11

General 1
Mathematics

Quarter 2: Module 7
(Week 8 & 9)

Syllogisms, Fallacies
and Methods of Proof
and Disproof

i
Introductory Message
Welcome to General Mathematics Module on different forms of conditional
propositions, tautologies, fallacies and methods of proof and disproof.

This module was designed to provide you with you with opportunities for guided and
independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the
contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

This will give you an idea of the skills or
What I Need to Know competencies you are expected to learn in
(Objectives) the module.

This part includes an activity that aims to

check what you already know about the
What I Know
lesson to take.
(Pre-Test)

This is a brief drill or review to help you

What’s In link the current lesson with the previous
(Review/Springboard) one.

In this portion, the new lesson will be

introduced to you in various ways; a story,
What’s New
(Presentation of the Lesson) a song, a poem, a problem opener, an
activity or a situation.
This section provides a brief discussion of
the lesson. This aims to help you discover
What is It
(Discussion) and understand new concepts and skills.
This section provides activities which will
What’s More help you transfer your new knowledge or
(Application) skill into real life situations or concerns.

This includes questions or blank

What I Need to Remember sentence/paragraph to be filled into
(Generalization) process what you learned from the lesson.

What I Can Do This comprises activities for independent

(Enrichment Activities) practice to solidify your understanding and
skills of the topic.
This is a task which aims to evaluate your
Assessment level of mastery in achieving the learning
(Post Test) competency.

This contains answers to all activities in

Answer Key the module.

ii
At the end of this module you will also find:
References This is the list of all sources used in developing
this module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of
the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other
activities included in this module.
3. Read the instructions carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your
answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with
it.

If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you
are not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

About the Module

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master
about forms conditional propositions, tautologies, fallacies and methods of proof and
disproof. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning
situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students.
The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order
in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now
using.

This module is divided into three lessons, namely:

Lesson 19 – Forms of Conditional Proposition
Lesson 20 – Tautologies and Fallacies
Lesson 21 – Methods of Proof and Disproof

After going through this module, you are expected to:

• illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions;

• differentiate different types of tautologies and fallacies;

• illustrate the different methods of proof and disproof;

• construct truth table

iii
 What I Know (Pre-Test)
Instructions: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write them on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. What are the two parts of a conditional statement?

A. Body and Conclusion C. Converse and Hypothesis
B. Body and Hypothesis D. Hypothesis and Conclusion
2. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the converse of
the condition statement P → Q?
A. P → Q B. P ↔ Q C. Q → P D. Q ↔ P
3. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the biconditional
statement P → Q?
A. P → Q B. P ↔ Q C. Q → P D. Q ↔ P
4. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the inverse
statement P → Q?
A. ~Q → ~P B. ~P → ~Q C. ~P → Q D. ~Q → P
5. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the
contrapositive statement P → Q?
A. ~P → Q B. ~Q → P C. ~P → ~Q D. ~Q → ~P
For numbers 6-8. Refer to the statement below.
“If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.”
6. Which of the following statements is the inverse statement?
A. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are not supplementary.
B. If two angles are supplementary, then they form a linear pair.
C. If two angles are not supplementary, then they do not form a linear pair.
D. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.

7. Which of the following statements is a converse statement?

A. If two angles do not do not form a linear pair, then they are not
supplementary.
B. If two angles are supplementary, then they form a linear pair.
C. If two angles are not supplementary, then they do not form a linear pair.
D. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.

8. Which of the following statements is a contrapositive statement?

A. If two angles do not do not form a linear pair, then they are not
supplementary.
B. If two angles are supplementary, then they form a linear pair.
C. If two angles are not supplementary, then they do not form a linear pair.
D. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are supplementary

9. What is the symbol of equivalence?

A. ↔ B. → C. ~ D. ⇔ 𝑜𝑟 ≅

10. A statement that is always false is called_________.

A. Contradiction B. Fallacy C. Premise D. Tautology

1
11. A statement that is always true is called ________.
A. Contradiction B. Fallacy C. Premise D. Tautology

12. An argument that is not valid is said to be an invalid argument.

A. Contradiction B. Fallacy C. Premise D. Tautology

13. What are the two parts of an argument?

A. Convers and Contrapositive C. Premises and Conclusion
B. Hypothesis and Conclusion D. Tautology and Contradiction

14. If the conclusion is true whenever the premises are assumed to be true is
___________.
A. Conclusion C. Invalid Arguments
B. Fallacy D. Valid Arguments

15. “If you buy the book and read it daily, then you will pass the examination.”
A. Conclusion C. Invalid Arguments
B. Fallacy D. Valid Arguments

Lesson Forms of Conditional

19
Propositions
What I Need to Know (Objectives)
At the end of this lesson, you can illustrate the different forms of conditional
propositions.

What’s In (Review/Springboard)

Entry Card
Write each statement in if -then form.

1. Complementary angles are any two angles whose sum of the measures is 90.
2. Two angles with the same measure are defined to be congruent.

Answers:

1. If two angles whose sum measures 90 degrees, then it is complementary.

2. If two angles have same measures, then they are congruent.

2
 What’s New (Presentation of the Lesson)
A conditional statement has two parts: a hypothesis (or antecedent), denoted by P, and
a conclusion (or consequent), denoted by Q. In symbols, the statement, “If P, then Q” is
written as P → Q. Here is another example:

“If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite them are congruent.”

P Q

A conditional statement may be true or false. To show a conditional statement is false,

you only need to find one example (called a counter example) in which the hypothesis
is fulfilled and the conclusion is not fulfilled.

What is It (Discussion)
To show that a conditional statement is true, you must construct a logical argument
using reasons. The converse of the condition statement P→ 𝑸 and Q → 𝑷.

If a conditional statement and its converse are both true, you can combine them to
form one biconditional statement or a biconditional. The parts of a biconditional
statement are connected by the phrase if and only if.

Conditional Statement: If P, then Q P→ Q

Converse: If Q, then P Q→P
Biconditional: P if and only if Q P↔Q

The other statements related to a conditional are its inverse and its contrapositive.

Conditional Statement: If P, then Q P→ Q

Inverse: If not P, then not Q ~P → ~Q
Contrapositive: If not Q, then not P ~Q → ~P
Negation: P and not Q P ^ ~Q

Example 1: Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the statement below.

“If n is an even number, then n+1 is an odd number.”

P Q

3
Answers:
In symbols In words:

Converse: Q→P “n+1 is an odd, then n is an even number.”

Inverse: ~P → ~Q “If n is not an even number, then n+1 is not an odd number.”
Contrapositive: ~Q → ~P “If n+1 is not an odd number, then n is not an even number.”
Negation: P ∧ ~𝑸 “ n is an even number and n+1 is not an odd number.”

Example 2: Let P= It is a math subject and Q= It is logical. Express each statement

in symbolic form.

a. If it is a math subject, then it is logical.

b. If it is not logical, then it is not a math subject.
c. It is a logical if it is a math subject.

Answers:

a. P → Q
b. ~𝑄 → ~𝑃
c. Q → P

The following are truth tables for statements related to conditionals.

The truth table for Converse The truth table for Contrapositive
of P → Q: Q→P of P → Q: ~Q→ ~P

P Q Q→𝑷 P Q ~Q → ~𝑷
T T T T T T
T F T T F F
F T F F T T
F F T F F T

The truth table for Inverse The truth table for Conditional “P→ 𝑄"and the related terms.
of P → Q: ~P→ ~Q
Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive
P Q ~ P → ~𝑸
P Q P → Q Q → 𝑃 ~𝑃 → ~𝑄 ~𝑄 → ~𝑃
T T T
T T T T T T
T F T
T F F T T F
F T F
F T T F F T
F F T
F F T T T T

Converse = Inverse

Conditional = Contrapositive

Notice that:
• Converse and Inverse are equivalent.
• Conditional and Contrapositive are equivalent.

4
 Equivalence

Two propositions P and Q that have the same truth values are said to be logically equivalence and
denoted by P ⇔ Q or P ≅ 𝑄.

De Morgan’s Law of Equivalence

~(𝑷 ^ 𝑸) ≅ ~𝑷 𝐯 ~𝑸

~(𝑷 𝐯 𝑸) ≅ ~𝑷 ^ ~𝑸

Example 3:
Write the equivalence statement using De Morgan’s Law.

“It is not true that John is a mathematician or comedian.”

Answer:
P: John is a mathematician
Q: John is a comedian
The given statement in symbol is ~(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄). An equivalent statement is ~ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄.
This can be translated as:
John is not a mathematician and John is not a comedian.
This can also be translated as:
John is neither a mathematician nor a comedian.

What’s More (Application)

NOW IT’S YOUR TURN!

A. Instructions: Write the following converse, inverse, contrapositive and

negation statements into symbols and words. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. If I cut classes, then I miss the quiz.

In symbol In words
Converse: Converse:
Inverse: Inverse:
Contrapositive: Contrapositive:
Negation: Negation:
2. If I am in Tisa, then I am in Cebu.
In symbol In words
Converse: Converse:
Inverse: Inverse:
Contrapositive: Contrapositive:
Negation: Negation:

5
 B. Instructions. Show that the two given compound propositions are
equivalent. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. ~ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄)𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~ 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄

2. ~ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄)𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~ 𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄

What I Need To Remember (Generalization)

Summary on Conditional Statement P → Q

Inverse: ~ P → ~Q

Converse: Q → P

Contrapositive: ~ Q → ~P

Negation: P ∧ ~ Q

Negations of Other Connectives

1. The negation of a negation: ~ (~P) ≅ P

2. The negation of a conjunction: ~ (P ^ Q) ≅ ~P ∨ ~Q
3. The negation of a disjunction: ~ (P v Q) ≅ ~ P ∧ ~Q

What I Can Do (Enrichment Activities)

A. Instructions: Write the negation of each statement. Write your answer on a

separate sheet of paper.

1. P ∧ ~𝑄
2. I’m going to Cebu and Bohol.
3. If the music is playing, then I cannot concentrate.
4. ~𝐴 → ~ 𝐵
5. If there is a price rollback, then all people have extra spending money.

B. Show that that the two given compound propositions are equivalent.

P ∨ (Q ∧ R) and (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)

6
 Lesson
20
Tautologies and Fallacies
What I Need to Know (Objectives)
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to differentiate tautologies from fallacies.

What’s In (Review/Springboard)
Use the truth table to prove that (P → Q) is logically equivalent to ~P ∨ Q.

Solutions:

P Q P→𝑄 P Q ~P ~P ∨ Q
T T T T T F T
T F F T F F F
F T T F T T T
F F T F F T T

What’s New (Presentation of the lesson)

Table 1 Table 4
Truth Table for the Conjunction P and Q Truth Table for Negation (~)
(P ∧ Q)

P Q P ∧ Q P ~P
T T T T F
T F F F T
F T F
F F F

Table 2 Table 5
Truth Table for the Inclusive Disjunction Truth Table for the Conditional
P and Q ( P ∨ Q) statement P and Q (P → Q)

P Q P ∨ Q P Q P → Q
T T T T T T
T F T T F F
F T T F T T
F F F F F T

7
 Table 3 Table 6
Truth Table for the Exclusive Disjunction Truth Table for the Biconditional
P and Q (P ∨ Q) statement P and Q (P ↔ Q)

P Q P ∨ Q P Q P ↔ Q
T T F T T T
T F T T F F
F T T F T F
F F F F F T

What is It (Discussion)
Tautology is a compound statement which is true for any combination of truth
values of the variables in the statement.

Contradiction is a statement that gives all False or a statement that is always false.

Valid Arguments and Fallacy

“If you buy the book and read it daily, then you will pass the examination.”

The teacher’s claim is not true because (P ∧ Q) → R is not tautology, hence, making
her argument not valid.

An argument is made up of two parts: the given statements called the premises and
a conclusion.

An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the premises are assumed to be true.

An argument that is not valid is said to be an invalid argument, also called a fallacy.

Here is an example of an argument:

Premise 1: If one loves Algebra, then he loves Mathematics.

Premise 2: Mike loves Algebra
Conclusion: Therefore, Mike loves Mathematics

Representing each simple statement with a letter:

P: One loves Algebra.

Q: One loves Mathematics

Writing the two premises and the conclusion in symbolic form, we have:

8
 Premise 1: P → Q If one loves Algebra then he loves Mathematics

Premise 2: P Mike loves Algebra

Conclusion: ∴ Q Therefore, Mike loves Mathematics.

To check whether the argument is valid or a fallacy, we rewrite it as a conditional

statement in the form

If premise 1 and premise 2

[ (P → Q ) ∧ P ] → Q Conclusion

↳ then

And construct a truth table for the statement

[ (P → Q ) ∧ P ] → Q

P Q P→ 𝑸 (P → 𝑸) ∧ 𝑷 [ (P → 𝐐 ) ∧ P ] → 𝐐
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
1 2 3 4 5

Since the final column in the truth table is true in every case, then the statement is
a tautology. Since the conclusion is true whenever the premises are true (first case),
then the argument is valid.

Note: If the conditional statement in the final column is false in the first case,
then the argument is invalid or is a fallacy. And the statement is no longer a
tautology. Note that it is not a contradiction either.

9
 Standard Forms of Arguments

Valid Arguments Invalid Arguments/Fallacy

1. Direct Reasoning or Modus Ponens 1. Fallacy of the Converse
P→Q P→Q
P Q
∴ Q ∴P

2. Contrapositive Reasoning or Modus 2. Fallacy of the Inverse

Tollens P→Q
P→Q ~P
~Q ∴ ~Q
∴ ~P

3. Disjunctive reasoning or Disjunctive Syllogism 3. Misuse of Disjunctive

Reasoning
P ∨Q P∨𝑄 P ∨Q P ∨𝑄
~P ∼𝑄 P 𝑄
∴ Q ∴ P ∴ ∼Q ∴ ∼P

4. Transitive Reasoning or Hypothetical 4. Misuse of Transitive

Syllogism Reasoning
P→Q P→Q
Q→R Q→R
∴P → R ∴R→P
~R → ~P ~P → ~R

What’s More (Application)

NOW IT’S YOUR TURN!

A. Instructions: Match column A to Column B. Write your answers on a separate

sheet of paper.
Column A Column B
1. P→Q a. Contrapositive Reasoning
Q →R
∴P → R
2. P →Q b. Direct Reasoning
~Q
∴ ~P
3. P ∨Q c. De Morgan’s Law
~𝑄
∴ ~P
4. P →Q d. Transitive Reasoning
P
∴ Q
5. ~ (P ∨ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∧ ∼ Q e. Disjunctive Reasoning

10
 B. Use truth table to determine whether the symbolic form of the argument is a
tautology and whether it is valid or a fallacy.

P→Q
~P
∴ ~Q

What I Need To Remember (Generalization)

List of Tautologies

Name Tautology
1. Associative: for ( ∨) [(P ∨ Q) ∨ R] → [P ∨ (Q ∨ R)]
for ( ∧ ) [(P ∧ Q) ∧ R] → [P ∧ (Q ∧ R)]
2. Commutative: for (∧) (P ∧ Q) → (Q ∧ P)
For (∨) (P ∨ Q) → (Q ∨ P)
3. Distributive: for (∧) [(P ∨ Q) ∧ R] → (P ∧ R) ∨ (Q ∧ R)
For (∨) [(P ∧ Q) ∨ R] → [P ∨ R) ∧ (Q ∨R)]
4. Law of biconditional propositions [(P →Q) ∧ (Q → P)] → (P↔ Q)
5. Modus Ponens [P ∧ (P→Q)]→ Q
6. Modus Tollens [~Q ∧ (P→Q)]→~P
7. Exportation [(P ∧ Q)→ R] → [P→(Q→ R)]
8. Transposition or Contraposition (P→ Q) → (~Q → ~P)
9. Addition P→ (P ∨ Q)
10. Simplification (P ∧ Q) → P
11. Conjunction [(P)∧ (Q)] → (P ∧ Q)
12. Double Negation P→ ~(~P)
13. Absorption (P→ Q) → [P → (P ∧ Q)]
14. Disjunctive Syllogism [(P ∨ Q) ∧∼ P] → Q
[(P ∨ Q) ∧∼ Q] → P
15. Material Implication (P→ Q) → (~P ∨ Q)
16. Disjunctive Simplification (P ∨ P) → P
17. Resolution (P ∨ Q) ∧ (∼ P ∨ R) → (Q ∨ R)
18. Hypothetical Syllogism [(P→ Q) ∧ (Q → R)] → (P → R)
19. Constructive Dilemma [(P→ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑅 → 𝑆)] ∧ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑅) → (𝑄 ∨ 𝑆)
20. Destructive Dilemma [(P→ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑅 → 𝑆)] ∧ (~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑆) → (~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑅)

Each tautology can be verified by constructing the corresponding truth table.

What I Can Do (Enrichment Activities)

A. Instructions: Translate each argument into symbolic form. Then, use the table
of “Standard Forms of Arguments” to determine whether each argument is
valid or a fallacy. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. If I’m relaxed, I’m productive.

If I’m productive, I’m happy.
∴ If I’m not happy, I’m not relaxed.

11
 2. If it is cold and rainy, I stay home.
It is not cold or it is not rainy.
∴ I don’t stay home.

Lesson
21 Writing Proofs
What I Need to Know (Objectives)
At the end of this lesson, you can illustrate the different methods of proof and
disproof and can justify mathematical and real-life statements using the different
methods of proof and disproof.

What’s In (Review/Springboard)
P ∨ ∼ P is a tautology. Tautology is symbolized by T.

P ∼P P ∨∼ P
T F T
F T T

Thus, P ∨ ∼ P ≡ T
P ∧ ∼ P is a contradiction. Contradiction is symbolized by F.

P ∼P P∧∼ P
T F F
F T F

Thus, P ∧ ∼ P ≡ F
What’s New (Presentation of the Lesson)

A compound proposition is a tautology if for all possible assignments of truth values

to its variables, the compound proposition’s truth value is True.

A compound proposition is a contradiction if for all possible assignments of truth

values to its variables, the compound proposition’s truth value is False.

Two propositions P and Q that have the same truth values are said to be logically
equivalent and denoted by P ⇔ Q or P ≡ 𝐐.

Indirect Proof

The two methods of indirect proof are proofs of the contrapositive and proof by
contradiction. Proof of contrapositive means that you have to prove the
contrapositive of the given conditional propositions.

12
 What is It (Discussion)
Direct Proof
Suppose you want to prove P → Q. You need to assume that P and then use
the rules of inference, axioms, definitions, and logical equivalences to prove Q.

Example 1: Prove that for all integers a and b, if a and b are odd integers, then a+b
is an even integer.

Assume that a and b are odd integers. Then a and b can be written as:
a=2c+1 and b= 2d+1 where c and d are also integers.
a+b = 2c+1 +2d+1 Substitution
= 2c+2d+2 Associative and Commutative Properties
= 2(c+d+1) Distributive Property

Because a + b is twice another integer (c+d+1), a+b is an even integer.

Example 2: Complete the truth table to show the given equivalences.
1. P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)

P Q R Q∧𝑅 P ∨ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅) P∨𝑄 P∨𝑅 (P∨ 𝑄) ∧ P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡

(𝑃 ∨ 𝑅) (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
Solution:
P Q R Q∧𝑅 P ∨ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅) P∨𝑄 P∨𝑅 (P∨ 𝑄) ∧ P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡
(𝑃 ∨ 𝑅) (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
T T T T T T T T T
T T F F T T T T T
T F T F T T T T T
T F F F T T T T T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F F F T F F F
F F T F F F T F F
F 2. (PF → Q)
F ≡ ~PF ∨ Q F F F F F

2. (P → Q) ≡ ~P ∨ Q
P Q P→ 𝑄 ~𝑃 ~𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 (P →Q)≡ ~P ∨Q
T T
T F
F T
F F

13
 Solution:
P Q P→ 𝑄 ~𝑃 ~𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 (P →Q)≡ ~P ∨Q
T T T F T T
T F F F F F
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

The two statements above are examples of many other logical equivalences that are
listed in the table.
Logical Equivalences

Name Equivalence
1. Identify Laws P ∧T ≡ P
P ∨F ≡ P
2. Domination laws P ∧T ≡ T
P ∨F ≡ F
3. Idempotent Laws P ∧P ≡P
P ∨P ≡P
4. Double Negation Law ∼ (∼ P) ≡ P

5. Commutative Laws P ∧Q ≡Q ∧P
P ∨Q ≡P ∨P
6. Associative Laws P ∧ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∧ R
P ∨ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∨ R
7. Distributive Laws P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)
8. De Morgan’s Laws ∼ (P ∧ Q) ≡∼ P ∨ ∼ Q
∼ (P ∨ Q) ≡∼ P ∧ ∼ Q
9. Material Implication P → Q ≡ ~P ∨ Q

10. Biconditional or Material (P↔ Q) ≡ [(P→ Q) ∧ (Q → P)]

Equivalence
11. Negation Law P∧∼P ≡F
P∨∼P ≡T
12. Contrapositive or Transposition P→Q≡~Q→~P
Law
13. Exportation Law (P ∧ Q) → R ≡ P → (Q → R)

The laws listed above can be easily proven using the truth table. With the laws
given in the table, many new logical equivalences can be proven without using
the truth table.

Example 3: Identify the law applied in each of the following equivalences.

1. P ∧Q ≡ Q ∧P
2. P ∧ (Q ∧ R) ≡(P ∧ Q) ∧ R
3. ∼(P ∨ Q)≡∼P ∧ ∼Q
4. (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P ∧ Q
5. [∼ (∼ P) ∨ Q)] ≡ P ∨ Q

14
Answers:

1. Commutative law
2. Associative Law
3. De Morgan’s Law
4. Idempotent Law (P ∨ P ≡P)
5. Double Negation Law ∼(∼P)≡P

Example 4: Prove: P ∨ (P ∧ Q) ↔ P

Solution: Begin with the left-hand side (LHS) statement and end with the
right-hand side statement.

≡P ∨ (P ∧ Q) LHS
≡(P ∧ T) ∨ (P ∧ Q) Identity Law
≡P ∧ (T ∨ Q) Distributive Law
≡P ∧ T Domination Law
≡P Identity Law

Example 5: Construct a formal proof of validity for the given argument.

A ∧ (𝐵 ∧ 𝐶)/∴ [(𝐴 ∧ 𝐶) ∧ 𝐵] ∧ 𝐷

Solution:

A ∧ (𝐵 ∧ 𝐶) LHS (Hypothesis)
A Simplification (from a)
B ∧C Simplification (from a)
B Simplification (from c)
C Simplification (from c)
A ∧C Conjunction (b and e)
(A ∧ C) ∧ B Conjunction (f and d)
[(A ∧ C) ∧ B] ∨ D Addition (from g)

Example 6: Indirect Proof

Given: P→ ~Q
~Q → ~P
Prove: ~P

Solution: Proof
Statement Reasons
P→ ~𝑄 Given (Premise1)
P Assumed (Negation of the conclusion)
~Q Modus Ponens (from 1 and 2)
~Q → ~P Given (Premise 2)
~P Modus Ponens (from 4 and 3)
P∧∼P Conjunction (from 2 and 5)
∼P Simplification

15
 What’s More (Application)
NOW IT’S YOUR TURN!

A. Instructions: Match Column A to Column B. Write the letter of the correct

answer on a separate sheet of paper.

A B
1. P ∨ T ≡ T a. Commutative Law
2. P ∨ P ≡ P b. De Morgan’s Law
3. P ∨ Q ≡ Q ∨ P c. Material Implication Law
4. ∼ P ∨∼ Q ≡∼ (P ∧ Q) d. Negation Law
5. (P→ Q) ≡ ~P ∨ Q e. Domination Law
6. ∼ P ∧ P ≡ F f. Identity Law
7. (P∧ Q) ∨ F ≡ P ∧ Q g. Idempotent Law
8. (P↔Q)≡ [(P→Q)∧(Q→P)] h. Transposition Law
9. P→Q≡~Q→~P i. Biconditional Law
10. (P ∧Q)→R≡P→(Q→R) k. Exportation Law

B. Apply the indicated equivalence Law to form an equivalent statement.

1. ∼ P ∧ (P ∨∼ Q) Distributive Law
2. (P ∧ Q) ∨ F Identity Law
3. (P ∧ Q) ∧ (P ∧ Q) Idempotent Law
4. (P ∨ Q) ∨ F Identity Law
5. (P ∨ Q ∧ R) ∧ F Domination Law

C. Prove: Q ∨ (P ∧∼ Q) ≡ Q ∨ P

What I Need To Remember (Generalization)

There are several ways of proving statements. Like what we did in proving
theorems and related problems in geometry, each proof is based on statements that
are accepted as true (definitions, postulates, theorems, corollaries, and properties).
Each direct proof is a sequence of statements such that each statement is either
assumed or is a logical consequence of the preceding statements, where the statement
to be proven is included in the sequence. Symbolically, the proof process has this form.

Assumptions Logical Steps Conclusion

16
 What I Can Do (Enrichment Activities)

A. Instructions: Identify the law applied in the following equivalences. Write

your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∨ Q) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)
2. (P ∧ Q) ∧ T ≡ P ∧ Q
3. (P ∨ Q) ∨ F ≡ P ∨ Q
4. (P ∧ Q) ∨ T ≡ T
5. (P ∧ Q ∨ R) ∧ F ≡ F

B. Construct a formal proof of validity for the given arguments.

~Q → R
~R ∧ P
∼ (Q ∧∼ R)/∴ R

Assessment (Post-Test)

Instructions: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write them on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. A statement that is always false is called_________.

A. Contradiction B. Fallacy C. Premise D. Tautology

2. What is the symbol of equivalence?

A. ↔ B. → C. ~ D. ⇔ 𝑜𝑟 ≅
In numbers 3-5. See statements below.
“If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.”
3. Which of the following statements is a contrapositive statement?
A. If two angles do not do not form a linear pair, then they are not
supplementary.
B. If two angles are supplementary, then they form a linear pair.
C. If two angles are not supplementary, then they do not form a linear pair.
D. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are supplementary
4. Which of the following statements is a converse statement?
A. If two angles do not do not form a linear pair, then they are not
supplementary.
B. If two angles are supplementary, then they form a linear pair.
C. If two angles are not supplementary, then they do not form a linear pair.
D. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.
5. Which of the following statements is the inverse statement?
A. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are not supplementary.
B. If two angles are supplementary, then they form a linear pair.
C. If two angles are not supplementary, then they do not form a linear pair.
D. If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.

17
6. A statement that is always true is called ________.
A. Contradiction B. Fallacy C. Premise D. Tautology

7. An argument that is not valid is said to be an invalid argument.

A. Contradiction B. Fallacy C. Premise D. Tautology

8. What are the two parts of an argument?

A. Convers and Contrapositive C. Premises and Conclusion
B. Hypothesis and Conclusion D. Tautology and Contradiction

9. What are the two parts of a conditional statement?

A. Body and Conclusion C. Converse and Hypothesis
B. Body and Hypothesis D. Hypothesis and Conclusion

10. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the converse
of the condition statement P → Q?
A. P → Q B. P ↔ Q C. Q → P D. Q ↔ P
11. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the
biconditional statement P → Q?
A. P → Q B. P ↔ Q C. Q → P D. Q ↔ P
12. If the conclusion is true whenever the premises are assumed to be true is
___________.
A. Conclusion C. Invalid Arguments
B. Fallacy D. Valid Arguments

13. “If you buy the book and read it daily, then you will pass the examination.”
A. Conclusion C. Invalid Arguments
B. Fallacy D. Valid Arguments

14. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the inverse
statement P → Q?
A. ~Q → ~P B. ~P → ~Q C. ~P → Q D. ~Q → P
15. “If P, then Q” is written in symbols, as P→Q, what is the symbol of the
contrapositive statement P → Q?
A. ~P → Q B. ~Q → P C. ~P → ~Q D. ~Q → ~P

18
References

Modules
Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR) “General
Mathematics teaching guide for SHS”, Lexicon Press, Inc., Quezon City, 2016, pp
page 289-310.

Books
GENERAL MATHEMATICS, Orlando Oronce, Rex Book Store, First Edition, pp.
290-319.

Congratulations!

You are now ready for the next module. Always remember the following:

1. Make sure every answer sheet has your

o Name
o Grade and Section
o Title of the Activity or Activity No.
2. Follow the date of submission as agreed with your teacher.
3. Keep the modules with you.
4. Return them at the end of the school year.

21