MEKDELA AMBA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT ANIMAL SCIENCE

COURSE TITLE VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY

COURSE CODE ARSC 1052

Group Assignment Group

one

N Id .No
o Student Name

1 Wondaye Bisetegn Mau 1402454

2 Musab Bunche Mau 1401903

3 Semere Haylemeskel Mau 1402158

4 Silanchi Amare Mau 1402214

5 Tarik Shiferaw Mau 1402286

7 Kong zan Mau 1301057

Summited to [Link] Tesfaye(DVM,MVSc,[Link].)

) November, 2024

Tulu awulia, Ethiopia

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 Table of Contents
CONTENTS pages

1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................3
2. OBJECTIVE............................................................................................................................................3
3. Overview of Trypanosomes.................................................................................................................4
3.2. Common is trypanosomiasis.............................................................................................................5
3.3. Life Cycle...........................................................................................................................................5
3.4. Transmission.....................................................................................................................................5
3.5. Symptoms and Causes......................................................................................................................5
3.6. PATHOGENESIS AND IMMUNE RESPONSIVENESS............................................................................6
3.7. DIAGNOSIS........................................................................................................................................7
3.8. TREATMENT......................................................................................................................................7
3.9. PREVENTION.....................................................................................................................................8
4. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................9
5. REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................10

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Trypanosomes are unicellular parasitic protozoans belonging to the genus *Trypanosoma*.

They are primarily known for their role in causing significant diseases in both humans and
animals, notably livestock. The most notable diseases caused by trypanosomes include African
sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in cattle, which can lead to severe economic losses in
agriculture. Understanding the biology, life cycle, transmission, and control measures of
trypanosomes is essential for effective disease management and prevention.

2. OBJECTIVE
The objective of this document is to provide a comprehensive overview of trypanosomes,
focusing on their significance in veterinary medicine, the diseases they cause, their life cycle,
modes of transmission, diagnostic methods, and potential control strategies.

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 3. Overview of Trypanosomes
Trypanosomiasis is a parasitic infection that spreads through the bites of tsetse flies in
equatorial Africa. Early symptoms include swollen bumps around the bite, a fever, and muscle
and joint pain. Advanced symptoms cause confusion and trouble walking, and make it difficult
to stay awake. Healthcare providers can cure trypanosomiasis with medicine.

Trypanosomiasis is a serious type of parasitic infection that affects different parts of your body
as it spreads, including your:

1. Skin.

2. Blood.

3. Lymph nodes.

4. Brain and the fluid surrounding your brain and spinal cord (cerebrospinal fluid).

It spreads through the bites of tsetse flies that live in equatorial Africa. Tsetse flies are large,
yellowish-brown or dark brown flies that feed on blood. They may range from 0.2 to 0.6 inches
(6 to 16 millimeters) in length. Equatorial Africa is an area of Africa below the Sahara Desert
through which the equator passes. Symptoms may develop a few weeks or months after
infection.

Trypanosomiasis is curable. But without proper treatment, trypanosomiasis usually causes

death.

3.1. Other names for trypanosomiasis include:

 African sleeping sickness.

 African trypanosomiasis.

 Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT).

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3.2. Common is trypanosomiasis
Trypanosomiasis was at one time very common. The World Health Organization (WHO)
reported about 30,000 cases in the late 1990s and early 2000s. But control efforts over the last
20 years have drastically reduced the number of cases. As of 2020, there were fewer than 700
re .

3.3. Life Cycle

The life cycle of trypanosomes involves two main stages:

• In the vector (tsetse fly): Trypanosomes multiply and transform into the infective form
(metacyclic trypomastigotes).

• In the host: Upon transmission through the bite of an infected tsetse fly, trypomastigotes
enter the bloodstream of the host, where they replicate and cause disease.

3.4. Transmission
Transmission occurs primarily through the bite of infected tsetse flies. Other transmission
routes can include:

• Blood transfusions from infected animals.

Ported cases of trypanosomiasis.

3.5. Symptoms and Causes

Trypanosomiasis symptoms include:

1. A swollen, discolored (red, purple or brown) bump that may be painful.

2. A fever that comes and goes (recurrent fever).

3. Chills.

4. Headache.

5. Muscle pain.

6. Joint pain.

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7. Skin rash.

8. Low red blood cell levels (anemia).

9. Swelling in your face and/or lymph nodes.

10. Trouble staying awake (drowsiness).

11. Confusion or inability to concentrate.

12. Difficulty walking or talking.

Without treatment, trypanosomiasis can lead to seizures, coma and even death.

3.6. PATHOGENESIS AND IMMUNE RESPONSIVENESS

• Local chancre at the site of inoculation and lymphadenitis- Multiplication of the
trypomastigotes at the inoculation site produces a localized inflammatory lesion. After the
development of this chancre, organisms spread through lymphatic channels to the
bloodstream, inducing a proliferative enlargement of the lymph nodes. The subsequent
parasitemia is typically low grade and recurrent.

• Intermittent parasitemia with antigenic shifts- Replicating organisms of the dominant

antigenic type continuously produce surface glycoproteins. The trypomastigotes disappear from
the blood, reappearing 3 to 8 days later as a new dominant antigenic variant arises.

• Parasites localize in blood vessels of heart and CNS with local vasculitis- During parasitemia,
trypanosomes localize in the small blood vessels of the heart and central nervous system (CNS).
This localization results in endothelial proliferation and a perivascular infiltration of plasma cells
and lymphocytes. In the brain, hemorrhage and a demyelinating panencephalitis may follow.
The mechanism by which the trypanosomes elicit vasculitis is uncertain.

• High levels of IgM include specific and nonspecific antibodies- Much of this is shed from the
parasite’s surface and serves as a T-cell–independent antigen to directly stimulate B cells to
produce antibody. The antibody produced in this fashion is IgM which can bind to the organism,
leading to its destruction by lysis and opsonization.

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 • Immune complexes may cause anemia and vasculitis the infection stimulates a massive,
nonspecific polyclonal activation of B cells, the production of large quantities of IgM (typically 8-
16 times the normal limit), and the suppression of other immune responses. Most of this
reaction represents specific protective antibodies that are ultimately responsible for the control
of the parasitemia. Some, however, consist of nonspecific heterophile antibodies, antibodies to
DNA, and rheumatoid factor. Antibodyinduced destruction of trypanosomes releases invariant
nuclear and cytoplasmic antigens with the production of circulating immune complexes.

3.7. DIAGNOSIS
• Microscopic examination of lymph node aspirates, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid for the
presence of trypomastigotes.

• Early in the disease, actively motile organisms can often be seen in a simple wet mount
preparation smear.

• Patient may be screened for elevated levels of IgM in the blood and spinal fluid or specific
trypanosomal antibodies by a variety of techniques.

• A card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis (CATT), which can be performed on fingerstick
blood, can provide serologic confirmation within minutes.

• Subspecies-specific DNA probes may prove useful for the identification of organisms in clinical
specimens.

3.8. TREATMENT
• If the specimen reveals evidence of CNS involvement, agents that penetrate the blood–brain
barrier must be included.

• Most effective agent is a highly toxic arsenical, melarsoprol (Mel B). Although this agent
occasionally produces a lethal hemorrhagic encephalopathy, the invariably fatal outcome of
untreated CNS disease warrants its use.

• Ornithine decarboxylase inhibitor, eflornithine (DFMO) appears capable, when used alone, or
in combination with suramin, of curing CNS disease caused by T brucei gambiense without the

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serious side effects associated with melarsoprol. Unfortunately, it is very expensive.

• If CNS is not involved, less toxic agents, such as suramin, pentamidine, or eflornithine, can be
used. In such cases, the cure rate is high and recovery complete.

3.9. PREVENTION
Although a variety of tsetse fly control measures, including the use of insecticides,
deforestation, and the introduction of sterile males into the fly population, have been
attempted, none has proved totally practicable. The tsetse fly is larviparous and carries a larva
within its body until mature and ready to pupate. This means flies have a better chance of
survival. In addition, adults are strong fliers.

Eradication of disease reservoirs by the early detection and treatment of human cases and the
destruction of wild game has had limited success.

Development of effective vaccines are currently underway but are complicated by the
antigenic variability of the trypanosomes.

Personal protection can be achieved with insect repellents and protective clothing. Although
prophylactic use of pentamidine was once advocated.

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 4. CONCLUSION
Trypanosomes pose a significant threat to animal health and agricultural productivity due to the
diseases they cause. Understanding their biology, transmission dynamics, and effective control
strategies is crucial for managing trypanosomiasis in livestock. Continued research and
implementation of integrated control measures will be essential to mitigate the impact of these
protozoans on animal populations and the agricultural economy.

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 5. REFERENCES

1. Authié, E., M. D. (2003). "Trypanosomiasis in livestock: An overview." *Veterinary

Parasitology*, 113(3), 197-204.

2. Barrett, M. P., et al. (2003). "Trypanosomiasis." *Nature Reviews Microbiology*, 1(2), 155-
164.

3. Molyneux, D. H., Hall, C. A. (2006). "The global burden of trypanosomiasis." *Tropical

Medicine International Health*, 11(4), 450-458.

4. "WHO - The parasite". WHO. Archived from the original on September 29, 2016.
Retrieved 8 March 2019.

5. ^ Hamilton PB, Stevens JR, Gaunt MW, Gidley J, Gibson WC (2004). "Trypanosomes are
monophyletic: evidence from genes for glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase and small
subunit ribosomal RNA". Int. J. Parasitol. 34 (12): 1393–
404. doi:10.1016/[Link].2004.08.011. PMID 15542100.

6 . ^ "Taxonomy of African Trypanosoma species". [Link]. Retrieved 2019-03-28.

7. ^ Büscher, Philippe; Cecchi, Giuliano; Jamonneau, Vincent; Priotto, Gerardo. "Human
African trypanosomiasis". The Lancet. 390 (10110): 2397–2409. doi:10.1016/s0140-
6736(17)31510-6. ISSN 0140-6736.

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