Alternating Current

Alternating Current/Voltage Area under current v/s time graph

An electric current/voltage that reverses its Area under I-t graph gives charge
direction periodically is known as alternating
current/voltage. I

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
I or V
t
dt
𝒅𝑸 = 𝑰 × 𝒅𝒕
t

Alternating current is represented by

I
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝒅𝑸 = 𝑰 × 𝒅𝒕
Or
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜔𝑡 t
dt
Where
‘I’ → instantaneous value of current
❖ Total area under the I-t graph of A.C is Zero.
𝐼0 → Peak/maximum value of current
❖ Therefore total charge passed through the
𝜔 → angular frequency of current
circuit over complete cycle is zero.
𝜔𝑡 → phase angle of current
❖ Therefore average value of A.C. over
Similarly
complete cycle is zero.
Alternating voltage is represented by
---------------------------------------------------------
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Mean value of A.C/ Average value of A.C
Or
Mean value of A.C is defined as the steady D.C
𝑉 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡
that sends same amount of charge as is done by
A.C through the same circuit during half cycle of
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 A.C.
I or V
The instantaneous value of A.C in a circuit is
given by
t 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 --------(1)
The amount of charge that is passed through the

-------------------------------------------------------- circuit in time 𝑑𝑡 is given by

Average value of current 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 [ using (1) ]

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

ISS- Physics Page 1 of 14

 Alternating Current

The amount of charge that is passed through the 𝐼0 2 𝑅

𝐻= . 𝑇 − − − − − −(2)
circuit in time T/2 can be obtained by integrating 2

above equation If 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the r.m.s value of A.C., then by definition,

𝑇 𝐻 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅. 𝑇 − − − − − −(3)
2
𝑞 = ∫ 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Using (2) & (3)
0
𝐼0 𝑇 𝐼0 2 𝑅
𝑞= − − − − − −(2) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅. 𝑇 = .𝑇
𝜋 2
If 𝐼𝑎 is mean value of A.C., then by the definition 𝐼0 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 =
𝑇 2
𝑞 = 𝐼𝑎 . − − − − − (3) 𝑰𝟎
2 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
From the equation (2) and (3), we have √𝟐
𝑇 𝐼0 𝑇 Similarly
𝐼𝑎 . = 𝑽𝟎
2 𝜋
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐𝑰𝟎 √𝟐
𝑰𝒂 = − − − −(𝟒)
𝝅
Similarly ❖ The r.m.s value of A.C. is same for a
𝟐𝑽𝟎
𝑽𝒂 = complete cycle of A.C.
𝝅
----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------
Phasor and Phasor diagram
Root mean square (r.m.s.) or virtual Value.
A quantity, which varies sinusoidally with
It is that steady current, which when passed
time and represented as the projection of a
through a resistance for a given time will
rotating vector, is called a phasor.
produce the same amount of heat as the
The diagram, representing alternating
alternating current does in the same
current and voltage as the rotating vectors along
resistance and in the same time.
with the phase angle between them, is called
The instantaneous value of A.C. passing through a
phasor diagram.
resistance R is given by
𝑌
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 --------(1)
Small amount of heat produced in the resistor in 𝜔
time 𝑑𝑡 is given by 𝑰𝒐
𝑑𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝜑
𝐼 𝑽𝒐
2
𝑉
𝑑𝐻 = (𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝑅𝑑𝑡 [ Using (1) ] 𝜔𝑡
𝑋′ 𝑋
The amount of heat produced in the resistance in
the time 𝑇 can be obtained by integrating the above
equation
𝑇
𝐻 = ∫ (𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 𝑅𝑑𝑡
0 𝑌′
ISS- Physics Page 2 of 14
 Alternating Current

In the above diagram, instantaneous voltage is A.C through An Inductor

𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Consider a pure inductor of inductance L which is
And instantaneous current is connected to an alternating source of peak voltage
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑉0 and angular frequency 𝜔 .
--------------------------------------------------------------- L
A.C through A resistor
I
Consider a pure ohmic resistor of resistance R
V
which is connected to an alternating source of peak
Let the instantaneous value of voltage across the
voltage 𝑉0 and angular frequency 𝜔 .
inductor be
R
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 ---------(1)
I 𝑑𝐼
If 𝐼 is the instantaneous current and is the rate
V 𝑑𝑡

of change of current in the circuit at that instant,

Let the instantaneous value of voltage across the
then
resistor be
Instantaneous e.m.f developed in the inductor = 𝑒
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 ---------(1)
𝑑𝐼
If 𝐼 is the instantaneous current in the circuit at that 𝑒 = −𝐿 − − − − − (2)
𝑑𝑡
instant, then Since there is no circuit element across which
𝑉 potential drop may occur,
𝐼=
𝑅 𝑉+𝑒 =0
Using equ (1) in the above equation
Using equ (2) in the above equation, we get
𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐼= 𝑑𝐼
𝑅 𝑉 + −𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 -------------(2)
𝑑𝐼
𝑉0 𝐿 =𝑉
Where, 𝐼0 = is the peak value of current in the 𝑑𝑡
𝑅
𝑉
circuit. 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
From equs (1) & (2), it follows that the current is in
Using equ (1) in the above equation, we get
phase with the voltage, when A.C. flows through a 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡
resistor. 𝐿
Integrating both sides, we get
V
𝑉0
I I 𝑉𝑜 ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or
V 𝐿
I 𝐼𝑜 𝑉0
V 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜔𝑡 𝐼= − cos 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − −(3)
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜔𝐿
2 2 𝑉0 𝜋
𝐼= sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) − − − −(4)
𝜔𝐿 2

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 Alternating Current
𝝅
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝟐 ) − − − (5)

Where, 𝑋𝐿
𝑉0
𝐼0 = − − − (6)
𝜔𝐿
is the peak value of current in the circuit. 𝑛

From equs (1) & (5), it follows that the current in the ❖ Inductor offers high opposition to high
inductor is lagging behind the voltage by an angle frequency A.C.
𝝅
𝟐
, when A.C. flows through an inductor. ❖ Inductor offers zero reactance to a

I
steady current. ( 𝝎 = 𝟎).
V ----------------------------------------------------------------
Average power of an Inductor in A.C circuit
I
V 𝑉𝑜 The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is
or
3𝜋
V 𝜔𝑡 𝑝𝐿 = 𝑉𝐼
𝜔𝑡 2
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
Using equs (1) and (3)
2
𝐼𝑜
I 𝑝𝐿 = −(𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡)(𝐼0 cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑝𝐿 = −𝑉0 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
------------------------------------------------------------
𝑉0 𝐼0
Inductive reactance 𝑝𝐿 = − sin2 𝜔𝑡
2
Opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of So, the average power over a complete cycle is
current is known as inductive reactance. It is 𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑃𝐿 = 〈− sin2 𝜔𝑡〉
denoted by 𝑋𝐿 . Its unit is Ω .[ proof ] 2
From equ (6), we have 𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑃𝐿 = − 〈sin2 𝜔𝑡〉
2
𝑉0
𝐼0 = 𝑃𝐿 = 0
𝜔𝐿
𝑉0 since the average of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜔𝑡) over a complete cycle
𝐼0 =
𝑋𝐿 is zero.
Where, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 is known as inductive reactance. Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor
Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the over one complete cycle is zero.
frequency and inductance of the inductor.

𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿

𝜔 𝐿

We know that 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 therefore,

A.C through A Capacitor

ISS- Physics Page 4 of 14

 Alternating Current

Consider a pure capacitor of capacitance C which is ------------------------------------------------------------

connected to an alternating source of peak voltage Capacitive reactance
𝑉0 and angular frequency 𝜔 . Opposition offered by a capacitor to the flow of

C current is known as capacitive reactance. It is

denoted by 𝑋𝐶 . Its unit is Ω .[ proof ]
I From equ (5), we have
V
𝐼0 = 𝐶𝑉0 𝜔
Let the instantaneous value of voltage across the 𝑉0
𝐼0 = 1
capacitor be 𝐶𝜔
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 ---------(1)
If 𝑞 is the instantaneous charge present in the 𝑉0
𝐼0 =
capacitor, then 𝑋𝐶
1
𝑞 = 𝑉𝐶 − − − − − −(2) Where, 𝑋𝐶 = 𝐶𝜔
is known as capacitive reactance.
Instantaneous current passing through the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the
capacitor at the same instant is given by frequency and capacitance of the capacitor.
𝑑𝑞
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
Using equ (2)& (1) in the above equation, we get 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐶
𝑑 (𝐶𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡 𝜔 𝐶
𝐼 = 𝐶𝑉0 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 − − − (3)
𝝅
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒕 + ) − − − −(𝟒)
𝟐 ❖ Capacitor offers infinite opposition to
Where, steady current.
𝐼0 = 𝐶𝑉0 𝜔 − − − (5) ----------------------------------------------------------------
is the peak value of current in the circuit.
From equs (1) & (4), it follows that the current in the
𝝅
capacitor is leading the voltage by an angle , when
𝟐

A.C. flows through a capacitor.

I Average power of a Capacitor in A.C circuit
V The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor

I V is
or
3𝜋 I 𝑉𝑜 𝑝𝐶 = 𝑉𝐼
V
𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑜 𝜔𝑡
2 Using equs (1) and (3)
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
2 𝑝𝐶 = (𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡)(𝐼0 cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑝𝐶 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
ISS- Physics Page 5 of 14
 Alternating Current

𝑉0 𝐼0 Since all the elements are in series, the ac

𝑝𝐶 = sin2 𝜔𝑡
2 current in each element is the same at any time,
So, the average power over a complete cycle is
having the same amplitude and phase. Let it be
𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑃𝐶 = 〈 sin2 𝜔𝑡〉 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 ) − − − −(1)
2
𝑉0 𝐼0 where φ is the phase difference between the voltage
𝑃𝐶 = 〈sin2 𝜔𝑡〉
2 across the source and the current in the circuit.
𝑃𝐶 = 0 VR , VL and VC are the peak voltage drops across
since the average of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜔𝑡) over a complete cycle the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively.
is zero. VR = I0 R − − − (2) (This is in phase with 𝐼 )
Thus, the average power supplied to a capacitor VL = I0 XL − − − (3) (𝑉𝐿 Leads 𝐼 by 𝜋/2)
over one complete cycle is zero. VC = I0 XC − − − (4) ( 𝐼 leads 𝑉𝐶 by 𝜋/2)
The voltages across the different components are
represented in the voltage phasor diagram.
𝐼𝑜
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑜
𝜑
𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝐶
----------------------------------------------------------
𝑉𝐿 and VC are 1800 out of phase with each other and
Series LCR circuit
the resultant of 𝑉𝐿 and VC is (VC – 𝑉𝐿 ), assuming the
Phasor –Diagram Solution
circuit to be capacitor dominated. The applied
Let an alternating source is connected to a series
voltage ‘𝑉𝑜 ’ equals the vector sum of VR , 𝑉𝐿 and VC .
combination of a resistor of resistance R, inductor of
inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C as 𝑉𝑜 2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2
shown in the figure.
𝑉𝑜 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2

Using equ (2), (3) &(4) in the above equation, we get

𝑉𝐿
I I
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑜 = √I0 2 𝑅 2 + (I0 XC − I0 XL )2
𝑉𝐶 I

R 𝑉𝑜 = √I0 2 𝑅 2 + I0 2 (XC − XL )2
C L
I
V 𝑉𝑜 = I0 √𝑅 2 + (XC − XL )2
𝑉𝑜
= √𝑅 2 + (XC − XL )2
I0
ISS- Physics Page 6 of 14
 Alternating Current

𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 − − − −(𝟓)
The expression Z = √R2 + (XC − XL )2 is the net
effective opposition offered by the combination of
resistor, inductor and capacitor known as the
impedance of the circuit and is represented by Z. Its
unit is ohm.
Phase angle φ between the voltage and current is
(a) Phasor diagram of V and I.
given by
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 (b) Graphs of V and I versus 𝜔𝑡 for a series LCR
tan 𝜑 =
VR circuit where XC > XL .

I0 XC − I0 XL ----------------------------------------------------------------
tan 𝜑 =
I0 R Cases:

XC − XL 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (i) When 𝐗 𝐂 > 𝐗 𝐋 : From equation (6), it follows

tan 𝜑 = =
R 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 that tan 𝜑 is positive i.e, 𝜑 is lying between 0
𝜋
XC − XL and , therefore using equs (1) and (7) we can
φ = tan−1 ( ) − − − −(6) 2
R
say the circuit is capacitor dominated one in
Therefore instantaneous voltage across the
which current is leading.
combination can be written as
(ii) When 𝐗 𝐂 < 𝐗 𝐋 : From equation (6), it
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − (𝟕)
follows that tan 𝜑 is negative i.e, 𝜑 is lying
𝜋
-------------------------------------------------------------- between 0 and − 2 , therefore using equs (1) and

(7) we can say the circuit is inductor dominated

one in which voltage is leading.
(iii) When 𝐗 𝐂 = 𝐗 𝐋 : From equation (6), it
follows that tan 𝜑 is zero i.e, 𝜑 is 0 therefore
using equs (1) and (7) we can say the current is
in phase with the voltage in the circuit.
Impedance diagram Resonance
At one particular frequency of the source, the
VL
inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance
Z will be equal to each other (XL = XC ), so that the
XL − XC
𝜑 impedance becomes minimum and therefore the

R current becomes maximum. This phenomenon is

VC known as resonance of L.C.R circuit.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
ISS- Physics Page 7 of 14
 Alternating Current

Frequency of the source at which circuit exhibits

𝑅3 = 0
resonance is known as resonant frequency.
At resonant frequency 𝜔0 𝑅2
XL = XC
𝐼𝑜 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑅1
1
𝜔0 𝐿 =
𝜔0 𝐶
1
𝜔0 2 =
𝐿𝐶
𝟏 𝜔𝑜 𝜔
𝝎𝟎 = − − − (𝟖)
√𝑳𝑪 𝑅1 > 𝑅2 > 𝑅3
𝟏
𝝂𝟎 = -------------------------------------------------------------
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
Half power Frequency
This frequency is known as natural frequency of the
These are the two frequencies of the source
L-C circuit.
at which power dissipated by the circuit becomes
half of that is dissipated at resonant frequency.
At resonance
At half power frequency current in the circuit
XL = XC 1
becomes times of 𝐼0𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
√2
∴ 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (XC − XL )2 = 𝑅
These frequencies are lying on either side of the
𝑍=𝑅
resonant frequency.
And
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
= = 𝐼0𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑍 𝑅 𝐼0𝑀𝑎𝑥
Where 𝐼0𝑀𝑎𝑥 is the maximum value of peak current
in L.C. R circuit. 𝐼0𝑀𝑎𝑥
√2
--------------------------------------------------------------
❖ At resonance 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑪
❖ At resonance 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝑹
❖ At resonance, impedance is minimum 𝒁 = 𝑹 𝜔1 𝜔0 𝜔2

❖ Power of the circuit is maximum.

𝜔1 = 𝜔0 − ∆𝜔

𝜔1 = 𝜔0 − ∆𝜔

Where 𝜔1 & 𝜔2 are the two half power frequencies.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

ISS- Physics Page 8 of 14

 Alternating Current

Bandwidth of the circuit having a coil of large inductance but of small

The difference 𝜔1 – 𝜔2 = 2𝛥𝜔 is often called the ohmic resistance.

bandwidth of the circuit. The quantity (𝜔0 / 2𝛥𝜔) is
regarded as a measure of the sharpness of resonance. The
smaller the 𝛥𝜔, the sharper or narrower is the resonance.

Q-Factor.

The selectivity or sharpness of a resonant circuit is

measured by the quality factor or Q factor. In other
words it refers to the sharpness of tuning at
resonance.
----------------------------------------------------------------
The Q factor of a series resonant circuit is
Power in A.C. Circuit
defined as the ratio of the voltage across the
The instantaneous value of voltage and current in
inductor or capacitor at resonance to the
L.C.R circuit is given by
applied voltage at resonance.
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − (1)
voltage across L or C at resonance
𝑄 = − −(1) 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 ) − − − (2)
Applied voltage
Voltage across 𝐿 = 𝐼 𝜔0 𝐿 − − − −(2) where 𝜑 is the phase difference between the voltage

applied voltage = voltage across R at resonance. and current in an a.c circuit.

Applied Voltage = 𝐼𝑅 − − − −(3) The instantaneous power = 𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼

Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1) = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 × 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 )
𝐼 𝜔0 𝐿 𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑄= = (2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 ))
𝐼𝑅 2
𝝎𝟎 𝑳 𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑸= = (cos 𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑))
𝑹 2
The average power over a cycle is given by the
𝑳 𝟏 average of the two terms in the above Equ. It is only
𝑸= ∵ {𝝎𝟎 = }
𝑹√𝑳𝑪 √𝑳𝑪
the second term which is time-dependent.

𝟏 √𝑳 Its average is zero (the positive half of the cosine

𝑸=
𝑹 𝑪 cancels the negative half). Therefore,

❖ Circuit with high Q values would respond to 𝑉0 𝐼0

𝑃= cos 𝜑
a very narrow frequency range and vice 2

versa. Thus a circuit with a high Q value is 𝑉0 𝐼0

𝑃= cos 𝜑
sharply tuned while one with a low Q has a √2 √2
flat resonance. Q-factor can be increased by
𝑷 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋

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 Alternating Current

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑍 cos 𝜑 𝐼0 sin 𝜑

𝐼0
In the above equation cos φ is known as Power
factor of the circuit. 𝜑
𝑉0
𝐼0 cos 𝜑
Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only 𝐼0 sin 𝜑 is the wattless component of the current
pure R, it is called resistive. In that case φ = 0, cos φ
= 1. There is maximum power dissipation. ------------------------------------------------------------------

Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: If the L-C Oscillations

circuit contains only an inductor or capacitor, we Consider a capacitor of capacitance 𝐶 which

know that the phase difference between voltage and is fully charged to 𝑞𝑚 be connected to an inductor

current is π/2. Therefore, cos φ = 0, and no power is of inductance 𝐿 with the help of key as shown in the

dissipated even though a current is flowing in the figure.

circuit. This current is sometimes referred to as The moment the circuit is completed, the

wattless current. charge on the capacitor starts decreasing, giving rise

Case (iii) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit, to current in the circuit. Let 𝑞 and 𝑖 be the charge
power dissipated is and current in the circuit at time 𝑡 .
𝑷 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 Let 𝑉𝐶 & 𝑉𝐿 are the instantaneous voltage
𝑋𝐿 – 𝑋𝐶
where 𝜑 = tan−1( 𝑅
) . So, φ may be non-zero across the capacitor and inductor respectively.
𝑑𝑖
in a RL or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases, 𝑉𝐿 = − 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
power is dissipated only in the resistor. 𝑞
𝑉𝐶 =
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR 𝐶
circuit: At resonance 𝑋𝐿 – 𝑋𝐶 = 0, and φ = 0. According to Kirchhoff’s voltage rule,

Therefore, cosφ = 1 and 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅 . 𝑞 𝑑𝑖

− 𝐿 = 0 − − − (1)
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit
in the present case
(through R) at resonance.
𝑑𝑞
-------------------------------------------------------------------- 𝐼 = – ( ) − − − −(2)
𝑑𝑡
(as q decreases, i increases).Therefore equ(1)
Wattless Current
becomes
𝜋
Current that has a phase difference 2
with the 𝑑2𝑞 𝑞
+ =0 − − − (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿𝐶
voltage is known as Wattless current.
This equation has the form
𝑑2𝑥
+ 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
for a simple harmonic oscillator. The charge,
therefore, oscillates with a natural frequency

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 Alternating Current

𝟏 the circuit and the oscillations finally die

𝝎𝟎 =
√𝑳𝑪 away.
and varies sinusoidally with time as (ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total
𝑞 = 𝑞0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − − − (4) energy of the system would not remain
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑞0 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 ( using (2) and (4)) constant. It is radiated away from the
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − (5) system in the form of electromagnetic
Where 𝐼0 = 𝑞0 𝜔 is the maximum current in the waves.
circuit. ----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------- In the free oscillations of an LC circuit, the sum
➢ At t = 0, the switch is closed and the capacitor of energies stored in the capacitor and the
starts to discharge. inductor is constant in time.
➢ As the current increases, it sets up a Let 𝑞0 be the initial charge on a capacitor. Let the
magnetic field in the inductor and thereby, charged capacitor be connected to an inductor of
some energy gets stored in the inductor in inductance L. This LC circuit will sustain an
1
the form of magnetic energy: 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2 . oscillation with frequency 𝜔0 .
➢ As the current reaches its maximum value 1
𝜔0 = − − − (1)
𝐼0 , (at t = T/4) , all the energy is stored in √𝐿𝐶
1 At an instant t, charge q on the capacitor is given by:
the magnetic field: 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿𝐼𝑜 2 .
𝑞 = 𝑞0 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 − − − (2)
➢ The capacitor now has no charge and hence 𝑑𝑞
We know that 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡
no energy.
➢ The current now starts charging the ∴ 𝐼 = 𝑞0 𝜔0 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 − − − (3)

capacitor, as in Fig. This process continues Energy stored in the capacitor at time t is

till the capacitor is fully charged (at t = T/2). 𝑞2

𝑈𝐸 = − − − (4)
2𝐶
Thus, the energy in the system oscillates
Using equ (2) in the above equation, we get
between the capacitor and the inductor.
(𝑞0 cos 𝜔0 𝑡)2
𝑈𝐸 =
2𝐶
𝒒𝟎 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝝎𝟎 𝒕
𝑼𝑬 = − − − (5)
𝟐𝑪
Energy stored in the inductor at time t is
❖ The above discussion of LC oscillations is not 1
𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝐼 2 − − − (6)
realistic for two reasons: 2
(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The Using equ (3) in the above equation, we get
effect of this resistance is to introduce a 𝐿(𝑞0 𝜔0 sin 𝜔0 𝑡)2
𝑈𝐵 =
damping effect on the charge and current in 2
𝐿𝑞0 2 𝜔0 2 sin2 𝜔0 𝑡
𝑈𝐵 = − − − (7)
2
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 Alternating Current

Using equ (1) in the above equation, we get

𝒒𝟎 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝝎𝟎 𝒕
𝑼𝑩 = − − − (8)
𝟐𝑪
Total energy at any instant is
𝑈 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵
Using equ (5) and (8) in the above equ, we get

𝑞0 2 cos2 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑞0 2 sin2 𝜔0 𝑡 Working principle: Working principle of

𝑈= +
2𝐶 2𝐶 transformer is mutual induction.
𝑞0 2
𝑈= ( 2 + sin2 𝜔0 𝑡) When alternating current source is connected to the
2𝐶 cos 𝜔0 𝑡
ends of primary coil, the current changes
𝒒𝟎 𝟐
𝑼= continuously in the primary coil; due to which the
𝟐𝑪
This sum is constant in time as qo and C, both are magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil
time-independent. changes continuously, therefore the alternating emf
------------------------------------------------------------- of same frequency is developed across the
Transformer secondary.
Transformer is device which is used to convert high Working
voltage and low current A.C to low voltage high Let 𝜑 be the flux in each turn in the core at time t
current A.C or vice versa. due to current in the primary when a voltage 𝑣𝑝 is
Types: applied to it.
There are two types of transformers
We assume that there is no leakage of flux so that
(i) Step- up Transformer
the flux linked with each turn of primary coil and
Low voltage to high voltage
secondary coil is the same.
(ii) Step- down Transformer
Induced emf in the secondary with Ns turns = 𝜀𝑠
High voltage to low voltage
𝑑𝜑
𝜀𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑡

If the secondary is an open circuit or the current

taken from it is small,
then

𝜀𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠

𝑑𝜑
∴ 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 − − − −(1)
𝑑𝑡

Back emf produced in the primary = 𝜀𝑝

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 Alternating Current

𝑑𝜑 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃𝑖
𝜀𝑝 = 𝑁𝑝
𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃
But 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃
=
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆
𝜀𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝
Using equ (3) in the above equ, we get
If this were not so, the primary current would be 𝑰 𝑷 𝑵𝒔
= − − − (𝟒)
infinite 𝑰𝑺 𝑵𝒑
For step – up transformer 𝑵𝒔 > 𝑵𝒑
𝑑𝜑
∴ 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑁𝑝 − − − −(2)
𝑑𝑡 Therefore 𝑰𝑺 < 𝑰𝒑
From (1) and (2) we get
For step – down transformer 𝑵𝒔 < 𝑵𝒑
𝒗𝒔 𝑵𝒔
= − − − (𝟑) Therefore 𝑰𝑷 < 𝑰𝑺
𝒗𝒑 𝑵𝒑

𝑵𝒔 ----------------------------------------------------
𝐢𝐬 𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐚𝐬 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨
𝑵𝒑
Energy Losses In Transformer
For step – up transformer 𝒗𝒔 > 𝒗𝒑
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux

Therefore leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to

𝑵𝒔 primary passes through the secondary due to
>1
𝑵𝒑 poor design of the core or the air gaps in the
For step – down transformer 𝒗𝒔 < 𝒗𝒑 core. It can be reduced by winding the primary
and secondary coils one over the other.
Therefore
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for
𝑵𝒔
<1 the windings has some resistance and so,
𝑵𝒑
energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire
Assumptions used to get above relation:
(𝐼 2 𝑅). In high current, low voltage windings,
(i) The primary resistance and current are small;
these are minimised by using thick wire.
(ii) The same flux links both the primary and the
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux
secondary as very little flux escapes from the
induces eddy currents in the iron core and
core,
causes heating. The effect is reduced by having
(iii) The secondary current is small.
a laminated core.
Ideal Transformer
(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is
If output power of the transformer is equal to the
repeatedly reversed by the alternating
input power, then it is said to be an ideal
magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of
transformer.
energy in the core appears as heat and is kept
In an ideal transformer
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 Alternating Current

to a minimum by using a magnetic material

which has a low hysteresis loss.
-------------------------------------------------------------
Electricity distribution with the help pf
transformer
The large scale transmission and distribution of
electrical energy over long distances is done with
the use of transformers. The voltage output of the
generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced
and consequently, the (𝐼 2 𝑅) loss is cut down). It is
then transmitted over long distances to an area sub-
station near the consumers. There the voltage is
stepped down. It is further stepped down at
distributing sub-stations and utility poles before a
power supply of 240 V reaches our homes.
----------------------------------------------------------------

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