Unit A - Cycling of Matter in

Living Systems

Unit A Section 1: Developing the Cell Theory

Lesson 1: A Window on a New World

Terms

biogenesis The idea that living organisms can only come from other
living organisms.

cells The smallest structure where all the basic life functions are
performed.

control The variables that are kept the same so they do not affect
variables the experiment.

manipulated The variable that is changed by the scientist. The variable

variable that is being tested. Also called the independent variable.

responding The variable that changes due to the manipulated variable.

variable The result of the experiment. Also called the dependent
variable.

spontaneous The theory that suggests that life could be created from
generation non-living things. Also called abiogenesis.

variable Quantities or types of an item that can change during an

experiment

Notes:
- Francesco Redi was the first scientist to perform experiments to test
the theory of spontaneous generation -- he put meat into three glass
jars, one covered with gauze to allow air to pass through but not flies,
 and one not covered, and one sealed completely . He found out that
maggots only appeared in the open one.
- When cells were discovered, scientists thought that this was evidence
for spontaneous generation. For how could cells be produced if not for
spontaneous generation?
- Louis Pasteur also conducted an experiment to test the theory of
spontaneous generation. He designed a flask that had a long neck in
the shape of an S. The neck had a dip near the beginning where
Pasteur hoped microorganisms would get stuck and not get to the
broth he had put inside the flask. It turned out the broth was not
infected with microorganisms as he predicted. When he tilted the flask
so that the broth came in contact with the neck, it became clouded
with microorganisms. He found out microorganisms caused
fermentation.
- Theory of spontaneous generation: Spontaneous generation is the idea
that life could be and was created from non-living things. Needham
suggested there was a “life force” that produced spontaneous
generation, and it was suggested air was required for spontaneous
generation to occur.
- What are the manipulated variable, responding variable, and control
variables present in Redi’s experiment from 1668? Manipulated
variable: if the flies had access to the meat. Responding variable: if
there were maggots in the jars. Control: amount of meat, same
temperature, length of time.
- Robert Hooke and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek discovered cells by
creating their own microscopes
- Hooke looked at cork through a crude microscope; he wondered how
cork could float. Through his microscope, the cork looked like it was
made up of many tiny boxes, that he called “cells”. He published his
drawings and findings in a book called Micrographia
- Leeuwenhoek created a much stronger microscope than Hooke’s and
studied living cells (unlike Hooke) which he called “animalcules” from
many different sources. He wrote about his observations in a scholarly
journal that published scientific research
- Other scientists built off their work and conducted experiments based
on what these two discovered.
Lesson 2: Cell Theory

Terms

Term Definition

characteristics These characteristics are the following: need energy,

of life produce wastes, respond and adapt to their environment,
reproduce, and grow. Also called the basic functions of
life.

nucleus The structure in a cell that directs the structure and

function of the cell through genes.

prions These are proteins that have changed into something that
is harmful.

virus Cell-like structures that invade cells, using them to

reproduce to invade other cells. They are made up of
some DNA and a protein coat.

Notes
- Robert Brown was the first scientist to see the nucleus
- M. J. Schleiden and Theodor Schwann found out that the nucleus was
in animal and plant cells and that it controlled the cells
- Rudolf Virchow discovered that cells come from other cells
The cell theory:
● All living things are made up of one or more cells and the materials
produced by these cells.
● All life functions take place in cells, making them the smallest unit of
life.
● All cells are produced from pre-existing cells through the process of
cell division.
Development of Cell Theory:

Brown discovered the nucleus and suggested it held an important job within
the cell. Schleiden saw the nucleus in plant cells and suggested it was
responsible for the development of the cell. Schleiden discussed this with
Schwann, and Schwann made similar observations in animal cells. This lead
to the first two points of the cell theory. Virchow observed that cells divided
to make new cells, which led to the final point in the cell theory.

- Viruses get inside of living cells, take them over and use the cells to
make more viruses to infect other cells
- Viruses are not considered alive because they need to infect cells to
reproduce themselves
- Prions use cells as well so are not considered alive. They are proteins
that change from normal to harmful particles

Similarities and differences between prions and viruses

Viruses contain a piece of DNA in a protein coat, while prions are proteins
that change into harmful substances. Both need to infect a cell to reproduce
and carry out life functions.

- Some common viruses are HIV, HPS, Rabies, Ebola, measles, polio,
and zika. Some common prions are CJD, FFI, GSS, and CWD.

Lesson 3: Imaging Technology and Staining

Techniques
Terms
compound light A type of light microscope that uses two or more lenses
microscope to magnify the specimen.

light microscope A microscope that uses light to view the specimen.

specimen The object or organism being viewed under the

microscope.

Notes
- Hans and Zacharias Janssen invented the first microscope (1595)
- Early microscopes were compound light microscopes (not very clear)
- People improved the quality of the early poor microscopes as time
went on
- Electron microscopes can see really small things; specimens are
illuminated with a beam of electrons rather than a beam of light;
extremely powerful
- Two types of electron microscopes: transmission electron microscope
and scanning electron microscope
- TEM: beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to make a
2-D image. Electrons bounce or absorb into the image--no electrons
present in image (magnify up to 1 000 000X)
- SEM: sweeps a beam of electrons over an image to produce a 3-D
image. Provides surface detail and works on live specimens (can reach
300 000X magnification)
- There are four kinds of illumination that scientists currently use:
brightfield, phase contrast, darkfield, and differential interference
contrast. Each shows a different part of a cell. Brightfield
illumination--default kind of illumination in a compound light
microscope.
- Fluorescence Microscopy: attaching a fluorescent molecule to
something or a part of something to more easily see it under a
microscope (using ultraviolet light). You can use Green Fluorescent
protein (GFP) (comes from a jellyfish) in fluorescent microscopy. This
technique can study live cells ‘cause it doesn't kill the cell
- Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM) uses a laser that
scans each layer of specimen and then builds a 3-D image if multiple
images are taken. Good for thick specimens and is detailed
 Compound CLSM TEM SEM

Image Source light laser electron electron

beam beam

Magnification 250x N/A 1000000X 300000X

Advantage simple to use good for fine detail Detail of

thick and large surface
specimens magnificat and used
and 3D ion on live
specimens
;3D

Disadvantage not much detail uses small 2-D image Do not

sections of and uses see inside
specimens small cell, only
sections surface
of
specimen

What were the main differences between the microscopes that Hooke and
van Leeuwenhoek used? Which one worked better?

Both scientists used handmade microscopes; however, Hooke’s microscope

used three lenses. The light was concentrated on the object being studied by
using a glass flask filled with water. Van Leeuwenhoek’s microscope was a
simple microscope, meaning it used only one lens. It was small and looked
similar to a magnifying glass. It did not include a light source. Van
Leeuwenhoek’s microscope worked better, as he was able to make higher
quality lenses that did not blur the image. The lenses in Hooke’s microscope
were of poor quality, so when you tried to see through more than one, all
the imperfections added up, making a very blurry image.

Parts of a microscope
[Link]
● Magnification = Ocular lens x Objective lens

Unit A Section 2: Living Systems

Lesson 4: Parts of a Cell

Terms

Term Definition

cellular The process a cell uses to convert oxygen and glucose to

respiratio energy and carbon dioxide and water. The chemical equation
n for this is C6H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2 + energy

chlorophyll The substance in the chloroplasts that absorb the sunlight to

turn it into energy.

closed system Something that does not interact with its environment

lipids Oil or fat molecules. They do not mix with water.

multicellular Organisms that are made up of many cells; e.g., animals.

organisms

nuclear A double-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

envelope Contains pores to allow particles to move into and out of the
nucleus.

nutrients A substance that is essential to growth and life.

open system Something that interacts with its environment.

organelles Small structures found inside the cell that help the cell
perform functions.

photosynthesis The process that plants undergo to create energy in the form
of glucose from sunlight. The chemical equation for this
process is CO2 + H2O + Sun → C6H12O6+ O2

proteins Long chains of units called amino acids. Proteins do most of

the jobs in a cell. They also make up muscle fibre.

single-celled Organisms that are made up of one cell; e.g., an amoeba.

organism

vesicles a vacuole that is used for transportation rather than storage

Notes
● An open system gains nutrients from and exchanges energy and
matter with the surrounding environment (animals and cells)
● Cells find food in their environment, gaining nutrients. Cells send their
waste into the environment. Cells decompose, providing food and
energy to the environment, exchanging both energy and matter
● Closed systems don’t interact with their environment, except to
exchange energy (Earth)

Parts of a cell

Cell membrane
- Protective barrier that keeps cells safe.
- Allows needed materials to enter and lets waste products leave
- Keeps cells contents inside the cell
- Composed of lipids
- Proteins in the membrane can interact with other cells and detect
chemicals (helps with communication)
Cytoplasm
- The substance all organelles and nutrients are suspended in (jelly-like)
Nucleus
- Contains DNA and tells rest of the cell what to do (control center)
 - Surrounded by the nuclear envelope (functions like the membrane)
- Information in DNA leave the nucleus as messenger molecules
Lysosomes
- Sacs surrounded by a membrane
- Food the cell eats gets broken down into nutrients
- Digests harmful molecules in the cell
- Breaks down organelles that are broken or not needed anymore, which
can be recycled or used for energy
Vacuole (or vesicles depending on their function)
- Sacs of cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane
- Stores nutrients, water, fats, etc.
- Vesicles transport these around the cell
- Plant cell vacuoles control amount of water in cell
- Plant cells have one large vacuole; animals have multiple little ones
Mitochondrion (Mitochondria pl.)
- Long and thin
- Nutrients are converted to energy through cellular respiration
- Has inner and outer membrane to assist in C.R
Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Series of small tubes (come out of nuclear envelope); moves materials
from nucleus around the cell
- Two types: rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- Rough E.R: ribosomes attached to it, used for protein synthesis.
- Nucleus makes copies of DNA (messenger RNA) that pass through the
rough E.R where they are read to make proteins
- Smooth E.R: no ribosomes; helps cell make lipids
- Products made in both E.R are packaged and sent to the rest of the
cell (usually to cell membrane or Golgi apparatus)
Ribosome
- Can be attached to the rough E.R or can be floating in the cytoplasm
- Messenger RNA is read to produce proteins, which carry out cell
functions and are part of many cell structures
Golgi Apparatus
- Receives materials made in the E.R and processes them
- Sorts and repackages materials into vesicles to be sent to rest of cell

How everything is connected in a cell:

The cell membrane allows materials to enter the cell. The nucleus releases
messenger RNA to the rough endoplasmic reticulum where ribosomes create
proteins using energy from the mitochondria. The mitochondria produce energy
from the nutrients that are digested in the lysosomes. (Plant cells:) The
chloroplasts produce the food that is then digested and used in the
mitochondria. The proteins that are made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum
are then packed into vesicles or stored in vacuoles. The vesicles travel through
the cytoplasm to the Golgi apparatus where the proteins are processed and
repackaged into the vesicles. These vesicles then travel through the cytoplasm
to other parts of the cell or to the cell membrane to be released outside of the
cell (plant cells:) through the cell wall.

Notes
● Plant cells have two extra organelles that animal cells do not.
 ● The extra organelles plants have are important to how plants get their
food, as they perform photosynthesis rather than eating other
organisms
Chloroplast
- Where photosynthesis occurs; photosynthesis produces glucose
mitochondria use to make energy
- Contains chlorophyll (what makes plants green)
Cell Wall
- Hard frame--holds cell in place
- Provides strength and support to the plant

HOW TO COLLECT AND PREPARE SAMPLES TO VIEW UNDER MICROSCOPE:

Be safe and know what you’re about to touch before you collect samples
Respect the environment: stay on path and do minimal damage when collecting
samples
Follow rules of natural areas
Make your sample thin, so light can pass through it and they fit under the
microscope
You can use peeling to separate layers and make your sample thin (like peeling a
leaf)
Crushing can also make samples thin. Crush specimen between two spoons with
some water.
Slicing can also work using a razor blade. Microtomes can make thin slices.
Wet mount: add a little bit of water with the thin specimen on the slide. Add the
cover slip at an angle to remove air bubbles and it will seal in place.

Lesson 5: Plants vs Animal Cells

Terms

carbohydrates a long, complex compound made of carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen. These are sugars and starches

cellulose A type of carbohydrate found in plants. It is used for the cell

wall in most plants.

cytoskeleton A network of fibres and tubes that hold the cell’s organelles in
their proper place.

lipids Oil or fat molecules. They do not mix with water.

nucleic acid The building blocks of DNA or the genetic material in a cell.

solvent The substance that the solution is mixed in; e.g., if salt is
added to water, the water is the solvent.

Notes
 ● All cells are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

The elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are used to make up
four types of compounds used in cells:

● Lipids—fats and oils: They are made of all four of the elements. They are
used to store energy in the organism.
● Carbohydrates—sugars, starches, and cellulose: They are made of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are used as energy in the organism.
● Proteins—muscle fibre: They are made of all four of the elements. They
are used for most jobs in the cell. Movement, digestion, energy creation.
● Nucleic acids—DNA and other genetic material: They are made up of all
four of the elements. They are used to create the organisms DNA and
DNA type molecules used in the production of protein.
● Water is one of the most important compounds used by cells. Most other
compounds are dissolved in water, both inside and outside of the cell.
Water provides the environment for the functions of the cell to occur. It is
made of oxygen and hydrogen.

● Cells have other elements found in tiny amounts (trace elements) that are
important to their health like magnesium, zinc, manganese, iron
● Water is the solvent that provides the environment for all biological
reactions inside and outside the cell
● Adenosine 5'-triphosphate, or ATP, is the principal molecule for storing
and transferring energy in cells.
4 essential trace elements cells use:

● Magnesium: The energy molecule a cell uses (ATP) must be bound to

magnesium to be active. Without magnesium, the cell would have no
energy to complete the life functions.
● Zinc: There is still lots of research going into why this element is
important. Some places being researched are protein synthesis, cell
communication, gene expression, and cell growth and death.
● Manganese: This element is essential for normal cell growth and
development. It is used in many cellular reactions to help them happen
quicker. In humans, too much or too little manganese often leads to
problems with the brain and nervous system.
● Iron: In humans, this element is used in blood cells as part of the system
that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body. In cells, it is
 used to move oxygen used in cellular respiration to the mitochondria. It is
also used in protein synthesis.

● Plant cells require a few more compounds than animal cells do because
they perform photosynthesis.

Differences between plant and animal cells:

● Plant cells specialized compounds: chlorophyll for photosynthesis and

cellulose for cell wall
● Animal cells specialized compounds: hemoglobin for oxygen transport and
cholesterol
● Some plant cells store energy as oils or starch.
● Some animal cells store energy as sugar or fat.
● Plant cells tend to have a large central vacuole for water storage.
● Animal cells tend to have many small vacuoles.

Similarities
(Both contain):
● DNA or genetic material
● a cell membrane
● a cytoskeleton—a set of proteins and fibres that help hold the organelles
in place in the cytoplasm
● specialized compounds adapted for special functions

Why do plant and animal cells have so many similarities?

Cells perform the basic functions of life. Plant and animal cells both have the same
jobs: to keep that organism alive, and thus have many of the same structures.

Animals need the compounds plants produce (through photosynthesis) in

order to survive. What are some examples of us eating compounds we
require from plants?
We eat avocados because they are high in fat. We eat nuts as a source of protein and trace
elements. We eat many vegetables for the nutrients they contain. These are all things we
cannot produce ourselves, so we must eat plants to collect them. In turn, when animals die,
they decompose and become food for plants.
Plant cell - has chloroplasts lining the edge of the cell. It also has a large white space in the
centre, which is its central vacuole.

Plant cell:distinct cell wall that is slightly separated from the

cell membrane. It is also filled with chloroplasts

Animal cells: no cell wall, chloroplasts, or a

central vacuole.

Lesson 6: The Cell Membrane

Terms

active requires energy to move particles

transport
carrier Proteins that go across the entire membrane that need a
proteins specific molecule to bind to them to change their shape and
move that molecule to the other side of the membrane.

channel Proteins that go across the entire membrane, allowing specific

proteins molecules to pass through.

concentration The amount of one substance in a given amount of another

substance; e.g., the amount of salt in water.

concentration The difference between the highest and lowest concentration

gradient of a particle or substance. Particles move from a place of high
concentration to a place of low concentration.

dilute The process of lowering the concentration of a substance by

adding water.

equilibrium A state of balance. The concentrations on both sides of the

membrane are kept equal.

fluid-mosaic The model that describes how the cell membrane is

model structured, with protein molecules floating in a fluid
phospholipid bilayer.

homeostasis A state of stability that keeps everything within the cell the
same; e.g., keeping a higher concentration of nutrients inside
the cell.

hypertonic This is when there is more of the particle outside the cell, so
water moves out of the cell to try to even out the
concentration. The water moves to the higher concentration of
dissolved particles. “Hyper” means more. This will cause the
cell to shrink or shrivel up.

hypotonic This is when there is more of the dissolved particle inside the
cell, so water moves into the cell to try to even out the
concentration. The water moves to the higher concentration of
dissolved particles. “Hypo” means smaller or less, so there is
a smaller concentration of the dissolved particle outside the
cell. This will cause the cell to swell or burst.
isotonic This is when the concentrations are equal, so water moves
into and outside the cell at equal rates. “Iso” means the same.
The shape of the cell will not change.

passive does not require energy to move particles

transport

phospholipid A particle with a round head made of phosphate that is

attracted to water and a tail made of lipids that repel water.

phospholipid A double layer made up of phospholipids. Arranged with the

bilayer head out and the tail in.

semi-permea A characteristic that allows some particles through and blocks

ble others out.

Notes
● Model of the cell membrane: fluid-mosaic model--there are proteins in
the membrane and the membrane is fluid.
- Proteins can move around in the membrane
- Membrane can change shape, move, and vibrate
- Particles can move into and out of the cell
● Two layers of phospholipids (head made of phosphate and tail made of
lipids) make up the membrane
● The head loves water
and the tail hates it--this
makes the cell membrane
really strong because the lipid
tails do everything in their
power to stay away from
water on the outside
● Cholesterol, a compound found in the membrane, keeps the
membrane fluid
● Membrane is semi-permeable (lets some particles in and keeps others
out)
● It is called fluid because the proteins in the membrane are floating
around, as if they were fish swimming in water. It is called a mosaic
because it has many different pieces held together by the phospholipid
bilayer, just like a mosaic tile pattern.
● The cell membrane works toward keeping most of the materials,
elements, particles, and compounds at the same concentration inside and
outside of the cell (equilibrium)
● Membrane also needs to maintain homeostasis (keeping the concentration
of everything inside the cell the same all the time)
● Keeping this higher concentration inside the cell is the cell membrane
maintaining homeostasis but not equilibrium.
● The particles that are needed more on the inside are brought inside
despite equilibrium.
● Two main transportation classes through membrane:
- Passive transport: does not require energy to move particles
- Active transport: requires energy to move particles

Different kinds of passive transport:

Diffusion
- Diffusion uses the concentration gradient to move small particles
across the cell membrane (a higher concentration of particles will
move to a place that has a lower concentration of particles, until
they are evenly spaced)
- Because it is so small oxygen can slip between the constantly
moving phospholipids to get to the cell (particle model of matter
says that particles are always moving and that particles have
spaces in between them)
- If equilibrium occurs with oxygen, it will stop moving into the cell
(but the cell uses oxygen really fast so this probably won’t happen)

Osmosis
- Osmosis is the movement of water across a concentration gradient
- Water moves to areas where there is a high solute concentration to try
and even out (dilute) the concentration
- If water is moving from the outside of the cell to the inside, you know
that there is a higher concentration of particles in the inside and vice
versa
- Hypotonic: this is when there is more of the dissolved particle inside the
cell, so water moves into the cell to try to even out the concentration.
- Hypertonic: this is when there is more of the particle outside the cell, so
water moves out of the cell to try to even out the concentration.
- Isotonic: concentrations are equal; water moves into and out of the cell at
equal rates

Facilitated Diffusion
- Similar to diffusion except particles pass through channel or carrier
proteins to get through the cell membrane
- Channel proteins act as a passageway through the membrane--only
allow certain molecules through
- Carrier proteins allow certain molecules to bind to them and then the
carrier protein changes shape and opens up on the other side of the
cell to let the molecule get into the cell
- Example of F.D: glucose is too big to fit through the membrane without
help. If there is a higher concentration of glucose on the outside of the
cell, then the glucose will move from the outside of the cell to the inside
of the cell using the carrier or channel protein that is designed for it. The
glucose will continue to move into the cell until the concentrations inside
and outside of the cell are the same
The particle model of matter states these four things:

i. All matter is made of particles, but the particles in different substances

may be different in size and composition.
ii. The particles of matter are constantly moving or vibrating.
iii. The particles of matter are attracted to one another or are bonded
together.
iv. Particles have spaces between them. These spaces may be occupied by
particles by another substance.

Diffusion: Points i, ii, and iv are used here. Diffusion uses the movement of the
particles to move them through the spaces between the particles in the
membrane. This only works if the particle is small enough to fit in those spaces.

Osmosis: Points i, ii, and iv are used here. Osmosis uses the movement of the
particles in water to move the water through the spaces between the particles in
the membrane. Water particles are small enough to fit through the spaces in the
membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion: Points i, ii, iii are used here. Facilitated diffusion uses the
movement of particles and the attraction particles have for one another to move
them through channel or carrier proteins The particles have to be of a particular
size and shape to fit through the channel or carrier proteins..
 Different kinds of Active Transport
Active Transport
- Requires energy (moves against concentration gradient)
- Used for maintaining homeostasis rather than equilibrium
- Uses channel and carrier proteins but this time the proteins act as a
pump, pushing the particles across the membrane (requires energy
from the cell)
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
- Endocytosis
- particles are brought into the cell
- cell surrounds particle it wants to bring in and cell membrane creates
a vesicle sac around the targeted particle, pinching off from the main
cell membrane, it becomes independent and can bring the particle
where it needs to go inside the cell

- Exocytosis
- particles are taken out of the cell
- vesicle travels to cell membrane and fuses with it to become part of
the main cell membrane, opening the vesicle to the outside of the cell
and forcing the particles out
 - Both
- vesicles are used to transport the particles (vesicles are needed
because the particles requiring transport are too big to pass through
the membrane)
- require energy to rearrange cell membrane

The particle model of matter states these four things:

i. All matter is made of particles, but the particles in different substances

may be different in size and composition.
ii. The particles of matter are constantly moving or vibrating.
iii. The particles of matter are attracted to one another or are bonded
together.
iv. Particles have spaces between them. These spaces may be occupied by
particles by another substance.

Active Transport: Points i, ii, and iii are used here. Active transport uses the fact
that particles are always moving and that they are attracted to one another to
move the particle to the channel or carrier protein. The particles have to be the
right size and shape to attach to the channel or carrier protein to be pumped
through to the other side of the cell.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Points i and ii are used here. These processes use
the motion of the particles to move the membrane out and around the particles
or away from the particles. They also use the motion of the particles to move
the particle close enough to the membrane. The processes use the size and
shape of the particles to trigger the membrane to surround the particles or to
open to let the particles out.
What is the difference between active transport and facilitated diffusion?

Active transport uses energy because it moves the particles against the
concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion does not use energy, because it
moves particles along the concentration gradient.

Lesson 7: Is Bigger Better?

Term Definition

area The measurement of the amount of 2-D space

something takes up.

ratio The relationship between two numbers.

surface area The total area of all the surfaces of an object.

surface area to The ratio between the total area of the surfaces of an
volume ratio object and its volume.

Notes
- When we talk about membrane size, we are talking about the surface
area of the cell; area of membrane = surface area of cell
- Area is a 2-D measurement; measured in units squared
- When we are calculating the surface area of a cell, use millimetres
squared or micrometres squared
- Surface area=find area of each side and add all areas together
- Volume--space found inside the cell--3-D measurement; measured in
units cubed
- V= length x width x height
 - If a cell becomes larger and larger without changing its shape, the volume
of the cell increases faster than the surface area.
- Since the volume is increasing so fast, the membrane cannot keep up
with the transport needed to supply all the compounds, nutrients, and
elements needed inside of the cell; The cell must find the ideal balance
between surface area and volume (surface area to volume ratio)
- A smaller ratio means the volume is growing faster than the surface area,
while a larger ratio means they are more balanced (cells with a larger
surface area to volume ratio are more efficient)
- As the surface area to volume ratio increases, how quickly diffusion can
occur also increases. This is because there is a larger cell membrane and,
therefore, more space for the transport to occur in.
- Ratio=SA/V
- Find the surface area to a cube with 1 mm side:
First, find area of one side: 1mm x 1mm = 1 mm2(squared)
Multiply that by 6 because there are 6 sides to a cube: 1mm2 x 6 = 6mm2
Find the volume: 1 x 1 x 1 = 1mm3 (cubed)
Find the ratio: 6mm2/1mm3 = 6 (very efficient)

Which cell would be able to transport materials more efficiently? A cube shaped
cell with a side length of 8 micrometres or one with a side length of 11
micrometres?
The cell with a side length of 8 micrometres would be able to transport materials more
efficiently because it is the smaller cell. The smaller the side length, the greater the surface
area to volume ratio.

- the more surface area a cell has, the more space it has to transport the
particles it needs across the membrane
 - If a cell cannot get nutrients or get rid of waste fast enough (poisons the
cell), the cell will die
- Some cells are long and flat to increase surface area so they can get
nutrients and rid waste efficiently
- Some cells have a folded membrane or finger-like projections from the
surface of the cell (increases surface area to volume ratio)
- Different cells in our body have different functions and look different
- Large cell = hard to transport materials around the cell
- A large cell membrane and limited volume in a cell are both important
- Multicellular organisms have transportation systems to help move
materials around so they do not have to rely as much on the surface area
to volume ratio (circulatory system in humans)
Cells have adapted to increase surface area through the following examples:

● by increasing the size of the cell membrane through cell shape. For
example, long, flat cells
● through the creation of transportation systems to help reduce reliance on
the surface area to volume ratio
● by increasing surface area and decreasing volume by creating small
structures (such as villi) to increase the surface area to volume ratio

Lesson 8: Societal Applications

Term Definition

desalination The process of removing salt from salt water.

dialysis The process of removing waste products and excess fluid

from the body.

dialysate Sterile fluid used during dialysis. The wastes move into the
dialysate.

hemodialysis The process of removing the blood from the body to remove
waste products then returning the blood back to the body.

Notes
 ● Each strand of DNA is made up of many genes

Gene Mapping
- We can find the cause of different diseases by studying genes
- Scientists mapped out all human genes in the Human Genome Project in
2003--this would help them study changes in genes that would cause
disease (they know what is normal and what is different)
- Because of the Project, we can focus on the function of each gene. As we
figure out the function of the gene, we can develop cures for diseases
related to genes, like cancer and sickle-cell anemia
Stem Cells
- Stem cells can turn into any kind of specialized cell
- Many specialized cells that are damaged can not be repaired. However,
doctors and scientists are learning that they can replace those damaged
specialized cells with stem cells that will turn into the specialized cells
- Doctors could potentially grow an organ with stem cells
- Most of the stem cells used for research come from human embryos; we
are discovering a way to genetically modify adult cells and turn them into
stem cells and if they work as well as the embryonic stem cells, we can
use those cells instead
Cell Communication
- Cells release molecules called messenger molecules that travel through
the bloodstream and attach to receptors on the membranes of other cells.
These receptors then start a chain reaction that carries the message to
the correct location inside of the cell. The messenger molecule will only fit
into specific receptors that start the correct chain reaction.
- Scientists are using scanning electron microscopes to observe how cells
communicate with each other
- Scientists use their knowledge on how cells communicate to bind
substances to the cells or the membranes of the structures that they want
to look at. This helps scientists to diagnose certain diseases caused by
viruses, bacteria, and protozoans. This technology is also helpful in
understanding how cells interact. This knowledge will help scientists with
future research and treatment of HIV and cancer.

Uses of Cell Membranes

Peritoneal Dialysis
- Kidneys remove wastes from the blood and send them to be eliminated in
the urine; if a kidney fails, the patient must get a kidney transplant or
undergo dialysis to remove wastes
 - Tube is inserted in the abdominal cavity and pumps sterile fluid
(dialysate) into the cavity
- Since there is a higher concentration of waste products in the blood than
the dialysate, the wastes move down the concentration gradient through
diffusion into the dialysate; when waste concentrations in the dialysate
get high, the dialysate is removed from the body
- Hemodialysis is when the blood is removed from the body to clean it
Reverse Osmosis
- Can remove salt from seawater
- Water is pumped through a coarse filter for large materials; then it is
pumped through smaller and smaller filters until all impurities are
removed
- Called Reverse Osmosis because the solution is going from a high
concentration of impurities to a low concentration of impurities
- Water is moving against the concentration gradient; requires energy and
is expensive
HIV and Cancer Treatments
- Treatments for HIV often kill good cells along with the bad ones; we’re
trying to figure out how to kill only the bad cells
- HIV mimics a molecule needed by a cell so the cell will bring it inside
through endocytosis; scientists are trying to find a way to block HIV from
entering the cell
- If scientists found out which protein in the membrane signalled a
cancerous cell, they could create a treatment that would target only the
cancerous cells by reading that protein on their membrane

Explain how the process of reverse osmosis works.

Water with impurities is pushed through a semipermeable membrane that does
not allow the impurities to go through. Since the water is moving from a high
concentration of impurities to a low concentration, the water is moving against
the concentration gradient, making it reverse osmosis rather than osmosis.

How does peritoneal dialysis use membrane technology?

Peritoneal dialysis uses the semi-permeable membranes in the body. These

semi-permeable membranes allow the waste products to move from the blood
vessels and organs into the dialysate that is sitting in the abdominal cavity.

● Without understanding how cell membranes work, we would have a hard

time treating many different diseases.
Unit A Section 3: Plants as Multicellular
Organisms
Lesson 9: Specialization of Cells

aerial Roots that are found above ground.

roots

cuticle Waxy coating on leaves that helps prevent damage to leaves and
water loss.

epidermis Another term for dermal tissue.

organs A group of tissues that work together to complete a function in a

multicellular organism.

root hairs Specialized dermal cells on the root that absorb water and
nutrients.

root The system in a plant that contains everything below the ground,
system including aerial roots.

shoot The system in a plant that contains everything above ground and
system tubers.

sieve tube Cylindrical cells that lack a nucleus and with perforated end walls
cells to allow the movement of sugars around the plant.

systems A group of organs that work together to complete a function in a

multicellular organism.

tissues A group of cells that work together to complete a function in a

multicellular organism.

tubers Swollen roots or underground stems that store sugars for plants.
vascular Transport tissue made of cells joined into tubes that carry water
tissue and nutrients through the body of the plant

Notes
● When a cell gets too large, it divides into two cells to stay within the
correct surface area to volume ratio
● Instead of staying as one cell, organisms can be made of millions of cells
as a way of going around the limitation of surface area to volume stuff;
they have systems to transport materials around the body, instead of
relying on the cell membrane

Multicellular organisms have many advantages over single-celled organisms:

- They can grow larger than the surface area to volume ratio allows a single
cell to.
- They can live in a broader range of environments.
- They can specialize their cells so each cell has a specific job that benefits
the entire organism.

Disadvantages:

- The organism must rely on each cell to do its job properly.

- One cell could cause the whole organism to suffer.

- Cells that have similar functions create tissues.

- Tissues that have similar functions create organs.
- Organs that have similar functions create systems.
- Systems perform the life functions of the multicellular organism.
● Plants have two main systems
Shoot system
- Everything above the ground: stem/trunk, leaves/needles, buds,
flowers, fruits, vegetables, nuts
- Also contains tubers (swollen roots that store energy for the plant)
like carrots or potatoes
Root System
- Everything below the ground (except tubers) including aerial roots
(roots crawling on the surface of the ground)

● Each plant is made of tissues that are present in both systems with
slightly different functions depending on the system
Dermal Tissue (epidermis)
- Outer layer of cells (like skin cells on animals)
- One cell layer thick
- the bark on trees

In shoot system
- Protects plant from disease
- Produces cuticle which stops microorganisms from damaging
the plant and prevents water loss
- Allows oxygen and CO2 to move into and out of the plant
through the stem and leaves
In root system
- Allows water and nutrients into the cells
Ground Tissues
- Layer below the epidermis; makes up most of the plant
- Made of loosely packed cells for quick diffusion of CO2 and oxygen

In shoot system
- Provides strength and support to the plant
 - Is the location of photosynthesis

In root system
- Plays an important part in water and food storage
Xylem Vascular Tissue
- Vascular tissue is in charge of transporting materials throughout the
plant
- Xylem vascular tissue is specifically for moving water and dissolved
minerals from the roots to the leaves
- The living xylem tissue cells are shaped like small tubes and stack
up end to end; as the cells grow, the ends start to break down,
killing the cell; the sides fuse together and a long tube is created
Phloem Vascular Tissue
- Works in a different direction to the xylem; can transport in many
different directions, unlike the xylem
- Takes sugars created through photosynthesis in the leaves and
transports them to the rest of the plant which can be used by the
cells or stored in the leaves, stem, or roots
- Cells are tube-like too, but stay alive; the cytoplasm of the cells
leak out to form a passageway from one cell to the next

Tissue Function in Shoot System Function in Root Locatio

System n in
Plant

Dermal ● protects the plants from ● responsible surface

disease for allowing of plant
● produces a substance water and
called cuticle that helps nutrients
to stop microorganisms into the
from damaging the cells
plant and prevents
water loss
● allows oxygen and
carbon dioxide to move
into and out of the plant
through the stem and
leaves
Ground ● provides strength and ● food and under
support to the plant water the
● is the location of storage epidermi
photosynthesis s

Xylem ● moving water and ● moving within

dissolved minerals from water and the
the roots to the leaves dissolved ground
minerals tissue
from the
roots to the
leaves

Phloem ● moving sugars from ● moving within

leaves to the rest of the sugars from the
plant, especially to leaves to ground
areas where the plant is roots tissue
growing

● Each cell has the same DNA as every other cell in the organism; in order
to be specialized, cells use only certain parts of their genetic code; it will
only perform the functions needed to play its part in the tissue it is part of
● Each tissue has specialized cells
● Specialized cells allow each cell to have a single function to focus on. This
allows the body to build systems and allows the organism to grow much
larger than a single cell size. If cells were not specialized, the cells could
not work together to form the systems needed for multicellular
organisms.
● Specialization allows organisms to become multicellular
● Specialization allows for multicellular organisms to create systems that
perform the basic functions of life so each cell can focus on one specific
function, rather than all the functions.
Lesson 10: Parts of a Leaf
● photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert sunlight, carbon
dioxide, and water into glucose (a type of sugar used for energy) and
oxygen -- CO2 + H2O + Sunlight → C6H12O6+ O2
● Plants don’t need to eat because they make their own food in
photosynthesis

Dermal Tissue/Epidermal Cells

- Covers the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf
- Protects leaf from disease and microorganism
- Produces cuticle (waxy coating) that prevents water loss
- Do not contain chloroplasts and relatively transparent to allow sunlight to
pass through them to the cells below
Stomata and Guard Cells
- Stomata are holes that allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaf and oxygen
and excess water to leave
- Guard cells surround the stomata, controlling the size of the hole and
regulating what can go in and out of the leaf; if it is very hot, the guard
cells will close the stomata to stop water from leaving to conserve water
Palisade Tissue Cells
- Undergo the most photosynthesis; packed with chloroplasts
- Form a layer below the epidermis cells on the upper side of the leaf and
are the top layer of the ground tissue
 - Rectangle and dense; capture as much sunlight as possible
Spongy Tissue Cells
- Makes up the rest of the ground tissue
- Loosely packed to allow movement of CO2 and oxygen
- Contain a few chloroplasts; captures any sunlight that made it through
the palisade layer
Phloem Vascular Tissue Cells
- Carries glucose made in photosynthesis in the leaves to the rest of the
plant; this is how the plant gets energy
Xylem Vascular Tissue Cells
- Carries water and minerals needed in photosynthesis from the roots to
the leaves
- Xylem and Phloem are visible as the veins in a leaf

● Carbon dioxide enters the cell through the stomata, which are opened by
the guard cells.
● Water is brought up from the roots to the leaf through the xylem and is
prevented from escaping by the epidermis cells.
● The palisade tissue cells capture the sunlight and undergo photosynthesis
in their chloroplasts.
● The spongy tissue cells also capture a bit of light for their chloroplasts.
● The oxygen produced is able to diffuse around the leaf through the
spongy tissue cells, and the excess oxygen is released through the
stomata.
● The glucose produced is transported to the rest of the plant for use or
storage through the phloem tissue cells

● Epidermis cells are transparent to allow the sunlight to reach past their layer.
○ They also control the entry and exit of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and

water, which are all needed or produced by photosynthesis.

● The palisade tissue cells are full of chloroplasts to catch as much of the

sunlight as they can.

○ They are also rectangular in shape, so they can be as closely packed as

possible. This also helps them catch as much sunlight as possible as

sunlight is needed for photosynthesis

Lesson 11: The Breathing Leaf

Term Definition

transpiration The process of losing water through stomata in the leaves.

Notes
● Plants exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide; plant cells undergo cellular
respiration (glucose + oxygen = energy, carbon dioxide, and water)
C6H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2 + energy
● Mitochondria is where cellular respiration happens
● Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration are complementary processes
because the products of one are the reactants of the other. This means
photosynthesis produces the chemicals needed for cellular respiration and
cellular respiration produces the chemicals needed for photosynthesis.
● Animals breathe out carbon dioxide and breathe in oxygen because they
only perform cellular respiration. Plants take in carbon dioxide and release
oxygen
● Because of the waxy cuticle and epidermis, it is hard for a plant to get all
its gases through diffusion--it uses stomata and guard cells to let in and
let out gases
● If there is more oxygen inside the leaf than outside, oxygen will move
with the concentration gradient to the outside of the leaf through stomata
● The guard cells control how big the stomata are and when they are open
or closed
● Light hitting the leaves stimulates the guard cells to bring potassium ions
into the cell (active transport); water then moves into the cell through
osmosis to dilute the concentration
 ● Loss of water out of the stomata: Transpiration
● When there is not enough water to flow into the guard cells, they go limp
and the stomata close; the guard cells then move the potassium ions
back out the guard cells, and the water leaves the cells to dilute the now
high concentration outside
● Plants in a hot environment have fewer stomata so they can better
prevent water loss through transpiration; plants in a wet environment
have more stomata since water loss isn’t such a big issue
● If there is not enough carbon dioxide in the air, stomata will open as wide
as they can to allow carbon dioxide to enter for photosynthesis to occur

How a stoma opens and closes:

● When the sunlight touches the guard cells, the guard cells begin to
actively transport potassium ions into themselves.
● This creates a high concentration of potassium inside the cell, so water
moves into the cell through osmosis.
● This creates a high water pressure inside the guard cells and causes them
to move into a crescent shape.
● This opens the stoma.
● As the water pressure begins to go down, the cell actively transports
potassium out of the cell.
● The water then follows the potassium ions through osmosis and the guard
cells go back to their original shape.
● This closes the stomata.

Why is it important that the stomata open and close in response to the amount
of sunlight present?

Photosynthesis requires light to occur, so it is important that during that

time, the plant has the carbon dioxide it needs in order to perform
photosynthesis.

● On the lower side of the leaf, the dermal tissue is next to the spongy
tissue cells
● Stomata are on the lower epidermis, so the gas that enters through the
stomata can go straight into the air pockets within the spongy mesophyll
tissue. This gives the carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis a place to
be stored before it is used by the palisade tissue cells that are above the
spongy mesophyll tissue layer
● Spongy tissue cells move oxygen close to the stomata to escape easily
and they move carbon dioxide closer to the palisade cells to be used in
photosynthesis
● The gases can move through the spongy tissue cells to where they are
needed in the plant
● The air pockets in the spongy tissue cells are for gas storage
● Diffusion happens in the trunk or stem of
plants as well as in the leaves
● The blisters and splints in the trunk are called
lenticels; they are another location of gas
exchange; lenticels are always open

Lenticels and Stomata:

- Similarities: Both are involved in gas
exchange and transpiration. Differences: Stomata
are open and closed by guard cells that react to the
amount of sun and water present. Lenticels are
always open.

● The leaf is the location of gas exchange and

photosynthesis in a plant
● In order for photosynthesis to occur, carbon dioxide must be brought into
the plant in the presence of sunlight. When sunlight hits the leaf, the
guard cells on the underside of the leaf open the stomata to allow carbon
dioxide to enter the leaf. This carbon dioxide is stored in the spongy
 mesophyll tissue until it is needed for photosynthesis in the palisade
tissue cells. The palisade tissue cells use both the sunlight and the carbon
dioxide (along with water from the roots) to produce glucose and oxygen.
The oxygen is then released through the stomata to the environment or
transported down the stem to the rest of the plant through the ground
tissue. Lenticels also allow for gas exchange in locations other than the
leaf.

Lesson 12: Transport in Plants

Term Definition

adhesion The property of water that allows it to be attracted to other

substances. This is due to water's polarity.

cohesion The property of water that allows it to be attracted to itself.

This is due to water’s polarity.

companion Cells that are attached to each sieve tube cell. Cells that
cells contain a nucleus and direct the function of the sieve tube
cells.

plasmolysis The shrinking of the cytoplasm away from the cell wall due to
the water moving out of the cell in a hypertonic environment.

polar A molecule where one end has a slightly negative charge and
the other end has a slightly positive charge.

pressure-flow A theory explaining how nutrients are transported from the

theory leaves to the rest of the plant. This transport is caused by the
pressure build up in the leaf.

root pressure Upward force on water in the xylem in the roots of plants.

tension The force caused by pulling an object.

transpiration The pull on water molecules in the xylem due to evaporation of
pull water through the stomata or lenticels of a plant.

turgid Firm; in reference to plants, the cells are turgid when they are
full of water.

turgor Pressure exerted against the cell wall by the water in the cell.
pressure

Notes
● Why doesn't water overflow when you fill it to the brim in a glass? It’s
because water is attracted to itself and other substances
● Cohesion is the property of water that allows it to be attracted to
itself; for example: water molecules attach themselves together to
form water droplets on a leaf
● Water molecules are slightly polar,
meaning one end has a slight positive charge
and the other a slight negative charge; opposites
attract, so the positive end of one water
molecule will attract the negative end of another

● Adhesion allows water to be attracted to other substances; also due to

water’s polar nature; water molecule positive and negative ends are
attracted to the positive and negative ends of other substances
● Water can climb up the side of a glass using both properties. It is
attracted to the glass and so more molecules build along the glass.
The molecules on the side of the glass pull more water molecules from
underneath it to attach to themselves and then they climb up the side
of the glass further
 If you were to place droplets of water on a penny, which property keeps
the droplets from falling off the penny? How does it work?
Cohesion helps to keep the water droplets from falling off the penny. Cohesion
works by keeping the water molecules attracted to each other so they hold on
to each other rather than falling off the penny.

Adhesion helps to keep the water droplets from falling off the penny. Adhesion
keeps the water attracted to the surface of the penny so the droplets do not
slide off the penny

● The root hairs of the plant absorb minerals from the soil through active
transport; water flows to the higher concentration of minerals in the
roots; creates root pressure
● Root pressure is responsible for some movement of water from roots to
leaves; pressure causes water to be forced up the xylem
● Water is also pulled up by tension or transpiration build; when water
leaves the plant through transpiration, it pulls the next water molecule
into place behind it (since water is attracted to each other) and thus
pulling it up the plant; water is also attracted to the walls of the xylem, so
the water climbs up the stem
● When a water molecule is used by the palisade layer for photosynthesis,
the molecule pulls another molecule to take its place behind it
● A lot of the water pulled up from the roots is used for transpiration to
keep the pull strong enough to keep pulling water from the roots
● In a hot/dry environment, transpiration occurs quickly; water is pulled
from roots rapidly
● Stomata close if plant loses too much water through transpiration
(photosynthesis rate drops significantly)

What happens to the movement of water if the plant lives in a cool or wet
environment? Why?
If the plant lives in a cool or wet environment, the stomata can stay open for
longer, increasing the transpiration pull. This allows more water to be pulled to
the leaf and allows more photosynthesis to occur. In this environment, plants
will not have as strong of a transpiration pull as in a hot and dry environment,
so photosynthesis cannot occur as quickly. This type of environment does allow
for photosynthesis to take place over a longer period of time as the plant can
leave the stomata open for longer without worrying about losing too much
water.
Does transpiration and photosynthesis occur at night?

The stomata are only open when sunlight is present, so transpiration does not
occur at night. Photosynthesis needs water to occur, so if there is no
transpiration pull, there is very little photosynthe

thesis occurring.

Each xylem tissue takes water to a specific end point

● A cell in a hypertonic solution will have its water leave the cell to dilute
the hypertonic solution; causes the cell to shrivel and pull away from the
cell wall; the plant will go limp and not be as effective in catching sunlight
(plasmolysis); there is not enough pressure from the cells to keep the
plant upright and rigid
● A cell in a hypotonic solution will have water enter the cell; causes cell to
be turgid; plant will be stiff and outstretched and effective at
photosynthesis
 ● A hypotonic solution is better for photosynthesis because the water
moves into the plant cells through osmosis. This increases the turgor
pressure in the leaves and helps them to stretch out to catch as much
sunlight as possible.
● Phloem tube transports glucose
● Phloem tissue is made up of sieve tube cells that share their cytoplasms
with each other; do not have a nucleus--attached to companion cells that
contain a nucleus and control the function of the sieve tube cells by using
carrier proteins and active transport to move glucose into the sieve tube
cells; water moves through osmosis into the sieve tube cells; water and
glucose is moved down the phloem following pressure-flow theory
● PF theory: as more water and glucose enter sieve tube cells in the leaves,
the already present water and glucose is pushed farther down the tissue
and into areas of the plant that need glucose (actively transported from
the cell to other areas of the plant that need it); water follows the glucose
out of the phloem due to osmosis
● Sugars are used by the plant for life functions or stored as starches or oils
● Water leaves the plant (transpiration), is pulled into another cell through
osmosis, or enters the xylem to go back up to the leaves
● The glucose and water are constantly being pushed from the leaves to the
locations where they are needed the most
Damage to the phloem would stop the transportation of glucose. Since glucose
is used by all cells for cellular respiration, the cells would start to die if they
were not able to get it. The energy created during cellular respiration is used in
many different important cell functions, such as active transport, protein
synthesis, and digestion.

The phloem tissue is made up of a bunch of sieve tube cells lined up end to end.
The ends of these cells are perforated, so the cytoplasm can flow from one cell
to another. Each cell has a companion cell attached to it that directs the function
of the sieve tube cell. These cells make long tubes that run from the leaves to
the rest of the plant. There are many of these tubes bundled together along
with the xylem tissue to make up the vascular tissue.
Active transport is used in the leaf; glucose is actively transported from the
palisade cells into the phloem. The water follows the glucose into the phloem
through osmosis. When the glucose reaches the low pressure area, it is actively
transported out
of the phloem
into the cells
that require it.
Water again
follows through
osmosis.
Lesson 13: Which way is up?

Term Definition

auxin The hormone, or chemical messenger, that plants use to

signal the elongation of cells due to the lack of sunlight.

gravitropism The response of plants' growth to gravity.

hormone A chemical compound that travels from where it was made to

another place where it causes an effect.

negative The response of plants, or parts of plants, growing away from

gravitropism gravity.

negative When a plant, or parts of a plant, respond to the sun by

phototropism growing away from it.

phototropism The response of a plant’s growth to the sun.

positive The response of plants, or parts of plants, growing toward

gravitropism gravity.

positive When a plant, or parts of a plant, respond to the sun by

phototropism growing toward it.

stimuli A change in the environment that causes a response from the

organism. (Singular: stimulus)

Notes
● “Photo”--light; “tropism”--direction of growth in response to a stimulus
● Stem, trunk, and leaves show positive phototropism
● Roots show negative phototropism
● Phototropism ensures the leaves are closest to the sun
● Charles Darwin and his son Francis first investigated phototropism;
 they were trying to figure out what part of the plant responded to
light; if the tips were covered, they did not respond to sunlight; if the
tips were not covered, the plant showed phototropism

● Peter Boysen-Jensen found out that a chemical produced in the tip caused
the stem to grow toward the light
● F.W. Went isolated the chemical and we later found out that the chemical
substance was a hormone: auxin; cells farthest away from the sun get a
high concentration of auxin and grow longer, causing the stem to bend
toward the light (cells elongate where there is a HIGH concentration of
auxin)

Scientist(s Experimenta Experiment Results

) l Question Performed

Charles and What part of They modified They found that the tip
Francis the plant the tips and the detects the light and
Darwin detects and stems of the stem bends to grow
reacts to seedlings by toward it.
light? covering them
or cutting them
off.

Peter What is the He cut off the He found the tips with
Boysen-Jens signal that tips of seedlings gelatin still showed
en causes the and glued them phototropism while the
plant to react back on using tips with mica did not.
 to the light? gelatin or mica. This chemical produced
in the tip could diffuse
through the gelatin to
the stem but could not
diffuse through the
mineral mica.

F. W. Went What is the He isolated the He found this

specific exact substance substance causes cells
substance that causes to elongate and higher
that causes plants to concentrations of it are
the plant to perform found on the shaded
react to light? phototropism. side of the plant.

● The roots grow toward gravity; stem grows away from gravity; these
responses are called gravitropism
● Gravitropism helps germinating plants know which way to send their roots
● Gravitropism suggests specialized cells in the roots contain heavy starch
particles that signal the roots to grow downward; growth happens where
the starch particles settle
● Positive gravitropism occurs in the roots; negative gravitropism occurs in
the stem and leaves
● There are large starch molecules in a plant’s roots. When the plant is
tipped over, these starch molecules settle on the new bottom of the roots,
where they are pulled by gravity, and promote growth in that direction
● Different plants also respond to touch, temperature, chemicals, water, and
length of darkness or light
● A stimulus is needed to signal the production of flowers as some plants
want to make sure they are able to support the flowers. They wait until
they know they have enough stored energy to produce the flower or fruit
as it takes lots of energy to create these. Flowers and fruits are needed as
those create the seeds that produce the next generation of plants. Plants
also want to make sure they produce the flowers or fruits at a time when
those potential seeds can thrive.
● Two main stimuli plants respond to: light and gravity
 Review of Unit A
Review Questions:
1. How was the theory of spontaneous generation disproved?

Redi and Pasteur were both scientists who conducted experiments to disprove
the theory of spontaneous generation. Redi did a jar experiment to see if
maggots would appear in a closed jar; they did not, but they did appear in the
open one that the flies had access to. Pasteur designed a flask that had a long
neck in the shape of an S. The neck had a dip near the beginning where
Pasteur hoped microorganisms would get stuck and not get to the broth he
had put inside the flask. It turned out the broth did not get infected with
microorganisms as he predicted. This showed that microorganisms only arose
from other microorganisms and disproved spontaneous generation.

2. Name the three points of the cell theory.

a. All living things are made up of one or more cells and the materials
produced by these cells.
b. All life functions take place in cells, making them the smallest unit
of life.
c. All cells are produced from pre-existing cells through the process of
cell division.

3. Why are microscopes important to the study of the cell?

Without microscopes, we could not see cells and the structures that make up
cells. We would not be able to learn about them and develop the three points of
cell theory. Some microscopes even let us look at living cells so we can observe
how they perform their functions.
4. Complete the following table around the cell organelles.

Organelle Function

cell membrane Protective barrier;

allows needed
materials to enter and
waste leave; interacts
with other cells

nucleus Contains DNA;

controls cell functions

lysosome Breaks cell food into

nutrients; can digest
bad molecules; breaks
down unneeded
organelles

vacuole Stores nutrients,

water, and fats and
transports them
around; (in plants)
regulates amount of
water in cell

mitochondria Nutrients converted to

energy for cell; where
cellular respiration
takes place

endoplasmic reticulum Moves materials from

nucleus around cell;
Rough ER makes
proteins; Smooth ER
makes lipids & oils
 Gogli apparatus Processes materials
from ER; repackages
them into vesicles and
sends them around
and out of cell

ribosomes Help produce proteins

chloroplast Where photosynthesis

occurs; produces
glucose and oxygen;
only in plant cells

cell wall Hard frame; holds cell

in place that provides
strength and support;
only in plant cells

5. What are the similarities and differences between plant and animal cells?

Similarities:

● Plant and animal cells contain the same organelles, except for cell walls
and chloroplasts.
● Both plant and animal cells make specialized compounds according to
their functions.
● Both plant and animal cells contain DNA.
● Both plant and animal cells are made of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and
oxygen.
● Both plant and animal cells require water and use lipids, proteins,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Differences:

● Only plant cells contain chloroplasts and cell walls.

● Only plant cells make chlorophyll.
● Only animal cells make hemoglobin.
● Plant cells store energy as starch and oils, while animal cells store energy
as sugars and fats.
● Plant cells have a large central vacuole, while animal cells have small
vacuoles.

6. Label each of these images with the type of cell transport being pictured.

Facilitated Diffusion

Diffusion

Osmosis
Active Transport

Endocytosis

7. How does the surface area to volume ratio limit cell size?

If the volume of the cell is too large, the membrane cannot keep up with
transporting all the materials into the cell. The membrane acts as a doorway; if
it is too small in relation to the volume of the cell, it won’t be able to let all the
nutrients the cell needs inside at the rate needed to keep the cell functioning.

8. Give one example of how microscopic research or knowledge of the cell

membrane has benefited society.

HIV or cancer treatment, peritoneal dialysis, stem cell research, gene

mapping, reverse osmosis, cell communication, and liposomes.

9. How are the cells in a multicellular organism organized?

Cells - Tissues - Organs - Systems

10. Describe how the stomata and guard cells function.

● When sunlight hits the two guard cells surrounding a stoma, it actively
transports potassium ions into itself.
● This causes water to flow into the guard cells through osmosis.
● As the cell becomes turgid, it changes shape to become more
crescent-like.
○ This happens because the membrane surrounding the stoma is
thicker, so the pressure from the water causes the guard cell to
 push out away from the stoma.
● This opens the stoma.
● As the light disappears, or there is not enough water left, the potassium
ions are transported out of the guard cells by active transport.
● Once again, the water follows through osmosis.
● The guard cells go back to their original shape, and the stoma is closed.

11. Label the following leaf diagram with all the visible parts.

12. Explain how water is transported from the roots of the plant to the
leaves.

Water is transported from the roots to the leaves through root pressure and
transpiration pull. The minerals in the soil are actively transported into the
roots, and water follows by osmosis. As the water pressure in the roots
increases, the water molecules are pushed farther and farther up the root
system toward the stem. This is root pressure. As water leaves the leaves of a
plant through transpiration, the rest of the water molecules are pulled up the
stem into the leaves. This is done through the water properties of cohesion and
adhesion. The water particles are attracted to each other and the walls of the
xylem, so as one molecule leaves, the attraction force pulls the next molecule
into place. This is called transpiration pull.

13. How are gravitropism and phototropism similar? How are they different?

Gravitropism and phototropism are both control systems in plants. They are
the plant’s response to stimuli in their environment, telling them which way
to grow. Phototropism is the plant’s response to sunlight. The stem and
leaves grow toward the sunlight (positive phototropism) and the roots grow
away from sunlight (negative phototropism).

Gravitropism is the plant’s response to gravity. The stem and leaves grow
against gravity (negative gravitropism), and the roots grow with gravity
(positive gravitropism).
 Unit B: Energy and Matter in
Chemical Change
Unit B Section 1: Building Blocks of Matter
Lesson 1: Safety in the Laboratory

Term Definition

acute Immediate effects.

aspiration Liquid getting into lungs.

carcinogenic Potential to cause cancer.

chemistry The study of matter, its composition, properties, and changes.

germ cell Chemical that may cause mutations in the eggs or sperm of
mutagenicity humans that can be transmitted to their children.

WHMIS Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System

Basic Laboratory Safety Rules

1. Follow all instructions, both written and verbal.

2. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE), safety goggles, gloves, and an
apron/lab coat as required.
3. Wear long pants and closed-toed shoes.
4. Contact lenses are forbidden.
 5. Tie back hair, especially around open flames.
6. No horseplay in the laboratory.
7. No food or drink in the laboratory.
8. Do not wear earbuds/headphones.
9. Keep your workstation neat and tidy.
10. Learn where and how to use safety equipment, such as an eyewash
station, fire blanket, fire extinguisher, safety shower.
11. Ensure all equipment is in good working order.
12. Being aware of your surroundings—Is that beaker hot?
13. Waft when smelling.
14. Never look directly into a container and ensure reacting containers are
pointed away from all people.
15. Never pour liquids into a container that you are holding.
16. Label all containers.
17. Do not return used chemicals back to the stock container.
18. Let your teacher know when there is a spill or if lab equipment breaks.
19. Clean up all spills immediately.
20. Dispose of waste properly: Use the broken glass container, waste
collection vessel, or trash as appropriate.
21. Wash your hands before leaving the lab.

Incident Response

chemical spill on Rinse the area under running water for 10 to 15

skin min.

chemical spill in Rinse the eye using an eyewash station for 10 to 15

your eyes min.

chemical spill on Use a spill kit to contain and neutralize the

counter or floor chemicals.

person on fire Smother the fire using a fire blanket. Never use a
fire extinguisher on a person.

equipment on fire Extinguish with a fire extinguisher.

stabbed with glass Leave glass. Seek medical attention.

● SDS (Safety Data Sheets) sheets provide more details about the
chemical, such as hazards, effects of exposure, and first aid treatment

WHMIS 2015 Description Hazard

Pictogram

skull and can cause death or toxicity with short

crossbones exposure to small amounts (fatal,
acute toxicity)

B1.6 Skull and

crossbones

health may cause or suspected of causing

hazard serious health effects
● carcinogenic
● respiratory sensitization
● reproductive toxicity
● specific target organ toxicity
● germ cell mutagenicity
B1.7 human silhouette ● aspiration hazard
with a white star in the
middle
 exclamation may cause less serious health effects
mark or damage the ozone layer
● irritation (skin or eyes)
● skin sensitivity
● acute toxicity (harmful)
● specific target organ toxicity
(drowsiness or dizziness or
B1.8 exclamation mark respiratory irritation)

biohazardous organisms or toxins that can cause

infectious diseases in people or animals
material

B1.9 biohazard symbol

environment may cause damage to the aquatic

environment

B1.10 tree and fish

corrosion corrosive damage to metals as well as

skin and eyes

B1.11 Corrosive liquid

 gas cylinder gas under pressure

B1.12 Gas cylinder

flame fire hazards

● flammable
● self-reactive
● self-heating
● can emit flammable gases when
in contact with water

B1.13 Flames

flame over oxidizing hazard

circle ● supports the burning of a
flammable material

B1.14 an O with flames

exploding for explosion or severe reactivity

bomb hazards

B1.15 Exploding bomb

Ammonium nitrate will cause flammable substances to burn more intensely.

What WHMIS symbol should it be labeled with?
Petra notices the bag is full of disposable syringes, needles, and discarded latex
gloves. The bag containing this waste should have had which warning symbol on
it?

Tomas got a summer job in an automotive shop. His job is to clean tools and
equipment with acetone. He is working in a small room without ventilation, and
by the end of the first day, he is drowsy, dizzy, and his eyes are burning slightly.
What symbol should have been on the container of acetone?

Lesson 2: Properties and Classification of Matter

Term Definition
atomic number Number of protons in an atom.

atomic molar The average mass number of all naturally occurring isotopes,
mass based on percent abundancy.

elements Pure substances that contain only one type of particle.

compounds Pure substances that contain two or more elements bonded

together.

ductile The ability of a metal to be stretched into a wire.

electrons A particle with a negative charge located outside of the

nucleus.

groups Vertical columns on the periodic table.

heterogeneous A mixture that does not appear uniform; the different

components can be visibly seen.

homogenous A mixture that appears as only containing one substance but

that can be separated out into two or more substances using
physical means.

isotopes Different forms of the same element that differ by the

number of neutrons.

law of The law that states that matter is not created nor destroyed
conservation of in a closed system.
mass

law of constant The law that states that a compound always contains the
composition same elements in a fixed ratio.

malleable The ability of a metal to be pressed into a thin sheet by

hammering or rolling.

mass number The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
matter Anything that has mass and takes up volume.

mixture A substance that is composed of two or more types of

materials that can be separated by physical processes such
as filtration or distillation.

neutron A particle with no charge that is located in the nucleus of an

atom.

nucleons Protons or neutrons located in the nucleus of an atom.

nucleus Central region of an atom that contains the protons and

neutrons and is positively charged.

periods Horizontal rows on the periodic table.

protons A particle with a positive charge located in the nucleus of an

atom.

pure substance A substance composed of only one type of material.

valance Electrons located in the outer most energy level of an atom.

electrons

valance energy The outermost occupied energy level of an atom.

level

Notes
● Matter is anything that takes up space or mass--categorized as pure
substances or mixtures
● Pure substances properties are constant and can be categorized as
elements or compounds; elements cannot be broken down by chemical
means; compounds can; compounds have specific ratios (water
molecule has two hydrogen and one oxygen)
● Mixtures can be heterogeneous (different substances are visible) or
homogeneous (looks the same throughout); mixtures are
combinations of pure substances with varied proportions and
properties
● A suspension is a kind of mechanical mixture (heterogeneous) where
the components are in different states (mud: suspension of dirt and
water; sandstorm: suspension of sand in air)
● A colloid is similar to suspension but the suspended substance cannot
be easily separated from the other substance
● A physical property is measured without changing the composition of a
substance; a chemical reaction does change the composition, is hard
to reverse once changed, always produces a new substance, and
energy is absorbed or released

Physical Property Description

boiling or condensation point temperature of boiling or

condensing

melting or freezing point temperature of melting or

freezing

malleability ability to be beaten or rolled into

sheets without crumbling

ductility ability to be stretched without

breaking

colour colour
 state solid, liquid, gas

solubility ability to dissolve

crystal formation crystalline appearance

conductivity ability to conduct heat or

electricity

magnetism magnetic attraction between

objects

● Chemical properties describe the reactivity of a substance

Chemical Property Description

ability to burn combustion (flame, heat, light)

flash point temperature needed to ignite a

flame

behaviour in air tendency to degrade, react, or

tarnish

reaction with water tendency to corrode or dissolve

reaction with acids corrosion, sometimes bubble

formation

reaction to heat tendency to melt or decompose

reaction to red and blue litmus red–acid; blue–base; no colour

change–neutral

Substance Classification

soil Heterogeneous
limestone Compound
(CaCO3)

apple juice Homogeneous

orange juice with Heterogeneous

pulp

gold Element

baking soda Compound

(NaHCO3)

propane (C3H8) Compound

tap water Homogeneous

the Bow River Heterogeneous

oxygen Element

air Homogeneous

vinegar Homogeneous

iron filings Element

table sugar Compound

rusty iron Heterogeneous

mercury Element

milk Heterogeneous

chromium Element
 acetylene (C2H2) Compound

paper Heterogeneous

Dalton's Atomic Theory

● Dalton inferred that matter must contain tiny, individual particles that
are in constant, random motion
● He used the law of conservation of mass and the law of constant
composition to develop his theory

The five main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows:

1. All matter is made of atoms that are indivisible and indestructible.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.

3. Atoms of different elements have different masses and properties.

4. Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of

atoms and always in the same ratio.

5. Atoms are not destroyed during a chemical reaction; rather they are
rearranged.
Thomson’s Atomic Theory
● Cathode ray tubes are glass tubes that have almost all the air removed
and contains two pieces of metal at each end; when an electric current
is applied to one of the pieces of metal, a ray or beam travels through
the tube
● To try to get a better understanding of cathode rays, Thomson put
negative and positive plates on the sides of the tube; the ray was
repelled by the negative plate and attracted to the positive; this meant
the ray was made up of negatively charged particles (opposites attract,
like charges repel); He found that these properties remained constant
no matter what cathode material they originated from; Thomson
concluded that these subatomic particles are found within atoms of all
elements and they are negatively charged (electrons)
● This disproved Dalton’s theory that atoms were the smallest particles
of matter; he found that an atom contained randomly distributed
electrons; since he knew atoms were neutral, he figured the rest of the
atom was a positively charged sphere

Rutherford’s Atomic Theory

● Rutherford shot small alpha particles (positively charged helium ions) at a
thin sheet of gold foil; Rutherford expected all of the particles to be
deflected as they passed through the “plum pudding.” He found that most
of the alpha particles he shot at the foil were not deflected at all. Only a
few of them were deflected or scattered at large angles
● This led Rutherford to propose that most of an atom was empty space but
with a positively charged center that contained most of its mass (he had
discovered protons and the nucleus); he proposed the nucleus contained
neutrons that were later proven to exist
Bohr’s Atomic Theory
● When white light is diffracted with a prism, all the colours of the visible
spectrum can be seen. Each colour corresponds to a specific amount of
energy. When Bohr looked at hydrogen’s colours through a spectroscope,
only certain colours were seen. This led Bohr to theorize that electrons
only have certain energies in an atom and they had to be in energy levels
● The energy of an electron depends on the size of the energy level and is
lower for smaller orbits
● When electrons fall from higher energy levels to lower energy levels, they
release a particular colour of light. From these colours, it is possible to
identify the energy levels in atoms of all the elements in the periodic table
● Bohr found out that electrons cannot fall below the lowest energy level,
thus explaining why electrons do not merge with the positively charged
nucleus

Main Points of the Bohr Model:

1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in energy levels that have a set size and
energy.
2. The energy of the level is related to its size. The lowest energy is found in
the smallest level, which is closest to the nucleus.
3. Energy is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one level to
another.
 ● When energy is absorbed, the electron moves to a higher energy level;
when energy is released, the electron moves to a lower energy level

● The number of electrons in the outer orbit determines the properties of an

element.
● Energy levels can hold differing numbers of electrons: Energy level 1 may
hold up to two electrons, energy level 2 may hold up to eight electrons,
and so on.

What was the problem with Rutherford’s model that Bohr was trying to remedy?

The electrons should lose energy if they are going in a curved path (according
to the scientific knowledge at the time) and spiral into the nucleus of
Rutherford’s model.

Why was Bohr’s model rejected?

It only correctly explained one element—hydrogen.

Quantum Mechanical Model of an Atom

● Electrons do not move in simple circular orbits around the nucleus
● The QMM gives the probability of finding the electron at a given point
around the nucleus
● This model is portrayed as a positive nucleus surrounded by an
electron cloud; the electron will likely be found in dense parts of the
 cloud
● Electrons are more concentrated around the nucleus of an atom
● QMM still incorporates energy levels; they just aren’t as restricted

● Atoms with different ratios of electrons to protons are called ions

● Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes. For example, the most common form of hydrogen
has 1 proton and no neutrons. About 1 in 10000 have a neutron. That
is an isotope
● Isotopes are given a mass number (equal to the total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom) to distinguish between the isotopes
of an element; oxygen has an isotope that has a mass number of 16
(8 protons and neutrons), 17 (8 protons, 9 neutrons), and 18 (8 P, 10
N)

(symbol of an isotope)
Example:

● The last energy level: valence energy level

● Atomic number: number of protons (and electrons) in an atom; each
element has a different atomic number
● Using mass number and atomic number, you can calculate the number
of neutrons in an isotope
● Atomic molar mass is the average mass of the element’s isotopes

Example 1: Identify the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in an atom

of potassium-41.

The atomic number represents the number of protons. An atom is neutral, so it

will have the same number of electrons.

Protons = 19 and electrons = 19

Determine the number of neutrons by subtracting the number of protons

(atomic number) from the mass number.

Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number

Number of neutrons = 41 – 19

Number of neutrons = 22

Draw a modified Bohr diagram for an atom of phosphorus-31.

When placing electrons in orbitals, place

them on each side of the orbit first, and
then start pairing them up if required
(electrons repel each other)

The number of electrons in the

valence energy level (in this case 5)
corresponds to the last digit of the
group number on the periodic table
that that element is in

● Partly filled energy levels from two different atoms can overlap, and a
pair of electrons can exist in both of them at once--this is the basis for
chemical bonding

Write the isotope symbol for calcium-44

Draw a modified Bohr diagram for an atom of chlorine-37.

Organization of the Periodic Table

● the elements are arranged in such a way on the periodic table that
elements that have similar atomic structure and characteristics
● The modern periodic table is organized in increasing atomic numbers
● Horizontal rows: periods; relate to the number of energy levels in atom
● Vertical rows: groups or families; relate to number of valence electrons;
for groups 13-18, the second digit is the number of valence electrons

group 1 alkali metals being very chemically reactive while group 2 alkaline-earth
metals are less reactive. Group 18 noble gases are stable, whereas group 17
halogens are very reactive, especially with alkali metals

● The staircase line separates metals on the left from non-metals on the
 right, with the exception of hydrogen, as it is a non-metal
● Further categorization is given to eight elements that border the staircase
line. These elements, identified as metalloids, have some metallic
properties and some non-metallic properties

Metals Non-metals Metalloids

● almost all solids ● almost all solids ● all solids at

at SATP (room at SATP (room SATP (room
temperature and temperature and temperature
pressure) pressure) and pressure)
● shiny ● dull ● some are shiny
● good conductors ● poor conductors and some are
of electricity and of electricity and dull
heating heating ● some conduct
● malleable ● brittle electricity
● ductile ● not ductile ● poor
conductors of
heat
● brittle
● not ductile
Alkali Metals:
- Soft, silvery metals that are very reactive with water and other
substances; their compounds are soluble in water
- Contain 1 valence electron
- Quite common in ionic compounds bonded to halogens
Alkaline-Earth Metals
- Silvery, not as soft or reactive or soluble as alkali metals
- React easily with oxygen to form oxide coating
- Contain 2 valence electrons
Halogens
- Reactive non-metals
- 7 valence electrons
- Quite common in ionic compounds bonded to alkali metals; react with
them to create salts (compounds produced in neutralization reactions
between acids and bases)
Noble Gases
- Stable; 8 valence electrons (full--which makes it stable)
Transition Metals
- Located in the center of the periodic table
- Fairly stable; various physical appearances

What element has three valence electrons in its third energy level?
Aluminum. The number of valence electrons is the last digit of the group
number; so three valence electrons means the element is located in group 13.
Third energy level means the element is in period 3.

SUMMARY
● Atoms consist of a nucleus, which contains protons and neutrons
(together these particles are called nucleons), and electrons, which are
located in a cloud outside of the nucleus.
● An electron can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus, but
depending on its energy level, they exist more frequently in certain
regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as the
atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes (these shapes are
beyond the scope of Science 10).
● Each electron has a negative charge and is 1/1840 the size of a proton or
neutron.
● Protons and neutrons are about the same size.
● Each neutron is neutral.
● Each proton has a positive charge.
● The number of protons (also known as its atomic number) determines the
element.
● Varying the number of neutrons results in isotopes. Isotopes are
variations of a single element.
● Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number on the
periodic table. This arrangement leads to patterns on the periodic table,
such as period number representing the number of energy levels and the
last digit of the group number representing the number of valence
electrons.
● Elements in groups or families have similar chemical properties.

Lesson 3: Chemistry in Society

annealed Annealed is the process of heating metal, then allowing it to cool

slowly. This strengthens the metal.

● Indiginous people chemically reacted rawhide with brains and smoke

to create buckskin (which is waterproof, soft, and pliable unlike
 rawhide) that can create shelters or clothing

Other uses of chemical substances included

● animal fats and petroleum products used to waterproof things and used for
fuel for heaters and lamps
● plant material such as blueberries, cranberries, lichen, indigo, and delphinium
used as dyes for adorning fabric and porcupine quills
● Used hot fires to purify and anneal ore
● Ash from fires was used to make detergents or tanning hides
● many plants used for medicinal purposes, such as
○ the leaves and flowers of wild roses being used to make tea to treat
bee stings, colds, and diarrhea
○ the flowers and leaves of yarrow are used to treat headaches, as a local
anesthetic, to stop bleeding, to aid digestion, and to help eliminate
cold/flu by causing perspiration
○ Echinacea is used to treat viral infections,
○ lamb’s quarter is used as an antispasmodic to treat epilepsy
○ balsam fir being used as an antiseptic
○ cranesbill being used as an astringent (a substance that causes body
tissue such as skin to contract)

● Historical methods include drying, cooking, salting, fermenting, and

smoking.
● Salting causes water to leave the meat and the water in the bacteria
leave too, killing them or causing them to be inactive
● Fermenting is a biochemical preservation technique involving bacteria
called lactobacilli (that are present on all living things); they convert
starches and sugars in fruits and vegetables into lactic acid--which
prevents the growth of bacteria and make the food more digestible and
increase vitamin levels
● Smoking introduces chemicals called antioxidants that slow the rotting
process
● Annealing changes the metal so it is no longer brittle; with this discovery,
copper could be hammered into sheets and made into stronger tools

Lesson 4: Forming Compounds

 Term Definition

anion A negatively charged ion.

cation A positively charged ion.

covalent A bond formed between non-metals that involves the sharing of

bond electrons to create a compound.

crystal A three-dimensional pattern of positive and negative ions that

lattices forms an ionic compound.

ion An ion is a charged particle. It is charged due to an unequal

number of electrons and protons.

octet rule Atoms bond to have eight electrons in their outer valence energy
level.

● Compounds are created when elements react together to form chemical

bonds
● Having eight valence electrons is considered to be a full and stable
(unreactive) valence energy level; that’s why noble gases are unreactive
● Elements react with each other to obtain full outer energy levels (octet rule)
● Elements form an octet by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons; when it
gains or loses electrons, it becomes an ion

Gaining Electrons:

- Non-metal atoms have almost-full valence energy levels and will gain
electrons to attain an octet

Example: Fluorine has 7 valence electrons, so it will try to gain one more electron
to become stable; when it has gained another electron, it will become an anion;
anions name endings change to “ide” (like fluoride ion) and the symbol name will
have a negative charge included (like F-)

- An anion with a charge of 2– (e.g., O2–) for example, means that that
element must have had six valence electrons and gained two to become
 stable

Losing Electrons:

- Metal atoms have little atoms in their valence level and will lose electrons to
attain an octet

Example: Sodium has 1 valence electron, so it will try to lose it to become stable;
if it does, it will become a cation; cations retain element name (like sodium ion);
symbol includes a positive charge (like Na+)

- A cation with a charge of 2+ (e.g., Ca2+) for example, means that that
element must have had two valence electrons and lost them both to
become stable

Sharing Electrons

- Atoms can also share electrons to attain an octet

1. Using the octet rule and a modified Bohr diagram,

● determine if magnesium would gain or lose electrons to form an ion
● identify how many electrons will be involved
● write the resulting ion symbol and ion name

Magnesium is in the second group on the periodic table, meaning it has 2

valence electrons. It will lose those two electrons to become stable. If it loses 2
electrons, it will have more protons than electrons and thus become a cation.
Magnesium ion would be its ion name and Mg2+ would be its symbol. If it has
five or more valence electrons, it will gain electrons; if it has 3 or less, it will
lose electrons.

2. Using the octet rule and a modified Bohr diagram,

● determine if nitrogen would gain or lose electrons to form an ion
● identify how many electrons will be involved
● write the resulting ion symbol and ion name

Nitrogen is in the 15th group, meaning it has 5 valence electrons. It will gain 3
to become stable. If it has gained three electrons, it will become an anion. Its
symbol would be N3- and its name would be Nitride ion.

Arsenic is in group 15 and has five valence electrons. This means it needs to
gain three electrons in order to have a full octet and it will have an ion charge of
3–.

Forming Ionic Compounds with Ionic Bonds

● The electrons that non-metal atoms need to gain come from metal atoms
that need to lose electrons to achieve a full valence, and then creating
ions; Next, there will be an electrostatic attraction between cations (+)
and anions (–). This attraction is an ionic bond and results in the
formation of ionic compounds.

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● Ionic bonds form crystal lattices

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%20lattice%[Link]

● Ionic formulas do not represent the actual number of each element in the
 large crystal structure; Ionic formulas are always written as the lowest
ratio of cations to anions. In this case, it is a 1:1 ratio; so the formula is
NaCl

calcium flouride sodium chloride lithium nitride

CaF2 NaCl Li3N

B4.36 Crystal lattice of NaCl

B4.36a Crystal lattice of Li3N

B4.35 Crystal lattice of CaF2

● Metals form positive ions; non-metals form negative ions; metals and
non-metals can bond together by forming an ionic bond

Example of simplifying ionic compound:

calcium ions = 4

fluoride ions = 8

formula = CaF2

Ionic bonds are formed between a metal and a non-metal. An ionic bond is
formed by the transfer of electrons. A metal atom loses electrons to form a
cation, while a non-metal gains electrons to become an anion. The two
oppositely charged ions attract each other to form an ionic compound.
Explain the formation of an ionic compound

A sodium atom loses one electron to achieve a full outer shell, and chlorine
gains one electron to complete a full outer shell. So when a sodium atom reacts
with a chlorine atom, the sodium atom loses its one electron to chlorine. The
two ions formed are a sodium ion, Na+, and a chloride ion, Cl–. The two ions
have opposite charges, and they attract one another. The force of attraction
between them is an electrostatic one. This type of attraction is strong. It is
called an ionic, or electrovalent, bond.

Forming Molecular Compounds with Covalent Bonds

● Ionic compounds are composed of large three-dimensional arrays of

alternating ions, while molecular compounds are composed of individual
discrete molecules formed when two non-metals bond together
● They both need to gain electrons to complete their octets, and share their
electrons in order to do this (called a covalent bond)
Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons. Non-metallic elements
form covalent bonds.

Why the Need for Names?

There was a need for unified naming rules to ensure that chemical names are
unambiguous (i.e., a name can only refer to one substance.) These standards
make it easier to use chemicals; otherwise, scientists everywhere could use
different names for the same compound. That could make for some very
dangerous situations in chemistry laboratories.

● Ionic Bonds form between metals and non-metals

● Covalent Bonds form between non-metals

Lesson 5: Naming Ionic Compounds

Term Definition

anhydrous Ionic compounds that have water removed.

hydrated Ionic compounds that contain water as part of their chemical

formula.

polyatomic A group of elements that act as a unit and have a charge.

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

1. Identify that it is an ionic compound if it uses a metal and a non-metal
2. Write the name of the metal element first.
3. Write the name of the non-metal element second, changing the ending to
“ide.”

Examples: K20--potassium oxide, AlCl3--aluminum chloride,

Mg3N2--magnesium nitride, BaS--barium sulfide

● The formula Al2O3 shows the ratio of cations to anions needed to create a
neutral compound
The guidelines for writing formulas for binary ionic compounds are as follows:

1. Identify the type of compound—a metal element with a non-metal

element is ionic.
2. Write the ion symbols.
3. Determine the number of the ions of each element that will result in a
neutral compound. Do this by determining the lowest common
multiple.
4. Determine the factor (number) that each ion needs to be multiplied
by to create the lowest common multiple.
5. Write these as subscripts. Do not write the subscript 1.

Example: magnesium chloride

lowest common multiple: 2

MgCl2

Shortcut:

1. Write the formulas of the ions.

 2. Swap and drop the charges (just the numbers, not
the signs).

3. Reduce subscripts to lowest terms. (cannot be

reduced)

4. Write the formula. MgCl2

Zinc nitride: Zn3N2

Calcium oxide: CaO
Aluminum fluoride: AlF3
Naming Ionic Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions
● Ionic compounds that contain more than two elements will contain a
polyatomic ion
● A polyatomic ion is a group of elements that act as a unit and have a
charge
● Regardless of the number of elements in the compound formula, the
name will consist of two parts
Examples: K2SO4--potassium sulfate; LiNO2--lithium nitrite;
NH4Cl--ammonium chloride; Ca(H2PO4)2--calcium dihydrogen phosphate

Formulas of Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions

● use brackets around the polyatomic ion when there is the need of a
subscript
● If the compound name ends with “ate” or “ite,” then it contains a
polyatomic. There are also some polyatomic ions that end in “ide”
Examples: sodium chlorite: NaClO2
magnesium hydroxide: Mg(OH)2

Ammonium fluoride: NH4F

Aluminum sulfate: Al2(SO4)3
Lithium hydrogen phosphate: Li2HPO4
Writing Formulas for Compounds that Contain Multivalent Ions
● Some metals can form ions with various ion charges; for example,

chromium can have ion charges of

● The compound name that contains a multivalent metal must identify
which valiancy is in the compound
● A given roman numeral following the metal ion is the positive charge of
the ion
Examples: chromium(III) fluoride

Criss-cross the charges to get: CrF3

Copper sulfate: CuSO4

Naming Ionic Compounds that Contain Multivalent Ions

● When naming ionic compounds that contain multivalent ions, the charge
of the transition metal must be identified as a Roman numeral written
after the metal name
● Uncross the subscripts and then check on the charge of the anion to make
sure it is right
Example: CoCl2
Co—multivalent metal
Cl—non-metal
This is an ionic compound that needs Roman numerals.
cobalt

Cobalt is multivalent, so it will either be cobalt(II) or cobalt(III).

“Uncross” the subscripts to determine the charge on cobalt.

As a double check, look on the periodic table: Is the charge on chloride 1–? Yes!
This means that the formula has not been reduced and this method is valid.

Cl is the non-metal chlorine, so the end changes to “ide.”

Chloride

cobalt(II) chloride

More Examples: Fe2S3 -- iron(III) sulfide; SnO2 -- tin(IV) oxide; Cr(NO3)3 --

chromium(III) nitrate

Hydrated Ionic Compounds

● Hydrated compounds are not solutions--but dry solids; water is bound to
the hydrated crystal lattice structure with a fixed ratio of water molecules;
if the water is removed, properties are changed and the compound is
referred to as the anhydrous form (absorbs water); Adding water back to
the anhydrous form will re-create the hydrated compound

The key guidelines to remember when assigning IUPAC names for hydrates are
as follows:

1. The ionic compound is named first using the guidelines you have already
learned.

2. The second part is often referred to as the water of crystallization and is

named by writing "-water (1/n)", where “n” is the coefficient in front of
the water portion.

3. When the chemical formula for a hydrated ionic compound is written, the
formula for the ionic compound is separated from the waters of hydration
by a centred "dot."

Examples: Ba(OH)2•8H2O
barium hydroxide
barium hydroxide-water
barium hydroxide-water (1/8)
Ca(NO3)2•4H2O
calcium nitrate-water (1/4)

Writing Formulas of Hydrates

iron(II) sulfate-water (1/7): FeSO4•7H2O
sodium carbonate-water (1/10): Na2CO3•10H2O
 cobalt(II) chloride-water CoCl2•6H2O
(1/6)

sodium sulfate-water (1/10) Na2SO4•10H2O

nickel(II) nitrate-water (1/9) Ni(NO3)2•9H2O

zinc sulfate-water (1/7) ZnSO4•7H2O

Lesson 6: Naming Molecular Compounds and Acids

● Molecular compounds and elements are formed when non-metals bond
by sharing electrons (covalent bonds)
Molecular Elements
● there are a few elements that can form molecules with more than two
atoms: polyatomic elements

Monatomic C(s), noble gases, all metals

elements

Diatomic elements H2(g), N2(g), O2(g), F2(g), Cl2(g), Br2(l),

(made of two I2(s)
atoms sharing
electrons)

Polyatomic P4(s), S8(s)

elements (many
atoms)

● Diatomic elements need to be memorized

Naming Molecular Compounds
● In molecular nomenclature, prefixes are used to indicate the number of
atoms of each element in the molecule; 1 = mono-, 2 = di-, 3 = tri-, 4 =
tetra-, 5 = penta-, 6 = hexa-, 7 = hepta-, 8 = octa-, 9 = nona-, 10 =
deca-
Guidelines for naming molecular compounds:

1. First element name remains unaltered.

2. For the second element in the compound, the name ending changes to
“ide.”
3. Prefixes are added to indicate the number of atoms of each element in
the compound. Except “mono” is not used when the first element has one
atom. Prefixes are used in all other cases.
4. No capital letters

Note: Usually the element that is located farthest to the left on the periodic
table is listed first.
Note: Double vowels are not eliminated; e.g., tetraoxide, triiodide, etc., with the
exception for monoxide.

Example: PCl3 = phosphorus trichloride

P—non-metal
Cl—non-metal
Since two non-metals are bonded together, this is a molecular compound and
 prefixes will be used in the name.
Phosphorous
Cl is chlorine; change ending to “ide”—chloride.

Only one P atom, so there is no prefix—phosphorous.

There are three chlorine atoms, so use the prefix “tri”—trichloride

phosphorus trichloride

More Examples: N2O = dinitrogen monoxide

Si2H6 = disilicon hexahydride
SO2 = sulfur dioxide

Writing Formulas for Molecular Compounds

● When writing formulas, the prefix indicates the number of atoms of that
element and is written as a subscript after the element symbol.
Remember that a subscript of 1 is not shown

● Another guideline to remember is that unlike ionic formulas, molecular

formulas are not reduced
Examples: iodine heptafluoride = IF7
tetranitrogen hexaoxide = N4O6
diphosphorus tetraiodide = P2I4
Some molecular compounds do not follow the simple rules we are learning here,
such as

C2H2—acetylene
NH3—ammonia
C2H5OH—ethanol
C 6H12O6—glucose
H2O2—hydrogen peroxide
H2S—hydrogen sulfide
CH4—methane
C3H8—propane
C12H 22O11—sucrose
H2O—water

You should be familiar with the formulas for these common substances.

Acidic Compounds
● Acidic compounds are a special class of compounds with special properties
and a unique naming process
● H is written first in acid-forming compounds; for example: HCl, H2SO4, H
3PO4.
● The process of naming acids is to first identify the name as if the
substance was an ionic compound; then convert that name into an acid
name using a pattern.

Solutions of Compounds Classical Acid

Named Name

hydrogen ___ide hydro____ic acid

hydrogen ___ate ____ic acid

hydrogen ___ite ____ous acid

Note: Acids that contain phosphorus have “or” added in for the acid name, and
acids that contain sulfur have “ur” added in for the acid name.

Formul Solutions of Compounds Classical Acid

a Named Name

HCl hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid

H3PO4 hydrogen phosphate phosphoric acid

H2SO3 hydrogen sulfite sulfurous acid

Examples: HF(aq)
Hydrogen written first and bonded to a non-metal indicates it is an acid-forming
compound.
hydrogen fluoride
hydrofluoric acid

HClO4(aq)
hydrogen perchlorate
perchloric acid

HClO2(aq)
hydrogen chlorite
chlorous acid

The acids you have studied thus far are all inorganic acids; however, there are
also organic acids. The formulas of organic acids have an ending of “–COOH.”
Examples:
ethanoic acid, also called acetic acid, and as a dilute solution called vinegar

CH3COOH

methanoic acid, also known as formic acid—the substance found in bee stings
and ants

HCOOH

To determine the formula of an acid, use the pattern to convert the acid name
into an ionic name and write a proper formula taking charges on the ions into
consideration.
Examples: nitrous acid
nitrous acid = hydrogen nitrite

The lowest common multiple between 1 and 1 is 1.

No subscripts need to be added.
HNO2

carbonic acid
H2CO3

hydroiodic acid = HI

Acid-Forming Name of Acid-Forming Classical Acid

Compound Compound Name

HBr hydrogen bromide hydrobromic acid

HClO hydrogen hypochlorite hypochlorous

acid

HNO3 hydrogen nitrate nitric acid

H2S hydrogen sulfide hydrosulfuric acid

Lesson 7: Properties of Ionic, Molecular, Acidic,

and Basic Compounds

Term Definition

aqueous A solution made by dissolving a substance in water.

dissociate breaking apart into ions

hydrogen Strong forces of attraction between the partially positive

bonds hydrogen of one molecule to the partially negatively charge
section of a neighbouring molecule.

intermolecular Forces of attraction between molecules.

precipitates A solid that forms when two solutions are mixed together.

Properties of Ionic and Molecular Compounds

● ionic compounds are composed of ions whereas molecular compounds are
composed of individual molecules

Ionic Molecular

● solid at room temperature ● solid, liquid, or gas at room

● high melting and boiling temperature
points ● relatively low melting and
● hard boiling points
● brittle (because of their ● softer
3-D lattice structure) ● more flexible
● conduct electricity when ● do not conduct electricity when
liquid or dissolved in water liquid or dissolved in water
● a variety of colours ● mostly colourless or white
● insulators when solid ● more flammable

● Ionic compounds have strong bonds formed between the cations and
anions in the crystal lattice structure
● Ions separate into individual species when the substance is dissolved in
water or melts
 B7.5 Solution not
conducting because
there are just neutral
water molecules and
B7.4 Solution conducting
other neutral
because of free floating ions
molecules present
B7.3 Solution not conducting because
there are just neutral water molecules

Water does not conduct Ionic compounds Molecular

because it does not contain dissociate (break apart compounds do not
charged particles. into ions) when they create ions in
dissolve in water. These solution because
charged particles (ions) the atoms of the
provide a pathway to molecules stay
conduct electricity. bonded together.
When molecular
compounds
dissolve, they
create neutral
molecules, so
there is no
pathway for
electricity to flow.
 ● Metals conduct electricity; ionic compounds conduct electricity when
dissolved in water; molecular compounds do not conduct electricity as a
solid or a solution

This substance melts at 800 °C, has a pink colour, and is a hard crystal
Ionic

This substance is a liquid at room temperature and is flammable

Molecular

This substance is an easily crushed white solid that melts at 48 °C

Molecular

LiF will conduct electricity because it is an ionic compound (metal and

non-metal)
C6H12O6 will not conduct electricity because C, H, and O are all non-metals and
is a molecular compound
NH4Cl(aq): NH4 is a polyatomic cation and Cl is a non-metal, so this is an ionic
compound that will produce a conducting solution.

Solubility of Ionic Compounds

● Some ionic compounds are soluble, which means they dissolve in water
(and form aqueous solutions--aq)
● Other ionic compounds are only slightly soluble (few ions will dissolve in
water--s)
Follow these steps to determine the solubility of an ionic compound:

1. Identify if the cation is from group 1 or is the ammonium ion. If it is

either, the compound will most likely be very soluble, (aq).
2. If the compound does not contain a group 1 or ammonium cation, locate
the anion across the top of the solubility table.
3. Locate the cation in the column below the anion.
4. If the cation is in the first row, the substance will be very soluble and
form an aqueous solution, (aq).
5. If the cation is in the second row, the substance will be slightly soluble
and will be identified as having a solid state, (s).

Example: BaSO4
Ba is not in group 1.
slightly soluble
BaSO4(s)

More examples: Li2CO3

very soluble
Li2CO3(aq)

FeF3

very soluble
FeF3(aq)
Fe2(SO4)3
very soluble
Fe2(SO4)3(aq)

Ca(OH)2

slightly soluble
Ca(OH)2(s)

Special Properties of Water

● Water is the universal solvent
● Water is a molecular compound and has covalent bonds in which the
electrons are shared between the oxygen atom and the 2 hydrogen
atoms; the electrons are not shared equally because oxygen has stronger
pull on the electrons, holding them closer to its nucleus, making the
oxygen atom slightly negative and the hydrogen atoms positive
● This makes water a polar molecule--water molecules are attracted to each
other; forces of attraction between water molecules are called hydrogen
bonds; water is also attracted to other charged things because of its polar
 nature
● Water can dissolve ionic and polar molecules

Properties Of Water Because Of Explanation

Polar Structure

High melting and boiling points Attraction between water molecules is

strong and thus hard to move apart

Solid form (ice) less dense than liquid When water molecules bond to form
form ice, they form in a hexagonal pattern
(for maximum number of positive and
negative interactions) where water
molecules are farther apart than when
in liquid form

Heat specific heat capacity Takes a lot of energy to raise

temperature of water (make particles
move more) because of strong
attraction between molecules holding
them in place

Cohesive Water molecules attracted to each

other

Adhesive Water molecules attracted to other

particles

High surface tension Attraction of water molecules at the

surface of water causes a “film” that
allows insects to walk on water

A polar molecule is a neutral molecule that has partial charges on atoms due to
uneven electron sharing. Water is a polar molecule.
Because water molecules are polar, they form strong attractions between
neighbouring molecules. It takes a lot of energy to break these forces of
attraction and move the molecules farther apart, thus water has high melting
and boiling points

Properties of Acids and Bases

● In acid formulas, “H” is written first (e.g., HCl and H2SO4) or ends with
“COOH” (e.g., CH3COOH). In bases, the formula is a metal bonded to
hydroxide (e.g., NaOH and LiOH)
 Properties of Acids Properties of Bases

● taste sour ● taste bitter

● is corrosive ● feel slippery
● turn blue litmus red ● turn red litmus
● pH below 7 blue
● conduct electricity ● pH above 7
● react with active metals to produce ● conduct
hydrogen gas electricity

● Neutral compounds keep red litmus paper red and blue blue
● HOOCCOOH--acid, LiOH--base, KNO3--neutral

Observed Properties Classification

conducts electricity and tastes sour acidic

conducts electricity and has a pH of 10 basic

produces bubbles when mixed with magnesium metal acidic

and turns blue litmus red

causes red litmus to stay red and has a pH of 7 neutral

feels slippery and tastes bitter basic

Lesson 8: Hazardous Compounds

Opioids
● Class of drugs that act on the nervous system to relieve pain; derived
from the opium poppy; used for prescription drugs that helps with chronic
pain
● Highly addictive; fentanyl is really strong
● Fentanyl users will experience drowsiness, euphoria, itching, and lethargy
Signs and symptoms of an overdose can include

● difficulty swallowing
 ● extreme fatigue
● dizziness
● fainting
● shallow or difficult breathing/respiratory arrest
● cardiac arrest

C22H28N2O is the chemical formula for fentanyl

Vaping
● Nicotine is the main component in cigarettes and e-cigarettes
● Nicotine is toxic and addictive; has detrimental effects on the
development of the adolescent brain and on developing fetuses
● Several studies have now linked the release of heavy metals from heating
coils into the aerosol that is inhaled while vaping. Chronic inhalation of
these metals—Pb, Cr, Mn, and Ni—has been linked to lung, liver,
cardiovascular, brain damage and cancers
● Chemical formula of nicotine: C10H14N2.
Marijuana
● Use of marijuana by youth can have long-term permanent effects
Exposure to THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) may

● slow reaction times

● reduce coordination
● make it harder to learn and remember things
● cause anxiety or panic
● trigger a psychotic episode
● cause lung damage, if it is inhaled
● make you physically dependent or addicted

Using cannabis regularly and continuously over time has also been associated
with an increased risk of

● suicide
● depression
● anxiety disorders
● psychosis
● schizophrenia

THC chemical formula C21H30O2.

Unit B Section 3: Chemical Change

Lesson 9: Examples of Chemical Change

Term Definition

hydrocarbon A compound that contains hydrogen and carbon.

Examples of using chemical reactions in our lives:

● Cooking: cooking kills pathogens, increased variety of foods, and
increases flavour of food
● Photosynthesis: key to life on earth; chemical reaction that converts
sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into food 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) +
sunlight → C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
● Baking soda and Baking powder: produces carbon dioxide gas that makes
baked goods rise; baking soda is a pure substance that needs to be mixed
with an acid (vinegar, buttermilk, yogurt) to activate it NaHCO3(s) +
H+(aq)→ Na+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l); baking powder is a mixture of a dry
base and a dry acid so it just needs to be moistened to be activated
NaHCO3(aq) + KHC4H4O6(aq) → KNaC4H4O6(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
● Splitting water: we can split water into its elements to obtain hydrogen;
hydrogen can be used as energy and has little negative impact on the
environment 2H2O(l) + energy → 2H2(g) + O2(g); large amounts of energy
are needed to split water though
● Refining Silicon: essential for the production of microchips; silicon is in
sand--sand must undergo a chemical reaction to free pure silicon (silicon
must be very pure to be used in computer chips) SiO2(s) + 2C(s) → Si(l) +
2CO(g)
● Haber-Bosch process: ammonia is an essential compound used in
fertilizer, precursor in explosives, cleaning agents, and as a refrigerant;
people used to mine nitrate deposits to make ammonia, now we can get it
from the atmosphere; atmospheric nitrogen is very stable and would not
react very good; Haber and Bosch solved the problem. N2(g) + 3H2(g) →
2NH3(g)
Reactions that Produce Energy
● Batteries: the lithium ion battery in phones uses this chemical reaction to
produce energy: LiC6(s) + CoO2(s) → C6(s) + LiCoO2(s) + energy; lithium
ion batteries do not contain toxic chemicals
● Coal Power Plants: combustion reaction that produces energy: C(s) +
 O2(g) → CO2(g) + energy
● Natural Gas: most homes are heated by natural gas furnaces; combustion
reaction is utilized: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + energy (coal
and methane produce carbon dioxide); causes greenhouse effect
● Cellular Respiration: our bodies create all of its own energy through
cellular respiration (similar to a hydrocarbon combustion reaction);
C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy

Lesson 10: Evidence of Chemical Change

Evidence of a Chemical Change
1. A new substance with unique properties is created.
2. The process is difficult to reverse.
3. A gas is produced.
4. A precipitate is formed when two solutions are combined.
5. A new odour is detected.
6. A colour change is observed.
7. A change in temperature is measured.
● Boiling water is not a chemical change but a physical change because it is
just a change of state from liquid water to water vapour
● Chemical reactions always involve the production of new substances and
always absorb (endothermic) or release (exothermic) energy
● The only real proof of a chemical reaction occurring is if a new substance
is formed that has different properties than the reactants
Endothermic Versus Exothermic Reactions
● If energy is released in a chemical reaction, it is called exothermic
● If “energy” is written as a product in an equation, it is exothermic; ex:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + energy
● If energy is absorbed in a chemical reaction, it is called endothermic
● If “energy” is written as a reactant in an equation, it is endothermic; ex:
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy → C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g)
● Energy can be in the from of heat or light or electricity
Water can be decomposed into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas when an electric
current is applied to it--Endothermic reaction

Lesson 11: Types of Chemical Reactions

Term Definition
aqueous A chemical substance dissolved in water to make a solution.

● By learning to classify reactions, it will be easier to write chemical

equations because of patterns
Formation
● Elements or Compounds react to produce 1 product
● 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) (table salt formation); 2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)
(more complex formation)
● A + B → AB (generalized model)

Single Decomposition
● 1 reactant that is broken down into elements
● 2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O 2(g) (water decomposition); CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) +
CO2(g) (more complex decomposition)
● AB → A + B (generalized model)

Single Replacement
● Element reacts with a compound; commonly charged ions (two positive or
two negative) swap out to produce a new element and a new compound
● Element + Compound → Element + Compound
● Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → 2Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) (two metal ions swap places)
● A + BC → B + AC

Double Replacement
● Two compounds react to produce two new compounds
● Neutralization reactions are examples of double replacement: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
→ NaCl(aq) + HOH(l); Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
(precipitation reaction)
● AB + CD → AD + CB
Hydrocarbon Combustion
● A hydrocarbon (a compound composed of hydrogen and carbon) reacts
with oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide; water produced is
usually a vapour
● Combustion of propane in a BBQ: C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
● CxHy(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) (generalized)
● hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Examples:
2NaCl(aq) + F2(g) → 2NaF(aq) + Cl2(g): Single Replacement
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g): Hydrocarbon Replacement
2Ag2O(s) → 4Ag(s) + O2(g): Single Decomposition
FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → 3NaCl(aq) + Fe(OH)3(s): Double Replacement
S8(s) + 12O2(g) → 8SO3(g): Formation

Information Displayed in a Chemical Reaction Equation

● Entities (elements and compounds) on the left side of the arrow in a
chemical equation are the reactants
● Entities on the right side of the arrow are the products of the reaction
● Numbers in front of formulas are coefficients--used to balance equation
● (s)—solid; (l)—liquid; (g)—gas; (aq)—aqueous (solution; has been
dissolved in water)

A balanced chemical reaction equation provides

1. the formulas of the reactants
2. the formulas of the products
3. the states of the reactants and products
4. the number of molecules of the reactants and products
Types of Chemical Reaction Equations
Word Equation
zinc + hydrobromic acid → zinc bromide + hydrogen

The reactants—zinc and hydrobromic acid—could have been written in any order
and still be correct. The same goes for the products

Skeleton Equation
● Shows formulas of reactants and products but does not show the correct
proportions of either
Zn(s) + HBr(aq) → ZnBr2(aq) + H2(g)
● The number of atoms on the reactant side does not correspond with the
number of atoms on the product side

Balanced Equation
● Law of conservation of mass says that the total mass of the reactants
must equal the total mass of the products
● Number of atoms of each element is the same on the reactant and
product side of the equation
Zn(s) + 2HBr(aq) → ZnBr2(aq) + H2(g)

When a solid strip of magnesium is ignited, it reacts with oxygen gas from the
air to produce solid magnesium oxide. Write the word equation and a skeleton
equation for the described reaction.
Word equation:
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Skeleton equation:
Mg(s) + O2(g) → MgO(s)

Aqueous solutions of barium chloride and potassium hydroxide react to produce

solid barium hydroxide and aqueous potassium chloride. Write the word
equation and a skeleton equation for the described reaction.
Word equation:
barium chloride + potassium hydroxide → barium hydroxide + potassium chloride

Skeleton equation:
BaCl2(aq) + KOH(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + KCl(aq)
 Lesson 12: Writing Chemical Equations
● The law of conservation of mass must be followed when balancing
chemical equations
● Coefficients are added to skeleton equations to ensure the number of
atoms on the reactants side equals the number of atoms on the products
side
● You cannot change the subscripts in a chemical equation; use coefficients
Example:
H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(l) (skeleton equation for water; not balanced)
You can place a coefficient in front of the water to balance the oxygen atoms
H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
You can put a 2 in front of the hydrogen to balance the hydrogen atoms now
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

Entity Reactants Products

H 4 4

O 2 2

Yes, it is balanced now.

Example: Balance the following skeleton reaction equation:

Mg(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Balance by inspection:

Mg atoms are balanced, as there is 1 Mg on both sides of the equation.

H atoms are not balanced, as there is 1 H atom on the reactant side and 2 H
atoms on the product side. Add a coefficient of 2 in front of the HCl.

Cl atoms are balanced, as there are 2 Cl atoms on both sides of the arrow. The
balanced chemical reaction equation is

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

● If a polyatomic ion stays together as a unit, it can be balanced as one

entity instead of looking at each individual atom within the polyatomic

More Examples: AlI3(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgI(s) + Al(NO3)3(aq) =

AlI3(aq) + 3AgNO3(aq) → 3AgI(s) + Al(NO3)3(aq)

Fe(s) + Br2(l) → FeBr3(s) =

2Fe(s) + 3Br2(l) → 2FeBr3(s) (least common multiple of 2 and 3)

C4H10(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

In this one, you’ll end up with a decimal or fraction in order to balance the
Oxygens--so instead, start over and put a coefficient of 2 in front of the Carbon
four and Hydrogen 10: 2C4H10. And then follow the original inspecting steps to
balance the equation.

__KClO3(s) → __KCl(s) + __O2(g) =

2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

__C6H6(l) + __O2(g) → __CO2(g) + __H2O(g) =

2C6H6(l) + 15O2(g) → 12CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

Predicting Products
Simple Formation (Element + Element -- Compound)
Predict the product and write a balanced chemical reaction equation when
copper on the roof of the parliament building oxidizes (reacts with oxygen) to
create a green patina.
Write a word equation. Keep in mind that copper is a multivalent metal; so the
most common charge, which is written first on the periodic table, is the one that
will be used.

copper + oxygen → copper(II) oxide

Cu^2+ + O^2-
Cross the superscripts
Cu2 O2
They cancel out each other
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s) (oxygen is diatomic; ionic compounds are solids--s)

Single Decomposition (Compound -- Element + Element)

Predict the products and write a balanced chemical reaction equation when
molten aluminum chloride is electrolyzed (decomposed)
aluminium chloride → aluminium + chlorine

AlCl3(l) → Al(s) + Cl2(g)

2AlCl3(l) → 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g)

Remember that states of elements are listed on the periodic table.

Single Replacement
Carefully identify cations and anions and remember that ionic compounds are
composed of a cation bonded to an anion

Predict the products and write a balanced chemical reaction equation when
lithium iodide solution is reacted with liquid bromine.

Iodine and bromine are both anions, so they will switch places.

LiI(aq) + Br2(l) → LiBr(aq) + I2(s)

2LiI(aq) + Br2(l) → 2LiBr(aq) + I2(s)

● Acids are aqueous

● You may need to look up the solubility of something on the solubility table
Predict the products and write a balanced chemical reaction equation when
magnesium metal is reacted with hydrofluoric acid.

Magnesium and hydrogen are both cations, so they will switch places.

Mg(s) + 2HF(aq) → MgF2(s) + H2(g) (check on the solubility table for the state)

Double Replacement
● Cations will switch places
● Quite often, a precipitate (solid) will be produced during a double
replacement reaction
Predict the products and write a balanced chemical reaction equation when
solutions of sodium chloride and lead(II) chlorate are mixed

NaCl(aq) + Pb(ClO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + NaClO3(aq) (check for the compounds’

solubility on the solubility table)
2NaCl(aq) + Pb(ClO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2NaClO3(aq)

Predict the products and write a balanced chemical reaction equation when
solutions of iron(III) nitrate and potassium carbonate are mixed.

Fe(NO3)3(aq) + K2CO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + Fe2(CO3)3(s)

2Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3K2CO3(aq) → 6KNO3(aq) + Fe2(CO3)3(s)

Hydrocarbon Combustion
When it is a complete combustion reaction, the hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen
to produce carbon dioxide and water vapour.

For example, write the balanced chemical reaction equation for the combustion
of butane, C4H10(g).
The other reactant will be oxygen gas, and the products will be carbon dioxide
and water vapour.

butane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water vapour

Skeleton: C4H10(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Balanced: 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)

Practice:
Write a word equation and a balanced chemical reaction equation for the
formation of zinc nitride from its elements.
zinc + nitrogen → zinc nitride
3Zn(s) + N2(g) → Zn3N2(s)

Write a word equation and a balanced chemical reaction equation for the
complete combustion of pentane, C5H12(l)
pentane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water vapour
C5H12(l) + 8O2(g) → 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

Write a word equation and a balanced chemical reaction equation for the
reaction of aqueous magnesium sulfate with aqueous strontium bromide.

MgSO4(aq) + SrBr2(aq) → SrSO4(s) + MgBr2(aq)

Write a word equation and a balanced chemical reaction equation for the
reaction of zinc metal with a solution of tin(IV) chloride

2Zn(s) + SnCl4(aq) → Sn(s) + 2ZnCl2(aq)

When tin is written by itself as an element, no designation of charge is included
(i.e., it is not written as tin(IV)).

Write a word equation and a balanced chemical reaction equation for the
decomposition of iron(III) oxide into its elements
iron(III) oxide → iron + oxygen
2Fe2O3(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g)

Lesson 13: The Mole

Term Definition

macroscopic Large enough to be seen with the naked eye.

microscopic Too small to be seen with the naked eye.

● A mole is a unit of measurement used in chemistry

● It represents 6.02 x 10²³ particles
● It would be almost impossible to carry out reactions at a molecular level;
thus the measurement of a mole is necessary as a way to scale
microscopic amounts up to macroscopic amounts
2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
Instead of using 2 atoms of carbon and 1 oxygen molecule to perform this
reaction (which would not be practical considering how tiny these are), the
quantity would be scaled up to 2 moles of carbon atoms and 1 mole of oxygen
molecules.
● Avogadro’s constant (concept of the mole) is a scaling factor between
microscopic amounts and macroscopic amounts
● One hydrogen atom would not weigh the same as one argon atom or the
same as one copper atom because each is composed of a different
number of subatomic particles; one mole of each of these atoms would all
have different masses
● Two moles of sodium atoms: 2 x (6.02 x 10²³) = 1.20 x 10²⁴ particles

Calculating Molar Mass

● The molar mass of elements is listed on the periodic table

MNa = 22.99 g/mol

 ● For determining molar mass of an element, it is very important to recall the
diatoms. Diatomic elements contain two atoms, so the molar mass is
doubled
● Molar mass of Chlorine (Cl₂)

MCl2 = 2 × 35.45 g/mol

MCl2 = 70.90 g/mol

● To determine the molar mass of simple binary compounds in a 1: 1 ratio,

just add the elemental molar masses together
Molar mass of NaCl (sodium chloride): MNaCl = 22.99 g/mol + 35.45 g/mol
MNaCl = 58.44 g/mol

1. Determine the molar mass of a substance to identify the number of atoms

of each element.
2. Multiply the number of atoms of each element by that atom’s molar mass.
3. Add all of the values together to determine the molar mass of the
compound.

Examples: Water molar mass:

Ethanol molar mass:

Molar Mass for barium cyanide, Ba(CN)2:

Iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3:

Calculating Moles and Mass

● When calculating the mass in a sample, the amount (number of moles) of
the sample is multiplied by the molar mass of the substance

Significant Digits
1. Regardless of decimal position, any of the digits 1 to 9 is a significant
digit; 0 may be significant. For example:

123 0.123 0.002 30 2.30 × 103 2.03

All of these have three significant digits.

2. Leading zeros are not significant. For example:

0.12 and 0.012 each have two significant digits.

3. All trailing zeros are significant. For example:

200 has three significant digits.

0.123 00 and 20.000 each have five significant digits.

Manipulation of Data
1. When adding or subtracting, the answer should be rounded to the same
 degree as the least precise number used in the operation if this is the
only operation

Answer should be rounded to 24.8

2. When multiplying or dividing, the answer should be rounded to the same

number of significant digits as the number with the least amount of
significant digits if this is the only operation
(1.23)(54.321) = 66.814 83

Because 1.23 has 3 significant digits, the answer should be rounded to 66.8
(which has 3 significant digits).

3. Do not round digits until the end (if you are doing a problem with a series
of calculations). At the end, round the answer to the same number of
significant digits as the quantity with the least amount of significant digits
in the original data
(1.23)(4.321) / (3.45 − 3.21)

1. 3.45 − 3.21 = 0.24

2. (1.23)(4.321) = 5.314 83

3. 5.314 83 / 0.24 = 22.145 125

[Not 5.31 / 0.24 = 22.125]

The value should be rounded to 22.1 because 1.23 and 3.21 in the
original data have 3 digits.

4. When exact numbers are in problems, the answer should be rounded

based on the precision of the measured value(s) (grams)

12 eggs × 52.3 g/egg = 627.6 g

or

5 mol × 32.06 g/mol = 160.30 g

or

(1 mol)(–1 095.8 kJ/mol) + (2 mol)(40.8 kJ/mol) = –1 014.2 kJ

Rounding

If the first digit to be dropped is less than five, the last digit retained stays the
same. If it is greater than five, the digit retained increases by 1.

1.2345 rounded to 3 digits: 1.23

12.25 rounded to 3 digits: 12.3

Examples: What is the mass in grams of a 2.00 mol sample of water?

Write the chemical formula for the substance and determine its molar mass.
Water is H2O.

Identify the variables from the question.

Substitute the values into the formula.

What is the amount in moles of a 5.0 g sample of carbon dioxide?

Carbon dioxide is CO2.

What is the amount in moles of a 125 g sample of copper(II) phosphate?

Cu2+ PO43–
The Law of Conservation of Mass

● Total amount of reactants must equal total amount of products

● The number of atoms of each element on the reactant side of the

equation equaled the number of atoms of each element on the product
side
● You can use the number of atoms, moles, or the mass to explain the law
of conservation of mass

Balanced CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Chemical Equation

Number of 1 2 → 1 2
Particles molecule molecule molecule molecules
 of CH4 s of O2 of CO2 of H2O

Amount (mol) 1 mol 2 mol O2 → 1 mol 2 mol

CH4 CO2 H2O

Mass (g) 16.05 g 64.00 g → 44.01 g 36.04 g

Total Mass (g) 80.05 g → 80.05 g

Review of Unit B
Review Questions:
1. A substance in a chemistry lab was labeled with the following WHMIS
symbol:

What does the symbol mean, and what safety precautions should be taken?

It is a health hazard, so it has the potential to cause serious health effects like
cancer, reproductive or respiratory problems. Wear protective equipment and
make sure you’re in a well-ventilated area.

2. Which scientist determined that the atom was mostly empty space? What
evidence did he collect to support this idea?
Rutherford. He shot small alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold foil. Most of the
particles went right through and were not deflected. Random particles bounced
off the foil in random directions, leading him to believe that the center of an
atom was concentrated with most of the atom's mass while the rest was mostly
empty space.

3. Identify the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in an atom of

selenium-74
Atomic number (protons and electrons): 34
Neutrons: 40 (74 - 34)

4. Draw a modified Bohr diagram for sulfide (different from sulfur!)

5. How many electrons would an ion of cesium contain?

An atom would contain 55. Because cesium has an ion charge of +1, it would
have 1 lost electron, so the answer is 54.

6. What happens to electrons in an ionic bond?

Excess electrons from metals will be given to non-metal ions that need them to
become stable.

7. Identify each of the following compounds as ionic or molecular and

provide the correct IUPAC name.

Formula Classifi IUPAC

cati Nam
on e

CaF2 ionic calcium

fluoride
 PBr5 molecular Phosphorus
pentabromi
de

Li2HPO4 ionic lithium

hydrogen
phosphate

Cr2O3 ionic chromium(I

II) oxide

Ca(NO3)2•4H2 ionic calcium

O nitrate-water
(¼)

8. Identify each of the following compounds as ionic or molecular and

provide the correct formula.

IUPAC Name Classifi Formula

cati
on

potassium sulfide ionic K₂S

diiodine tetraoxide molecular I₂O₄

aluminium sulfite ionic Al₂(SO₃)₃

tin(IV) carbonate ionic Sn(CO₃)₂

iron(III) ionic FeCl₃•6H₂O

chloride-water(1/6)

9. Write the formula for sulfuric acid

Sulfuric acid--Hydrogen sulfate--H₂SO₄

10. Four solutions—hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, glucose, and

 sodium chloride—are tested with red and blue litmus paper and a
conductivity metre. What are the expected results?

Subs Classifi Red Blue Condu

ta cati Lit Lit ctivi
nc on mu mu ty
e s s

HCl Acid Red Turns red Conducts

NaOH Base Turns blue Stays blue Conducts

C6H12O6 Molecular Red Blue Does not

conduct

NaCl Ionic Red Blue Conducts

11. Predict the solubility for the following substances.

Substa Solubi
nce lity

Ag2SO4 Slightly
soluble

LiOH Very
soluble

CuCO3 Slightly
soluble

AuF3 Very
soluble

12. Predict the state for the following substances when they are placed in
a beaker of water.
 Substance State

CrSO4 (aq)

Ba(IO3)2 (s)

K3PO4 (aq)

PbCL2 (s)

13. For each of the following reactions, identify the reaction type and
balance the equation.

a. __KF(l) → __K(s) + __F2(g)

Type: _______________
2KF(l) → 2K(s) + F₂
Decomposition

b. __C5H12(l) + __O2(g) → __CO2(g) + __H2O(g)

Type: _______________
C₅H₁₂(l) + 8O₂(g) → 5CO₂(g) + 6H₂O(g)
Hydrocarbon Combustion

c. __Mg(s) + __HCl(aq) → __H2(g) + __MgCl2(aq)

Type: _______________
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)
Single Replacement

d. __BaCl2(aq) + __Li3PO4(aq) → __LiCl(aq) + __Ba3(PO4)2(s)

Type: _______________
3BaCl2(aq) + 2Li3PO4(aq) → 6LiCl(aq) + Ba3(PO4)2(s)
Double Replacement

e. __P4(s) + __Cl2(g) →__PCl3(s)

Type: _______________
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) →4PCl3(s)
Formation

14. For the balanced equations from a and c of question 13, represent them
using a ball and stick model.
15. Predict the products, write a word equation, and write a balanced chemical
reaction equation for each of the following.
a. Lithium bromide decomposes.
lithium bromide → lithium + bromine
2LiBr(s) → 2Li(s) + Br2(l)
b. Aqueous aluminium chloride reacts with aqueous potassium phosphate.
aluminium chloride + potassium phosphate → potassium chloride + aluminium phosphate
AlCl3(aq) + K3PO4(aq) → 3KCl(aq) + AlPO4(s)
c. Chlorine gas is bubbled through a solution of nickel(III) bromide.
chlorine + nickel(III) bromide → bromine + nickel(III) chloride
3Cl2(g) + 2NiBr3(aq) → 3Br2(l) + 2NiCl3(aq)
d. Acetylene (C2H2(g)) undergoes complete combustion
acetylene + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water vapour
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
e. Zinc reacts with oxygen gas
zinc + oxygen → zinc oxide
2Zn(s) + O2(g) → 2ZnO(s)

16. What is the amount in moles of a 25 g sample of potassium oxide?

17. What is the mass in grams of a 3.25 mol sample of ammonia, NH3?