of muscle and nerve cells. Even a process that
occurs on a global scale, such as the recycling of carbon
atoms, is the product of cellular functions, including the
photosynthetic activity of chloroplasts in leaf cells

The cell theory has three essential parts :

1- all living organisms composed of one cell or more
2- cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an organism
3- cells come obly from reproduction of existing cells
 The cell

All living organisms are divided

into unicellular and multi cellular

They are varied in the shape

and the size

The cell is the building unite of the body

the cell is the tiniest building unit

The is a relation between the cell shape

and the function
 2- Infection and non-infectional
disease

Infectious diseases are

transmitted from one
person to another.

Noninfectious diseases (also

called noncommunicable
diseases) are not transmitted
from one person to another,
and are caused by such factors
as the environment, genetics,
and aging.
 Relation between the disease and economic
development

Diseases affect human populations in many ways,

including socially, economically, and
environmentally.

When people are sick or die from a disease, their

suffering or death might touch a community on a
social level or heighten a society’s demand that a
cure be found.

There are negative economic effects related to the:

1- Cost of treatmente
2-Loss of individuals’ productivity

And a positive economic effect in terms of the

numbers of people employed in the health-care
industry.

There is sometimes a link between the

environment and disease, as is the case when
polluted air or water or the presence of disease-
carrying organisms makes people sick.
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Malaria
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3- Malaria

Intro:
more than three billion people worldwide live in
areas where malaria transmission is a risk.

Today, malaria still exists, and is even

spreading to parts of the world where it was
thought to have been wiped out or was not a
high risk.

symptoms and disease mechanism

the cause of malaria in humans is one of several
species of the single celled parasitic protist
Plasmodium.

scientists determined that female mosquitoes,

which breed in standing water, are the vectors
for malaria
A vector is an organism that does not cause the
disease itself, but spreads disease-causing
microbes from one host to another.

fever coma

symptoms

chills seizures

fatigue
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The symptoms of malaria can be mild to deadly
and also include:
Enlarged liver
Enlarged spleen
kidney failure.

The following traces the steps of

malaria infections:

A mosquito becomes
infected with
Plasmodium when it
bites and sucks the
blood of a human
infected with
Plasmodium.

When the infected

mosquito bites a person
it injects Plasmodium in
its saliva into that
person
The Plasmodium travels from
the point of the mosquito bite
through the bloodstream to
the liver and infects liver
cells. The Plasmodium then
begins to reproduce inside
the liver cells. Sometimes
Plasmodium remains in a
person’s liver and causes no
symptoms. Other times the
liver cells burst, releasing
Plasmodium.

The Plasmodium travel

s back into the bloodstream
from the liver, where it invades
red blood cells and then
reproduces. The infection is
active at this point, and the
person experiences
[Link] red blood cells
eventually rupture, which
releases the parasites back into
the bloodstream where they
might be picked up by another
mosquito
malaria prevention and treatment :

world health officials hoped to eradicate

malaria worldwide with the chemical DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). DDT is a
powerful insecticide that kills many insects,
including mosquitoes.

Plasmodium-carrying mosquito populations

that are now resistant to DDT.

Resistance develops if a few mosquitoes in a

population are genetically able to withstand
the toxic effects of DDT. When more DDT is
applied, more mosquitoes that are sensitive to
DDT die. The resistant mosquitoes, however,
survive and reproduce greater numbers of
resistant mosquitoes until they are a significant
proportion of the population, making DDT
ineffective.
DDT harms other organisms in the
environment and is a threat to wildlife,
especially birds.

DDT might cause cancer or neurological

problems in humans.

Today, DDT is banned for agricultural use

worldwide, but it still is used in some
places to control.

insecticide-treated nets are an effective

and low-cost tool to control mosquitoes

The results, summarized below, show

that both reduce the risk of death from
malarial infection, but that there is
greater success with the insecticide
treated nets.
 Some drugs attack the parasites when
they are present in the blood, while
others kill them when they are in the
liver. Currently, physicians prescribe
combinations of drugs that act
together to kill Plasmodium .

challenges to prevention and treatment

First, nets that are manufactured and sold

pretreated with insecticide must be
retreated within 6 to 12 months for them to
remain fully effective.

Also, the nets, even though relatively low in

cost, are still too expensive for some people
living in countries with few economic
resources. They must rely on programs that
donate or reduce the price of the nets and
retreatment kits.
In some areas, two types of Plasmodium
that cause malaria have become
resistant to the medication available for
treatment, which means it no longer kills
the parasite. The resistance of
Plasmodium to drugs arises in the same
way that mosquitoes acquire resistance
to DDT. a combination of drugs is often
given to patients.

But multidrug treatment is costly, and

health care workers must monitor
patients to make sure they complete
their courses of treatment.

it is often difficult to get all the right

medicines to isolated communities.
Another potential challenge is
the movement of malaria to
areas with temperatures that
were once too cold for the
mosquitoes and Plasmodium.

The effect of climate change

on malaria distribution
continues to be a point of
discussion in the scientific
community

for more watch this:

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OR

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sickle cell anemia

 sickle cell anemia summary

An inherited genetic mutation (error)

changes the hemoglobin protein, causing
the proteins to stack on one another
within the red blood cells. This produces a
sickle- or banana-shaped blood cell.
Sometimes under the microscope the
sickle cells appear flattened

Symptoms :

Joint and muscle pain, anemia, vision

problems, abdominal pain, yellowish
color of skin and eyes, and frequent
infections
RBCs:
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as
erythrocytes, are the most abundant type of
blood cell in the body. Their primary function
is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the
body's tissues and to carry carbon dioxide
back to the lungs to be exhaled.

Hemoglobin: This iron-containing protein

binds to oxygen in the lungs and releases it to
the tissues.

RBCs have a lifespan of about 120 days, after

which they are removed from circulation by
the spleen and liver.
Sickle Cell Formation:

Red Blood Cell Distortion: The

polymerization of Hb causes the red
blood cells to deform into a sickle
shape.

Stiffness and Clogging: Sickle cells

are much stiffer and less flexible
than normal red blood cells. This
stiffness makes them difficult to
pass through small blood vessels,
leading to blockages (known as vaso-
occlusive crises).
the life span of these cells is 10 days
only

sickle cell anemia is autosomal

recessive

and has resistance to Malaria

Common Symptoms:

Painful episodes (crises)

Fatigue

Shortness of breath

Jaundice

Delayed growth

Swelling of hands and feet: This is due to the

blockage of blood flow in small blood
vessels.

Vision problems: This can be caused by

damage to the blood vessels in the eyes.

Fracture of the bone

Treatment of sickle cell

blood transfusion
bone marrow transplantation
antibiotics
pain medication

Sickle cell trait:

Is a genetic condition where an
individual inherits one copy of the
sickle cell gene from one parent and
one copy of the normal gene from the
other parent.

Overall, sickle cell trait is a carrier state

with no severe symptoms.
Microscopes
What’s the microscopes ?

Microscopes are incredibly powerful

tools that allow us to see the world
around us in incredible detail.
 Microscope’s parts:

1- Eyepiece or ocular lense

The lens that you look through to

view the object.
2- Objective Lenses
The lenses that magnify the object. Most
microscopes have multiple objective
lenses with different magnifications.
3- Stage:

The platform where the object to be

viewed is placed
4-Light Source

The source of light that illuminates the

object.

In a light microscope (LM), visible light is

passed through the specimen and then
through glass lenses.

In the the Electron microscope (EM)

focuses a beam of electrons through the
specimen or onto its surface.

5- Condenser:

A lens that
focuses the light
onto the object.
6- Diaphragm
A device that controls the amount of
light that passes through the object.
 Types of Microscopes

1- light microscope
Three important parameters in microscopy are
magnification, resolution, and contrast.
Magnification is the ratio of an object’s image
size to its real size. Light microscopes can
magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the
actual size of the specimen; at greater
magnifications, additional details cannot be
seen clearly. Resolution is a measure of the
clarity of the image
This microscope depends on the beam of light
and relatively small

what is the magnifying power?

it’s the magnification power and
depends on the ocular and
objective lense.
it can be calculated by
magnification power of occular
lense X magnification power of
the objective lense
 2- Electron microscope
It utilizes a beam of electrons instead of light to
illuminate the sample, enabling a much higher
resolution and magnification.

Two types of EM

TEM SEM
A transmission electron Micrographs taken
microscope profiles a with a scanning
thin section of a electron microscope
specimen. This TEM show a 3-D image of
shows theh internal the surface of a spe
structure of the objects
 Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

Biology For G10

L.O2
 Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

Compare and contrast eukaryotes and prokaryotes

The Cell

It is the fundamental structural and functional unit of the body. A cell is bounded by a cell
membrane (or plasma membrane) within which is enclosed a complex material called
protoplasm.
The protoplasm consists of nucleus and cytoplasm. The nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane. The cytoplasm has a fluid base (matrix) which is
referred to as the cytosol.
The cytosol contains several organelles which have distinctive structure and functions.
prokaryotic and eukaryotic are the types of the cell. Organisms of the domains Bacteria
and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells.
Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells.
prokaryotic cells ar lack of organelles

compare Eukaryotic Prokaryotic

Most of the DNA is in an the DNA is concentrated in

Location of the organelle called the nucleus, a region that is not
DNA which is bounded by a membrane-enclosed, called
double membrane karyotic the nucleoid

Size Generally larger smaller

prokaryotes contain regions

Membrane bound
Found surrounded by proteins
organisms
(not membranes).

Examples Animal and plant cell Bacteria and Archaea

division mitosis Binary fission

Nucleus present absent

The common organelles between both type are: cell membrane, Ribosomes,
DNA and Cytoplasm

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Eukaryotic cell structure and
function

Cell Membrane

The membrane separating the cytoplasm of the cell from surrounding structures is
called the Cell membrane or the plasma membrane. It has highly selective permeability
properties so that the entry and exit of compounds are regulated.

the plasma membrane functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of enough
oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell

It surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell; it consists of two layers of phospholipids and
plays role in regulating the passage of the substances.
Cell membrane is containing 3 types of macromolecules: carbohydrate, lipids, protein.

Each phospholipid molecule consists of an enlarged head in which the phosphate

portion is located; and of two thin tails.

The head end is called the polar end while the tail end is the non-polar end. The head
end is soluble in water and is said to be hydrophilic. The tail end is insoluble and is said
to be hydrophobic.
The cell membrane of eukaryotic contain a lipid called sterol between the tail of the
phospholipid and the major sterol called cholesterol in the animal cell, it makes the cell
firmer and and prevent the cell from freezing at low temperature

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Eukaryotic cell structure and
function

Cell Wall
outer layer that maintains cell’s shape and protects cell from mechanical damage;
made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein

Location
surround the plant, algae, fungi, and some types of bacteria
It doesn’t surround the animal cell
it’s composed of cellulous

Function
support, protects, and give the cell it’s definite shape
allows the passage of water and dissolved substances easily, as it’s pitted

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Endomembrane system

Nucleus

Function

The nuclear coded information in the form of the DNA for regulating their function and
reproducing themselves.
Is the central, The most prominent structure in the cell. And it is the largest cell organelle,
And the controller center in the eukaryotic cell
Is spehrical or oval shape

Nuclear Envelope

nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus separating its contents from the cytoplasm The
nuclear envelope is a double membrane. The two membranes, each a lipid bilayer with
associated proteins.
have a several tiny pores, through which substances pass between the nucleus and
cytoplasm for example: Ribosomes

Nuclear lamina

a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by
mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope.

Nucleoplasm

A transparent gelatinous fluid inside the nucleus. it’s contained the nucleolus and the
chromosomes.

nucleolus

A prominent structure within the nondividing nucleus is the nucleolus

Here a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized from instructions in the
DNA. Also in the nucleolus, proteins imported from the cytoplasm are assembled with
rRNA into large and small subunits of ribosomes
specialized in synthesis and secreting protein substances such as: Enzymes, and
hormones.
Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem
 Endomembrane system

chromosomes

The DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes, structures that carry the
genetic information. Each chromosome contains one long DNA molecule associated with
many proteins.
during the metaphase of the cell division, the chromosomes appear more obvious, which
consists of two filaments each filament called chromatid.
both chromatids are joined at centromere.
each chromatid is composed of nucleic acid DNA that is collied around protein called
histones.
The Nucleic acid DNA carried the genetic information that:
1. control the shape and structure of the cell
2. organize and regulate the vital activites of the living organisms’ cell
3. The genetic traits are transferred through them from a generation to another through
the reporudction process

Chromatin

Some of the proteins help coil the DNA molecule of each chromosome, reducing its
length and allowing it to fit into the nucleus. The complex of DNA and proteins making
up chromosomes is called chromatin.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Endomembrane system

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 CELL ORGANELLES
CLASSIFICATION

Non -Membranous Membraneous

Not surrounded by a surrounded by a

membrane membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes
lysosomes
centrosomes
vacuoles
golgi apparatus
mitochondria

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Endoplasmic reticulum

Endomembrane system

Location?

It extends through all the parts of the cytoplasm and attached to the nuclear
envelope and the cytoplasm
Not presented in Prokaryotic cell

Function
an internal transport system that benefits in transferring substances from apart
to another inside the cell
And transferring substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

Is such an extensive network of membranes that it accounts for more than half
the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells.
The ER consists of a network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae.

The ER membrane separates the internal compartment of the ER, called the ER
lumen (cavity) or cisternal space, from the cytosol.

And because the ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope, the
space between the two membranes of the envelope is continuous with the lumen
of the ER.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Endoplasmic reticulum

Endomembrane system
Types
There are two distinct, though connected, regions of the ER that differ in
structure and function: smooth ER and rough ER.

Smooth ER is so named because its outer surface lacks ribosomes.

Rough ER is studded with ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane and
thus appears rough

Function of smooth ER
The smooth ER functions in diverse metabolic processes, which vary with cell type.
These processes include synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates,
detoxification of drugs and poisons, form glycogen from the glucose, and storage of
calcium ions.

Enzymes of the smooth ER are important in the synthesis of lipids, including oils,
steroids, and new membrane phospholipids.

Among the steroids produced by the smooth ER in animal cells are the sex hormones of
vertebrates and the various steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal glands.

Other enzymes of the smooth ER help detoxify drugs and poisons, especially in liver
and kidney cells. Detoxification usually involves adding hydroxyl groups to drug
molecules.

The sedative phenobarbital and other barbiturates are examples of drugs metabolized
in this manner by smooth ER in liver cells

In fact, barbiturates, alcohol, and many other drugs induce the proliferation of smooth
ER and its associated detoxification enzymes thus increasing the rate of detoxification.

increases tolerance to the drugs, meaning that higher doses are required to achieve a
particular effect, such as sedation.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Endoplasmic reticulum

Endomembrane system
Types
There are two distinct, though connected, regions of the ER that differ in
structure and function: smooth ER and rough ER.

Smooth ER is so named because its outer surface lacks ribosomes.

Rough ER is studded with ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane and
thus appears rough

Function of smooth ER

The detoxification enzymes have relatively broad action the proliferation of smooth ER
in response to one drug can increase the need for higher dosages of other drugs as well.

The smooth ER also stores calcium ions. In muscle cells.

The smooth ER membrane pumps calcium ions from the cytosol into the ER lumen.
When a muscle cell is stimulated by a nerve impulse, calcium ions rush back across the
ER membrane into the cytosol and trigger contraction of the muscle cell.

In other cell types, release of calcium ions from the smooth ER triggers different
responses, such as secretion of vesicles carrying newly synthesized proteins

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Endoplasmic reticulum

Endomembrane system
Types
There are two distinct, though connected, regions of the ER that differ in
structure and function: smooth ER and rough ER.

Smooth ER is so named because its outer surface lacks ribosomes.

Rough ER is studded with ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane and
thus appears rough

Function of Rough ER

Many cells secrete proteins that are produced by ribosomes attached to rough ER..
Most secretory proteins are glycoproteins, proteins with carbohydrates covalently
bonded to them. The carbohydrates are attached to the proteins in the ER lumen by
enzymes built into the ER membrane.

The rough ER houses ribosomes that synthesize proteins destined for secretion.

As a polypeptide chain grows, it's threaded into the ER lumen, where it folds into its
functional shape.

Many secretory proteins are glycoproteins, with carbohydrates added by enzymes in

the ER membrane.

The rough ER acts as a membrane factory for the cell, producing both membrane
proteins and phospholipids.

Phospholipids are assembled from precursors in the cytosol by enzymes in the ER

membrane.

Portions of the ER membrane are packaged into transport vesicles and sent to other
parts of the endomembrane system.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

Endoplasmic reticulum

Endomembrane system

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Golgi apparatus

Endomembrane system
Many transport vesicles travel to the Golgi apparatus We can think of the Golgi as a
warehouse for receiving, sorting, shipping, and even some manufacturing.

Here, products of the ER, such as proteins, are modified and stored and then sent to other
destinations.

The Golgi apparatus consists of a group of associated, flattened membranous sacs—

cisternae—looking like a stack of pita bread

The membrane of each cisterna in a stack separates its internal space from the cytosol.

The Golgi apparatus is structured like a stack of flattened sacs called cisternae. One side of
the stack, called the cis face, is thinner and receives material from the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER). The other side, the trans face, is thicker and releases processed materials in
vesicles. This directional structure allows the Golgi to perform its role of modifying and
sorting proteins and lipids received from the ER.

The Golgi apparatus modifies carbohydrates by removing some sugar monomers and
adding others, creating a wide range of carbohydrate structures. It also modifies the lipid
composition of cell membranes by altering the phospholipids.

In addition to its finishing work, the Golgi apparatus also manufactures some
macromolecules. Many polysaccharides secreted by cells are Golgi products.

The Golgi apparatus functions like a cellular post office, sorting and packaging proteins
and lipids for delivery within the cell.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Lysosomes
The Cell's Recycling Centers

Endomembrane system

A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that many eukaryotic cells use
to digest.

Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment found in lysosomes.

If a lysosome breaks open or leaks its contents, the released enzymes are not very
active because the cytosol has a near-neutral pH.

Excessive leakage from a large number of lysosomes can destroy a cell by self-
digestion

Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membrane are made by rough ER

At least some lysosomes probably arise by budding from the trans face of the Golgi
apparatus

Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion in a variety of circumstances. Amoebas

and many other unicellular eukaryotes eat by engulfing smaller organisms or food
particles, a process called phagocytosis.

Digestion products, including simple sugars, amino acids, and other monomers, pass
into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell.

Some human cells also carry out phagocytosis. Among them are macrophages, a type
of white blood cell that helps defend the body by engulfing and destroying bacteria
and other invaders.
recycle the cell’s own organic material, a process called autophagy.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Vacuoles

Endomembrane system

Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus. Thus, vacuoles are an integral part of a cell’s endomembrane system.

In unicellular freshwater eukaryotes: Contractile vacuoles pump out excess water to

maintain the proper internal ion and molecule concentration.

In plants and fungi: Some vacuoles perform enzymatic hydrolysis, similar to

lysosomes in animals. Smaller vacuoles store nutrients and protect against
herbivores by holding toxins. Mature plant cells have a large central vacuole that
stores inorganic ions, plays a major role in cell growth by absorbing water, and
maintains a suitable surface area to volume ratio for the cell.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Ribosomes
(protien Factor)

location
Some of them are free in the cytoplasm to produce and release the protien directly
to the cytoplasm, so cell can use it in its vital processes auch as growth and
regeneration

Other are attached on the outer surface of the endoplasmic reticulum “The largest
Number” to produce protien as enzyme that are transported by the endoplasmic
reticulum to outside the cell after made some of modifications to them in golgi
body

Function
Is to producing and synthesizing protein of the cell

Ribosomes, which are complexes made of ribosomal RNAs and proteins, are the
cellular components that carry out protein synthesis.

Ribosomes build proteins in two cytoplasmic locales. At any given time, free
ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol, while bound ribosomes are attached to
the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope.

Bound and free ribosomes are structurally identical, and ribosomes can play either
role at different times.

Most of the proteins made on free ribosomes function within the cytosol;
examples are enzymes that catalyze the first steps of sugar breakdown.

Bound ribosomes generally make proteins that are destined for insertion into
membranes, for packaging within certain organelles such as lysosomes or for
export from the cell

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Mitochondria
chemical energy conversion

the number correlates with the cell’s level of metabolic activity.

cells that move or contract have proportionally more mitochondria per volume
than less active cells.

Each of the two membranes enclosing the mitochondrion is a phospholipid bilayer

with a unique collection of embedded proteins

The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is convoluted, with
infoldings called cristae. The inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into two
internal compartments. The first is the intermembrane space, the narrow region
between the inner and outer membranes.

The second compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, is enclosed by the inner

membrane. The matrix contains many different enzymes as well as the
mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes.

Mitochondria are responsible for cellular respiration. Enzymes within the matrix
of the mitochondria catalyze some of the steps in this process, while other
proteins, including the enzyme that makes ATP, are embedded within the inner
membrane. The highly folded cristae of the inner membrane increase its surface
area, enhancing the efficiency of cellular respiration. This demonstrates the
principle of structure fitting function, where the physical structure of a component
is designed to optimize its function.

Mitochondria, typically 1-10 micrometers long.

The energy storehouse in the cell.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 chloroplast
capture of light energy

Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, along with enzymes and
other molecules that function in the photosynthetic production of sugar.

The contents of a chloroplast are partitioned from the cytosol by an envelope

consisting of two membranes separated by a very narrow intermembrane space.
Inside the chloroplast is another membranous system in the form of flattened,
interconnected sacs called thylakoids.

form of flattened, interconnected sacs called thylakoids. In some regions,

thylakoids are stacked like poker chips; each stack is called a granum.

The fluid outside the thylakoids is the stroma, which contains the chloroplast DNA
and ribosomes as well as many enzymes.

The membranes of the chloroplast divide the chloroplast space into three
compartments: the intermembrane space, the stroma, and the thylakoid space. This
compartmental organization enables the chloroplast to convert light energy to
chemical energy during photosynthesis

The chloroplast is a specialized member of a family of closely related plant

organelles called plastids. One type of plastid, the amyloplast, is a colorless
organelle that stores starch (amylose), particularly in roots and tubers. Another is
the chromoplast, which has pigments that give fruits and flowers their orange and
yellow hues.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 peroxisomes
Oxidation

The peroxisome is a specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single

membrane

Peroxisomes contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various

substrates and transfer them to oxygen (O2), producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
as a by-product (from which the organelle derives its name).

Some peroxisomes use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller molecules
that are transported to mitochondria and used as fuel for cellular respiration.

Peroxisomes in the liver detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by

transferring hydrogen from the poisonous compounds to oxygen.

The H2O2 formed by peroxisomes is itself toxic, but the organelle also contains an
enzyme that converts H2O2 to water.

Specialized peroxisomes called glyoxysomes are found in the fat-storing tissues of

plant seeds. These organelles contain enzymes that initiate the conversion of fatty
acids to sugar, which the emerging seedling uses as a source of energy and carbon
until it can produce its own sugar by photosynthesis.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Cytoskeleton

Is composed of three types of molecular structures: microtubules, microfilaments, and

intermediate filaments.
Gives mechanical support to the cell and maintain its shape.
Some types of cell motility (movement) also involve the cytoskeleton. The term cell
motility includes both changes in cell location and movements of cell parts. Cell motility
generally requires interaction of the cytoskeleton with motor proteins.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Plant cell vs Animal cell

Plant cell components

1. NUCLEUS:
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
2. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
3. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
4. Ribosomes (small brown dots)
5. CYTOSKELETON
Microfilaments
Microtubules
6. Chloroplast: photosynthetic organelle; converts energy of sunlight to chemical en
stored in sugar molecules
7. Plasmodesmata: cytoplasmic channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplas
of adjacent cells
8. Cell wall: outer layer that maintains cell’s shape and protects cell from mechanica
damage; made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein
9. Wall of adjacent cell
10. Golgi apparatus
11. Mitochondrion
12. Peroxisome
13. Plasma membrane

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

 Plant cell vs Animal cell

Animal cell

1. Nuclear envelope: double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores;

continuous with ER
2. Nucleolus: nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes; a
nucleus has one or more nucleoli
3. Chromatin: material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible in a dividing cell as
individual condensed chromosomes
4. Plasma membrane: membrane enclosing the cell
5. Ribosomes (small brown dots): complexes that make proteins; free in cytosol or
bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope
6. Golgi apparatus: organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion
of cell products
7. Lysosome: digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed
8. Mitochondrion: organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is
generated
9. Peroxisome: organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces
hydrogen peroxide as a by-product and then converts it to water
10. Microvilli: projections that increase the cell’s surface area
11. Microfilaments/ Intermediate filaments /Microtubules
12. CYTOSKELETON: reinforces cell’s shape; functions in cell movement; components
are made of protein
13. Centrosome: region where the cell’s microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of
centrioles
14. Flagellum: motility structure present in some animal cells, composed of a cluster of
microtubules within an extension of the plasma membrane
15. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER): network of membranous sacs and tubes; active
in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough
(ribosome-studded) and smooth regions

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem
Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem
Dr/Maryam Abd ELKAREEM

Biology for G10

Tuberculosis
 What is Tuberculosis

TB is caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium and

was common in Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th
centuries.
Worldwide today, however, it is estimated that at least one-third of
the human population is infected with TB bacteria.

Symptoms
appetite and weight loss, coughing, night sweats, fever, fatigue,
and chills. TB usually infects tissue in the lungs, but can also
infect other organs in the body, including the brain, kidneys,
and spine.

can be passed through a cough, sneeze, or even talking with an

infected person, people are at higher risk of infection if they
live in densely packed urban areas or may be exposed to
infected individuals in crowded, closed environments, such
as hospitals, prisons, clinics, or airplanes.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

Tuberculosis (TB) infection can be either latent or active:

Latent TB: The bacteria are present but inactive, causing no

symptoms. People with latent TB have a positive skin or blood test but
a normal chest X-ray. They are not contagious and feel healthy.
However, latent TB can become active, but this happens in only 5-10%
of infected people.

Active TB: The bacteria are active and multiplying, causing symptoms
like cough, fever, and weight loss. People with active TB are
contagious and can spread the bacteria to others.

Antibiotic treatment for latent TB significantly reduces the risk of it

becoming active, but it requires taking the medication for many months.

Mechanism

An uninfected person inhales TB The bacteria enter the lungs, and if they are
bacteria in droplets that were released not immediately killed by the body’s immune
into the air by an infected person, system, they are ingested by macrophages, a
whether minutes or hours earlier. type of white blood cell. The macrophages do
not destroy the bacteria.

If the infection becomes active, the TB

bacteria multiply and travel to the blood.
Most of the time, the bacteria are held Possible reasons for a latent infection to
in check by the immune system. In become active include a weakened immune
this case, the infection is referred to system, often due to HIV/AIDS infection,
as a latent infection. malnutrition, cancer, or aging. The bacteria
might spread to other organs, but they can
only be transmitted out of the body and to
other people by the infected person’s exhaling
them from the lungs.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem

tuberculosis preventions and treatments
While there is a vaccine available to prevent TB, its effectiveness is limited.
Worse, the vaccine has caused HIV positive children to develop a TB infection.
Health experts think that being able to accurately detect active TB infections is
more beneficial than vaccination to prevent infections.

a man critically sick with TB was the first to be given an antibiotic to treat TB.
Impressively, the bacteria quickly disappeared, and the man recovered. Now
there are a number of antibiotics to treat TB, and they are usually prescribed in
combinations of two to four different drugs. Two of the most commonly
prescribed today are isoniazid and rifampin. Isoniazid interferes with a
bacterium’s ability to make a compound needed in its cell walls. Rifampin
prevents the bacterial cells from making proteins.

challenges to prevention and treatment

Like Plasmodium, TB bacteria have become resistant to many antibiotics. As with

malaria, people who do not have access to timely and effective medical care or
who don’t complete a full course of treatment contribute to the resistance
problem.

Multidrug resistance in TB means that the bacteria are resistant specifically to

the two main antibiotics, isoniazid and rifampin. Because WHO is not notified of
all cases, experts think that there are many more cases. The cost of treating
multi-drug-resistant TB infections can be 1,000 times more expensive than
treating non-resistant TB infections.

hiv/aids and tb co-infection

HIV weakens the immune system, which then allows latent TB to become active and
infectious or makes the patient more vulnerable to TB droplets inhaled from the air.

A person who is infected with HIV/AIDS is 50 times more likely to develop active TB
in a given year than is an HIV-negative person.

Also, the disease progresses more rapidly, and deaths are higher in people infected
with both HIV and TB than those who are infected only with TB.

Dr/ Maryam Abd Elkareem