CLASSROOM GUIDELINES

1. Come to the scheduled online class five minutes before the session.
2. Be ready with pieces of short bond papers and ballpen.
3. Focus on the lesson and limit your unnecessary gestures and noises.
4. Cooperate with your assigned groupmates and activity.
5. Be on time in submitting your homework, short quiz, and long quiz.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. identify terminologies used in Differential Equations.

2. classify the given differential equation according to type, order, degree, and
linearity.
3. distinguish the solution of a differential equation.
 INTRODUCTION
A. Preliminaries
B. Terminologies
C. Classifications
D. Solutions of Differential Equation
A. Preliminaries
A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or
several variables that relates the values of the function itself to its derivatives of various orders.
Differential equations play a prominent role in engineering, physics, economics, and other
disciplines. According to some historians of mathematics, the study of differential equations
began in 1675, when Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) wrote the equation:

1 2
x dx = 2
x

The search for general methods of integrating differential equations began when
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) classified first order differential equations into three classes:
dy dy 𝜕u 𝜕u
(1) = f(x) (2) = f(x,y) (3) x +y = u
dx dx 𝜕x 𝜕y

In 1682, Leibniz became a collaborator on the new Leipzig periodical, Acta

Eruditorum, in which he published his epoch-making six page paper on the differential calculus
in 1684 [11], followed two years later (1686) by a paper containing the rudiments of the
integral calculus. [19]. James Bernoulli (1654-1705] wrote Leibniz in 1687 requesting initiation
into the mysteries of the new analysis. Because Leibniz was travelling abroad, Bernoulli's letter
remained unanswered until 1690. In the meantime James and his brother John Bernoulli
(1667-1748) unraveled the mysteries without assistance. Their success initiated an extensive
correspondence with Leibniz. In these letters are contained many innovations and anticipations
of since prominent methods
 In 1692 James Bernoulli made known the method of integrating the homogeneous
differential equation of the first order, and not long afterwards reduced to quadratures the
problem of integrating a linear equation of the first order.

The original discoveries of practically all known elementary methods of solving

differential equations of the first-order took place during the Bernoulli dynasty. The Bernoullis'
were a Swiss family of scholars whose contributions to differential equations spanned the late
seventeenth and the eighteenth century. Nikolaus Bernoulli I (1623-1708) was the progenitor
of this celebrated family of mathematicians. James I, John I, and Daniel I are the best known
members of the Bernoulli family who made many contributions to this new field of differential
equations.

However, it was John Bernoulli, in a letter to Leibniz, dated May 9, 1694, that gave us
the explicit process and the term, seperatio indeterminatarum or separation of variables.
Virtually all known elementary methods of solving first order differential equations had been
found by the end of the seventeenth century. In the early years of the eighteenth century a
number of problems led to differential equations of the second and third order. In 1701 James
Bernoulli published the solution to the isoperimetric problem - a problem in which it is
required to make one integral a maximum or minimum while keeping constant the integral of a
second given function - thus resulting in a differential equation of the third order.
 Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) provided the next significant development when he
posed and solved the problem of reducing a particular class of second order differential
equations to that of first order. His process of finding a second solution from a known solution
consists both of reducing a second order equation to a first order equation and of finding an
integrating factor. Additionally, Euler confirmed that the ratio of two different integrating
factors of a first-order differential equation is a solution of the equation.

Euler began his treatment of the homogeneous linear differential equation with
constant coefficients in a letter he wrote to John Bernoulli on September 15, 1739, published in
Miscellanea Berolinensia, 1743. Within a year Euler had completed this treatment by
successfully dealing with repeated quadratic factors and turned his attention to the non-
homogeneous linear equation. The method of successive reduction of the order of the equation
with the aid of integrating factors led first to equations integrable in finite form. Euler first
reduced these equations step by step and then integrated. For those equations which were not
integrable in a finite form, Euler used the method of integrating by series.

Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813), while working on the problem of determining an

integrating factor for the general linear equation, formalized the concept of the adjoint equation..
Lagrange not only determined an integrating factor for the general linear equation, but furnished
proof of the general solution of a homogeneous linear equation of order n. In addition Lagrange
discovered the method of variation of parameters.
 The period of initial discovery of general methods of integrating ordinary differential
equations ended by 1775, a hundred years after Leibniz inaugurated the integral sign. For many
problems the formal methods were not sufficient. Solutions with special properties were
required, and thus, criteria guaranteeing the existence of such solutions became increasingly
important. Boundary value problems led to ordinary differential equations, such as Bessel's
equation, that prompted the study of Laguerre, Legendre, and Hermite polynomials. The study
of these and other functions that are solutions of equations of hypergeometric type led in turn
to modern numerical methods. Thus, by 1775, as more and more attention was given to
analytical methods and problems of existence, the search for general methods of integrating
ordinary differential equations ended.
B. Terminologies
DEFINITION

A differential equation is an equation for a function that relates the

values of the function to the values of its derivatives. It is an equation which
contains one or more terms and the derivatives of one variable (dependent
variable) with respect to the other variable (independent variable.)

dependent variable

dy
= f(x,y)
dx

independent variable
FORMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
A differential equation can be written in different forms:

1. DERIVATIVE FORM
A) Leibniz’s notation (common notion of derivatives)
dn y dn−1 y d3 y d2 y dy
+ + ⋯+ + + = f(x,y)
dxn dxn−1 dx3 dx2 dx

B) Lagrange’s notation (Prime mark invented by Euler but popularized by Lagrange)

y (n) + y (n−1) + ⋯ + y (4) + y ′′′ + y ′′ + y′ = f(x,y)

C) Euler’s notation (D operator)

n n−1 3 2
D y+D y + … + D y + D y + Dx y = f(x,y)
x x x x

Dn y +Dn−1 y + … +D3 y +D2 y + Dy = f(x,y)

D) Newton’s notation (used when the independent variable denotes time)

𝑛
𝑦
+𝑛−1
𝑦
+ … +𝑦4 +𝑦+ 𝑦+ 𝑦 = f(t,y)
FORMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Examples

d3 y dy 2x
3y 3 + 2x + + x 3 y – ey cos 3x = 0 ty y − t 3 y − 4t + 2y = 0
dx dx y

y 4 sin x D3 y +x 4 cos x D2 y + Dy +x 4 = 0 2yxy (6) − xln y y ′′′ − e2y y ′′ = x 4 y 4 y′ + xe2y

x+y d3 y d2 y dy x−2y
x y (4) + e2y y ′′′ + y′ sin x + ye2x = 3x + 1 e 3 + 2 + + e + 3x = 0
dx dx dx

5 3
2t 6y +3t4y + t 5 y y+ty 4 y = 2 2D y + 4D y + ex Dx y − 2x + 3y = 5 ln x
x x

Yellow Box denotes a derivative form of differential equation written in Euler’s notation
Blue Box denotes a derivative form of differential equation written in Newton’s notation

White Box denotes a derivative form of differential equation written in Lagrange’s notation
Green Box denotes a derivative form of differential equation written in Leibniz’s notation
FORMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
2. DIFFERENTIAL FORM

M x, y dx + N x, y dy = 0

Examples

3y ln x dx + x ln y dy = 0

ye2y−1 dx − xe2x dy = 0

y tan x dx = (xe2x + 1)dy

4y 3 (x 2 e2x − tan x) dx = (2xe2x + lnx)y 4 dy

FORMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
3. EXPLICIT(STANDARD) FORM

dn y dn−1 y dn−2 y d3 y d2 y dy
+ n−1 + n−2 + ⋯+ + + = f(x,y)
dxn dx dx dx3 dx2 dx

Examples

d3 y d2 y
e2y + ex
= ex ln y
dx 3 dx 2

dy
= 3x 2 e2x − tan x
dx

(y cos x − sec x )dx = (e2x − 2y)dy

xy (5) − (y + 1) y ′′′ −ex y ′′ = x 2 y + xe2y

FORMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
4. IMPLICIT ( GENERAL ) FORM

dn y dn−1 y d3 y d2 y dy
dxn
+ dxn−1 + ⋯+ dx3
+ dx2
+ dx
+ f(x,y) = 0

Examples

(3y − tan x )dx − (xe2x + 2y)dy = 0

d2 y dy
x dx2 + 3 dx + cot 3x = 0

(y + 2x) y ′′′ −ex y ′′ + xy y ′ − x 2 y + ey ln x = 0

y′′′ −ex y′′ +2

= 0
xy y′ −x2 y−1
CONSTANTS
Any quantities with fixed values are called CONSTANTS. It is a value
that doesn't change. It is well-defined real number which is significantly
3 5
interesting in someway. All numbers are constants including 2, 2, 2, ln 2,
log 2, log22, and others. Some letters, like e, π, i, etc are also constants.

KINDS OF CONSTANTS

Kinds Definition Examples

Are those fixed values that is
1
1 Numeric Constant either a signed integers or a 0, -1, 2, 1.25, - 5.89
fractional values.
Are those fixed values for all 1
2 Absolute Constant 1, π, e, 4 , 1 + 2i, log35, 3
discussions.
Are those fixed values for a
3 Arbitrary Constant particular discussion.
a, b, c, d, A, B, C, D
Variables
Any quantities that varies in values are called VARIABLES. It is entity
that can take on different values or change depending on the assigned values.
Letters, such as w, x, y, and z are used to represent variables.

KINDS OF VARIABLES

1) Dependent Variables
A dependent variable is a variable that is implicitly a function
of another (or several other) variables.

2) Independent Variables

An independent variable is a variable that is not dependent.

dependent variable
dy
y = f(x) = f(x, y)
dx
independent variable
C. Classifications of Differential Equations
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO TYPE
1. Ordinary Differential Equations
2. Partial Differential Equations

ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A differential equation involving usual derivatives of one or more dependent
variables with respect to a single independent variable is called Ordinary Differential
Equations.

Examples

3y ′′′ + y′′ 3 + 2y′ + 2x + 4 = 0 xe−x (y ′′′ +2 y ′′ − sin x) = 2y′ + 3y ln x

d3 y d2 y dy 3 ex 3 2
dx3 dx2
− dx
+ sec x
= 0 ex D y +(1+ tan x) D y + ex Dx y = ln x
x x
Classifications of Differential Equations
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A differential equation involving usual derivatives of one or more dependent

variables with respect to more than one independent variable is called Partial Differential
Equations. Most of the mathematical models in partial differential equation have two
independent variables. Convention is that we take the variable z as a dependent variable
and x and y as independent variables so the relation is z = f (x, y).

Examples

𝜕u 𝜕u sin 2x du du du
x +y = 3x + xex + yex +(yex +zey+x ) = csc (x+y)
𝜕x 𝜕y 1−cot2x dx dy dz

𝜕u 3 𝜕u 𝜕u 1/2 𝜕u dz dx
(wy+ zx) + y = 0 yex +(1+xy 3 ex +zey+x ) = ln (3x+2y)
𝜕w 𝜕y 𝜕x 𝜕z dy dz
Classifications of Differential Equations
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO ORDER
The highest order derivative term that appears in a differential equation is
known as ORDER of the differential equations.

Examples

Differential Equation Order

1 𝟐𝐲′ + 2x + 1 = 0 First-Order Differential Equation
2
x 𝐝𝐲 𝐝𝐲
2 ye +(+zey+x ) =1 First-Order Differential Equation
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐳

3 𝐲 (𝟓) + y′′ 3
= y (4) + 2y′ + 2xy’’’ Fifth-Order Differential Equation
𝐝𝟑 𝐲 d2 y dy 3 xe2x+1
4 𝐝𝐱 𝟑 dx2
−
dx
=
tan xsec x
Third-Order Differential Equation

5 𝐃𝐧 y +Dn−1 y + … +D3 y +D2 y + Dy = 0 nth-Order Differential Equation

Classifications of Differential Equations
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO DEGREE
If a differential equation can be expressed as a polynomial in the unknown
function and its derivatives, then its DEGREE is the power to which the highest-order
derivative is raised.
Examples

Differential Equation Order

1 𝐲 (𝟓) − (y ′ )3 + 2x + 1 = 0 First-Degree Differential Equation
𝟐
2 x 𝐝𝐲 dy
ye +(+zey+x ) = 1 Second-Degree Differential Equation
𝐝𝐱 dz
𝟑
3 𝐲′′ + ln x = +2y′ + 3 Third-Degree Differential Equation
𝟔 4
𝐝𝟑 𝐲 dy 3 d2 y xe2x+1
4 + 2y 6 = Sixth-Degree Differential Equation
𝐝𝐱 𝟑 dx dx2 tan xsec x
5
5 𝐃𝐧 y 𝐧 +Dn−1 y + D2 y + Dy = ln x nth-Degree Differential Equation
Classifications of Differential Equations
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LINEARITY
1. Linear Differential Equation
2. Non-Linear Differential Equation

LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A differential equation is said to be LINEAR if it can be written in the form
dn y dn−1 y d2 y dy
an (x) n + an−1 (x) n−1 + ⋯+ a2 (x) 2 + a1 (x) +a0 (x) (y) = F(x)
dx dx dx dx

where an (x), an−1 (x), … , a2 (x), a1 x , and a0 (x) are called coefficient functions and F(x) are
continuous functions on some interval containing x.

or a LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION possesses the following properties:

1) The dependent variable y and all its derivative are of the first degree; that is the power of each term
involving y is 1.

2) Terms in the differential equation must not contain products of the dependent variable and any of
its derivative.
3) There is no transcendental functions of the dependent variable and/ or any of its derivative present.
NON-LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A differential equation is said to be NON-LINEAR if it does not satisfies all Linear
Differential Equation properties.

Consider the following examples:

Differential Equation Linearity

1 y (4) − 2xy’’’+(sin x) y’’ − 3y’ −xe2x+1 y = 0 Linear Differential Equation
*satisfies all the properties of Linear Differential Equation.
2 𝐲′′ 𝟑 + 𝟐𝐥𝐧 𝐲 = 2xy + 𝟐𝐲𝐲′ + 3 Non-Linear Differential Equation
*did not satisfy all the properties of Linear Differential Equation.
𝐝𝐲 𝟐 𝐝𝐲
3 e 𝐝𝐱 +(x+2𝐞𝐲+𝐱) 𝐝𝐱
x
=1 Non-Linear Differential Equation

*did not satisfy first and second properties of Linear Differential Equation.
4 x 2 sec x D3 y −4D2 y = Dy− ytan x+2ln x Linear Differential Equation
*satisfies all the properties of Linear Differential Equation.
5 (1−cot x) y’’ −(1 + tan x) y’ −xex y = 0 Linear Differential Equation
*satisfies all the properties of Linear Differential Equation.
D. Solutions of Differential Equation
Definition
A function y that is n times differentiable over some real interval I, which when
substituted into the nth – order ODE reduces the differential equation to an identity is called a
Solution of an Ordinary Differential Equation of Order n.

A solution of a differential equation is an expression for the dependent variable in

terms of the independent one(s) which satisfies the relation. Even if you don’t know how to find
a solution to a differential equation, you can always check whether a proposed solution works.
This is simply a matter of plugging the proposed value of the dependent variable into both sides
of the equation to see whether equality is maintained. In conclusion, solution of a differential
equation is a relation between the variables (independent and dependent), which is free of
derivatives of any order, and which satisfies the differential equation identically.

Solution of differential equation can be written in any form but in general,

F(x, y, C) = 0

where x and y are involved variables and C is a constant.

EXAMPLE
𝐝𝟐 𝐲
1. D𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐲 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝐱 is a solution of + 4y = 0.
𝐝𝐱 𝟐

Proof:
y = cos 2x Given
dy Apply Differentiation of Trigonometric
= - 2 sin 2x
dx Function
d2 y Apply Differentiation of Trigonometric
= − 4cos 2x
dx2 Function again
d2 y
+ 4y = 0
dx2 Substitute the differentiated values to the
Differential Equation
− 4cos 2x + 4( cos 2x) = 0
Show if both side of the equation are
− 4cos 2x+ 4 cos 2x = 0
equivalent
𝟎=0

𝐝𝟐 𝐲
𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬, 𝐲 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝐱 is a solution of the differential equation + 4y = 0.
𝐝𝐱 𝟐
EXAMPLE
2. D𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐲 = −𝐱 𝟑 + 𝟐𝐱 is a solution of 𝟑𝐲 ′′′ − 𝟐𝐲 ′′ + 𝟐𝐲′ + 4y = 0.

Proof:
y = −x 3 + 2x Given
Apply Basic Differentiation
y′= −3x 2 + 2
Formulas
Apply Basic Differentiation
y′′= − 6x
Formulas again
Apply Basic Differentiation
y ′′′ = − 6
Formulas again
Substitute the differentiated
3y ′′′ − 2y ′′ + 2y′ + 4y = 0
values to the differential
3(−6) −2(−6x) + 2(−3x 2 + 2)+ 4(−x 3 + 2x) = 0
equation
−18 + 12x − 6x 2 + 4 − 4x 3 +8x =0 Show if both side of the equation
−4x 3 − 6x 2 + 20x + 14 = 0 are equivalent
−𝟒𝐱 𝟑 − 𝟔𝐱 𝟐 + 20x + 14 ≠ 0

𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬, 𝐲 = −𝐱 𝟑 + 𝟐𝐱 is not a solution of 𝟑𝐲 ′′′ − 𝟐𝐲 ′′ + 𝟐𝐲′ + 4y = 0.

EXAMPLE
3. D𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐲 = 𝐞𝟑𝐱 − 𝐞−𝟑𝐱 is a solution of 𝐲 ′′ − 9y = 0.

Proof:
y = e3x − e−3x Given
Apply Differentiation of Exponential
y′= 3e3x +3e−3x = 𝟑(𝐞𝟑𝐱 +𝐞−𝟑𝐱 )
Function
Apply Differentiation of Exponential
y′′= 9e3x − 9e−3x = 9(e3x − e−3x ) = 9y
Function again
y ′′ − 9y = 0 Substitute the differentiated values to the
9y − 9y = 0 differential equation
Show if both side of the equation are
0=0 equivalent

𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬, 𝐲 = 𝐞𝟑𝐱 − 𝐞−𝟑𝐱 is a solution of 𝐲 ′′ − 9y = 0.

Classifications of Solutions
TYPE OF SOLUTION
1. General Solution
2. Particular Solution
2. Singular Solution

General Solution
A solution involving n numbers of arbitrary constants(equal to the order of the
differential equation) that describes all the specific solutions of the equation is called the
GENERAL SOLUTION of an Ordinary Differential Equations of order n.

Particular Solution
A solution obtained from the general solution by assigning particular values to
the n arbitrary constant is called PARTICULAR SOLUTION.

Singular Solution
A solution free of arbitrary constants, and is not obtained from the general
solution is called a SINGULAR SOLUTION.
Classifications of Solutions
ORIGIN OF SOLUTIONS
1. Explicit Solution
2. Trivial Solution
3. Implicit Solution

Explicit Solution
A real function y = f(x), that satisfies the differential equation , that is,

𝐅[𝐱, 𝐟 ′ (𝐱), 𝐟′′(𝐱), … , 𝐟 𝐧−𝟏 (𝐱), 𝐟 𝐧 (𝐱)] = 0

is called EXPLICIT SOLUTION.

Trivial Solution
If an explicit solution of a differential equation has only zero solution or identically
zero then it is called a TRIVIAL SOLUTION.
 Implicit Solution

A relation g(x, y) = 0 that defines one or more real function y = f(x) which is an
explicit solution to the differential equation, that is,
dy d2 y dn−1 y dn y
F[x, y, dx, dx2 , …, , ]= 0 or F′(x, y, C)= 0
dxn−1 dxn

is called IMPLICIT SOLUTION.

Consider the following examples:

1. Show that the relation 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 = 𝟒 is an implicit solution of the differential equation

𝐱𝐝𝐱 + 𝐲𝐝𝐲 = 𝟎
Proof:
x2 + y2 = 4 Given
dy
2x + 2y =0 Apply Implicit Differentiation
dx

x dx + y dy = 0 Simplify

The obtained differential equation is identical to the given differential equation and
written in implicit form F’(x,y) = 0 .
EXAMPLE
2. Show that the function 𝐲 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝐱 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝐱 is an explicit solution to the differential equation
𝐝𝐲
= −𝟐𝐲
𝐝𝐱

Proof:
y = sin 2x − cos 2x Given
dy
= 2 cos 2x + 2 sin 2x Apply Differentiation of Trigonometric Function
dx
dy
= 2( sin 2x + cos 2x) Do some algebraic manipulation
dx
𝐝𝐲
≠ - 2y Substitute y = sin 2x − cos 2x
𝐝𝐱

The obtained differential equation is not identical to the given differential equation and
written in explicit form y’ = f’(x).
Classifications of Solution
CONDITIONS OF SOLUTION
1. Initial-Value Problem
2. Boundary-Value Problem

In most cases , a particular solution of an nth-order differential equation can be

derived from its general solution by imposing n conditions on the unknown function and its
derivatives. There are two common techniques of specifying these n-conditions, Initial and
Boundary Conditions.

Initial-Value Problem
A problem seeks to determine a solution to a differential equation subject to
conditions on the unknown function and its derivatives specified at the same value of the
independent variable is called an INITIAL CONDITION or INITIAL-VALUE PROBLEM.

Boundary-Value Problem
A problem seeks to find a solution to a differential equation subject to conditions
on the unknown function and its derivatives specified at two distinct values of independent
variable is called a BOUNDARY CONDITION or BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLEM.
EXAMPLES
1. Determine whether conditions on 𝐲 = 𝟐𝐞𝐱 + 𝟏 given by y(0) = 3, y’ (0) = 2 and y’’(0) = 2
are boundary or initial conditions.

Answer:
Since the given conditions, y(0) = 3, y’(0) = 2 and y’’(0) = 2 were specified same values
at the independent variable which are zeros (x = 0.)

𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬.

𝛑
2. Determine whether conditions on 𝐲 = 𝟑𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 + 2 cos x given by y(0) = 2, y’ ( ) = 3,
𝟐
𝛑
y’’(− ) = 2, and y’’’(2𝛑) = − 3 are boundary or initial conditions.
𝟐

Answer:
𝛑 𝛑
Since the given conditions, y(0) = 2, y’ ( ) = 3, y’’(− ) = 2, and y’’’(2𝛑) = − 3 were not
𝟐 𝟐
π π
given same values at the independent variable which are 0, , − , and 2π.
2 2

𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬.

EXAMPLES

3. Determine 𝐁 so that 𝐲 = 𝟐𝐞𝐱 + 𝐁 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 will satisfy the condition y(0) = 1

Answer:
When x = 0, y =1
y = 2ex + B cos x Hence, the equation 𝐲 = 𝟐𝐞𝐱 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 satisfy the
1=2 1 +B 1 condition y(0) = 1,
1 = 2e0 + B cos (0)
B=−1

4. Determine 𝐂𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐂𝟐 so that 𝐲 = 𝐱 + 𝐂𝟏𝐞𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐𝐞𝟐𝐱 will satisfy the boundary conditions
y(0) = 0 and y(1) = 0

Answer:
For y(0) = 0 implies x =0, y=0 For y(𝟏) = 0 implies x = 1, y=0 Solve C1 and C2
y = x + C1ex + C2e2x
y = x + C1ex + C2e2x C1 = −
𝟏
0 = 0 + C1e0 + C2e2(0) e(e−1)
0 = 1 + C1e1 + C2e2(1) 𝟏
0 = C1(1) + C2(1) C2 =
𝟎 = 𝟏 + 𝐂𝟏𝐞𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐𝐞𝟐 e(e−1)
𝐂𝟏 = − 𝐂𝟐
𝐞 𝐱 − 𝐞𝟐𝐱
Hence, the required equation is 𝐲 = 𝐱 + .
𝐞(𝐞−𝟏)
References:
1Meade D., et al. “Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems”. Wiley. 2017
2Boelkins, M. et al. “Active Calculus & Mathematical Modeling. “ Carroll College. 2016
3Blanchard P. et al “Differential Equations.” Thompson. 2006
4Leithold, L. ”The Calculus 7”. Good Year Books, New York (1996)
5Peterson, T. ”Calculus with Analytic Geometry”. Harper & Brothers, New York (1996)
6Bronson, R. “Schaum’s Solved Problems Series”. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Singapore 1989

Web References:
1https:// [Link]/calculus/differentialequations
2[Link]

3Online notes/ Differential Equations/ Paul Dawkins, Lamar University